Electronic Devices

Chapter 1: Semiconductor Material

Electronics
Electronics is the branch of physics that deals with the emission and effects of electrons; and
the use of electronic devices, i.e., science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum or
semiconductor.
An electronic building block packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting
leads or metallic pads. Components are connected together to create an electronic circuit with
a particular function, e.g.: an amplifier radio receiver or oscillator. Active components are
sometimes called devices.
Composed of subsystems or electronic circuits, which may include amplifiers signal
sources, power supplies etc…, e.g.: Laptop, DVD players, iPod, mobile phones, PDA
(Personal Digital Assistant).

Atomic structure
All matters on earth made of atoms (made up of elements or combination of
elements); all atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons except normal hydrogen,
which does not have a neutron. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
According to Bohr, atoms have a planetary orbits structure that consists of a central nucleus,
surround by orbiting electrons (Figure 1). Nucleus contains protons and neutrons, similar to
the way planets orbit the sun in our solar system.

Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons and

protons that distinguishes it from atoms of other elements.
Each electron has its own orbit that corresponds to different
energy levels.
In an atom, orbits are grouped into energy bands known as
shells. Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons
at allowed energy levels. The maximum number of electrons
(Ne) that can exist in each shell can be calculated as,
Ne = 2n2 Figure (1)
where n is the number of the shell.
Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and are less tightly
bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy exist in
the outermost shell of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This outermost
shell is known as the valence shell and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.

1
 Electronic Devices
Valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and bonding within the structure of a
material and determine its electrical properties.

Figure 2: Illustration of the Bohr model of the silicon atom.

Maximum number of valence electron is 8. An atom is stable if it has 8 valence

electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the ability of material to conduct
current.

Materials Classification (Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductor)

In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified into three groups:
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

Insulators: An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are very few
free electrons in an insulator. Energy gap in an insulator is very wide (≥6eV). Valence
electron requires a large electric field to gain enough energy to jump into conduction band.
Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.

Conductors: A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current. Most

metals are good conductors. The best conductors are (with one valence electron)
e.g.: copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are characterized by
atoms with only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom. In a conductor, the
valence band and the conductor band overlaps (≤ 0.01 eV). Only a little energy or voltage is
needed for the electron to jump into conduction band.

Semiconductors: A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in

its ability to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state
is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. Single-element semiconductors are
silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine (At), boron (B),
polonium (Po), and tellurium (Te), these semiconductor characterized by atoms with four
valence electrons. Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide,
gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also commonly used. Silicon is
the most commonly used semiconductor.
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 Electronic Devices

Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a conductor. Bohr diagrams of the silicon atom and
the copper atom are shown in following Figure 3. A Silicon atom has 4 electrons in its valence
ring. This makes it a semiconductor. A Copper atom has only 1 electron in its valence ring.
This makes it good conductor.

Figure 3: Diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms.

Silicon and Germanium

The atomic structures of silicon and germanium are compared in Figure 4, both silicon and
germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons. The valence electrons in
germanium are in the fourth shell while those in silicon are in the third shell, closer to the
nucleus. This means that the germanium valence
electrons are at higher energy levels than those in
silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount of
additional energy to escape from the atom. This
property makes germanium more unstable at high
temperatures and results in excessive reverse
current. This is why silicon is a more widely used
semiconductive material.
Figure 4
Energy Gap
Energy in an electron is of two types – kinetic (energy of motion) and potential (energy of
position). Each material has its own set of permissible energy levels for the electrons in its
atomic structure. Energy level in an atom is measured in electron volt (eV) = 1.602× 10 -19 J
Electrons that orbits within an energy level will have similar amount of energy. When an
electron acquires sufficient additional energy, it can leave the valence shell and become a
free electron and exists in the condition band. The energy difference between the valence
band and conduction band is called the energy gap. Energy gap: the amount of energy that

3
 Electronic Devices
a valence electron must have to jump into the conduction band. Figure 5 shows energy
diagrams for insulators, semiconductors, and conductors. The gap for insulators can be
crossed only when breakdown conditions occur. In semiconductors, the band gap is smaller,
allowing an electron in the valence band to jump into the conduction band if it absorbs a
photon. The band gap depends on the semiconductor material. In conductors, the conduction
band and valence band overlap, so there is no gap. This means that electrons in the valence
band move freely into the conduction band, so there are always electrons available as free
electrons.

Figure 5: Energy diagrams for insulators, semiconductors, and conductors.

Covalent Bonds
Figure 6 shows how each silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon atoms to
form a silicon crystal. A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an electron
with each of its four neighbors. This creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability. Also, this sharing of valence electrons produces the
covalent bonds that hold the atoms together. Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal
is shown in Figure 6c. An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities. Covalent bonding
for germanium is similar because it also has four valence electrons.

(c)
Figure 6: Illustration of covalent bonds in silicon.

4
Chapter 1

Conduction in Semiconductors

1.1 Introduction
All solid-state devices, e.g. diodes and transistors, are fabricated from materials known as semi-
conductors. In order to understand the operation of these devices, the basic mechanism of how
currents flow in them must be understood. This chapter covers the fundamentals of conduction
in semiconductors. The chapter is not intended to be an extensive introduction to the area of
solid-state physics. Instead, only those topics which lead to a better understanding of the macro-
scopic properties of semiconductors are covered. The mechanisms of conduction in a metal and in
a semiconductor are compared. The effects of impurities on conduction in semiconductors are dis-
cussed. The formation of a p-n semiconductor junction is described and its conduction properties
are discussed.

1.2 Classification of Conductors

Figure 1.1 illustrates a two-dimensional view of an atom that is called the Bohr model of the atom.
It consists of a positively charged nucleus and a system of negatively charged electrons which rotates
around the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the total charge is zero. This means that the positive charge
on the nucleus is equal to the total negative charge on the electrons. The electrons are bound to
the nucleus by the forces of attraction between oppositely charged particles. They are arranged
systematically in layers called shells. The closer a shell is to the nucleus, the more tightly bound
are the electrons in that shell to the atom. The shell closest to the nucleus can contain no more
than two electrons. The outer shell can have no more than eight. The number in the shells in
between is determined by the laws of quantum mechanics.
The outermost shell in an atom contains what are called the valence electrons. These govern
the nature of chemical reactions of the elements. In addition, they play a large part in determining
the electrical behavior of the elements and the crystalline structure of solids. The metallic elements
tend to have one, two, or three valence electrons. The nonmetals have five, six, or seven. The inert
gases have eight. The class of elements which have four valence electrons is called semiconductors.
If a valence electron escapes its parent atom, it becomes free to move about. The parent atom then
has a net positive charge and is called an ionized atom or an ion. If an electric field is applied to a
material, the free electrons have forces exerted on them which cause them to move. This constitutes
the flow of a current in the material that is called a conduction current or a drift current.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Figure 1.1: Two-dimensional Bohr model of an atom showing the nucleus and three shells.

Depending on the number n of free electrons per unit volume in a solid, the material is classified
as being a good conductor, a semiconductor, or an insulator. For a good conductor, n is very large
and is independent of temperature. A typical value is n ' 1028 per m3 . For an insulator at ordinary
temperatures, n is much smaller and has a typical value n ' 107 per m3 . For a semiconductor, it
lies between the values for a good conductor and an insulator and is a function of the temperature.
Silicon is an important semiconductor for which n ' 1.5 × 1016 per m3 at room temperature
(T = 300 K).

1.3 Conduction in Metals

Metals are classified as good conductors. The valence electrons are so loosely bound to the atoms
that they are free to move about in the conductor. Fig. 1.2 shows a two-dimensional illustration of
the atoms in a metal with the free electrons distributed randomly among the immobile ions. The
free electrons can be visualized as molecules of a gas that permeate the region between the ions.
Analogous to the random motion of molecules in a gas, thermal energy causes the free electrons
to be in continuous random motion. Observation of an individual electron would reveal that its
direction of motion changes randomly after each collision with an ion. Because the direction of
motion of each electron is random, the average number of electrons passing through any area per
unit time is zero. Thus the average current flow in the metal is zero.

1.3.1 Drift Velocity

→
−
If an electric field E ( V/ m) is applied to a metal, an electrostatic force is exerted on the free
electrons which causes a conduction current to flow. (The arrow indicates a vector quantity.)
→
− →
−
The force on an individual electron is given by F = −q E ( N), where q is the electronic charge
(q = 1.602 × 10−19 C). The electrostatic forces cause the electrons to be accelerated in a direction
opposite to that of the applied field. Fig. 1.3 illustrates the path that an individual electron might
take under the influence of the electric field. If the electron did not collide with the bound ions, its
velocity would increase indefinitely. However, energy is lost with each collision so that the average
1.3. CONDUCTION IN METALS 3

Figure 1.2: Two-dimensional view of the atoms in a metal with free electrons distributed randomly
among the ions.

velocity approaches a constant or steady-state value. The average velocity →

−
v ( m/ s) is called the
drift velocity. It is proportional to the applied field and is given by

−
→ →
−
v = −µe E (1.1)

where µe ( m2 V−1 s−1 ) is the electron mobility. (The minus sign is required because the negative
charge on the electron causes it to move is a direction opposite to the field.) The average distance
that the electron travels between collisions with the bound ions is called the mean free path. As
the temperature increases, the bound ions vibrate with increasing intensity, causing the mean free
path between collisions to decrease. This effect causes the drift velocity − →
v to decrease, which is
modeled by a decrease in the electron mobility µe with temperature.

Figure 1.3: Path taken by a free electron in a metal under the influence of an applied electric field.

1.3.2 Charge Density

The charge density ρ ( C/ m3 ) in a conductor is defined as the free charge per unit volume. To
relate the charge density in a metal to the density of free electrons, let n be the number of electrons
4 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

per m3 . Because the charge per electron is −q, it follows that the free charge per unit volume in
the metal is given by
ρ = −nq (1.2)

1.3.3 Current Density

→
−
The current density J ( A/ m2 ) in a conductor is defined as the current per unit area flowing in a
particular direction. To relate the current density in a conductor to the drift velocity of the moving
charges, consider a section of wire of length ∆ in which a current I is flowing. This is illustrated
in Fig. 1.4. The charge in the section is ∆Q = ρ∆V = ρS∆ , where ρ is the charge density and S
is the cross-sectional area of the wire. Let ∆t be the time required for the charge in the section to
move the distance ∆ . The velocity of the charge is − →v =b a∆ /∆t, where b a is a unit vector in the
direction of current flow. The current I flowing in the area S is I = ∆Q/∆t. It follows that the
→
−
current density J can be related to the drift velocity − →v as follows:
µ ¶
→
− I ∆Q ρS∆ ∆
J =b a =b a =ba =ρ b a = ρ−
→
v (1.3)
S S∆t S∆t ∆t

Figure 1.4: Section of wire of length ∆ in which a current I flows.

1.3.4 Conductivity
→
− −
→
Using Eqs. (1.1) through (1.3), we can relate the current density J to the electric field E in a
metal as follows: ³
→
− →´
− →
− →
−
J = ρ−→v = (−nq) −µe E = nqµe E = σ E (1.4)
→
− →
−
(Note that two minus signs have canceled so that J is in the direction of E .) This equation defines
the conductivity σ ( Ω−1 m−1 ) of the metal. It is given by

σ = nqµe (1.5)

Because n is independent of temperature in a metal, it follows that the decrease in electron mobility
µe with temperature causes the conductivity σ to decrease with temperature.
1.4. CONDUCTION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS 5

Example 1 Aluminum has three valence electrons per atom, an atomic weight of 0.02698 kg/ mol,
a density of 2700 kg/ m3 , and a conductivity of 3.54 × 107 S/ m−1 . Calculate the electron mobility
in aluminum. Assume that all three valence electrons in each atom are free.

Solution. Recall from introductory chemistry that a mole of any substance is a quantity equal
to its atomic weight and contains a number of molecules equal to Avogadro’s number which is
6.02 × 1023 . It follows that the number of aluminum atoms per m3 is
atoms 1 mol kg atoms
6.02 × 1023 × × 2700 3 = 6.024 × 1028
mol 0.02698 kg m m3

Thus the electron density in the aluminum is n = 3 × 6.024 × 1028 = 1.807 × 1029 per m3 . From
Eq. (1.5), the mobility is given by

σ 3.54 × 107
µe = = = 3.67 × 10−3 m2 V−1 s−1
nq 6.024 × 1028 × 1.602 × 10−19

1.3.5 Resistance
Consider the section of wire illustrated in Fig. 1.4. A conduction current I is flowing in the wire so
→
−
that the current density is J = b aI/S, where ba is a unit vector in the direction of current flow and
S is the cross-sectional area. Let V be the voltage drop across the section of length ∆ so that the
→
− →
−
electric field in the section is E = b
aV /∆ . With the aid of Eq. (1.4), we can write J = b aσV /∆ .
→
−
By equating the two relations for J , we obtain
−
→ I σV
a =b
J =b a (1.6)
S ∆
This equation can be solved for the resistance R of the section of wire to obtain
V ∆
R= = (1.7)
I σS
Thus the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire and inversely proportional to
its area. Because the conductivity σ decreases with temperature, it follows from this equation that
R increases with temperature. In most metals, the resistance increases linearly with temperature.

Example 2 The conductivity of copper is 5.8 × 107 S/ m. If a 1 m length of copper wire has a
resistance of 1 Ω, what is the thickness of the wire? Assume a circular cross section.

Solution. ¡Let d be the ¢diameter of the wire. Using Eq. (1.7), we can write S = π (d/2)2 =
∆ /σR = 1/ 5.8 × 107 × 1 . Solution for d yields d = 0.148 mm.

1.4 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Semiconductors are the class of elements which have four valence electrons. Two important semi-
conductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). Early solid-state electronic devices were fabricated
almost exclusively from germanium, whereas modern devices are fabricated almost exclusively from
silicon. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a semiconductor compound made up of gallium, which has three
1.5. N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS 9

where µh is the hole mobility. Although the free electrons and holes drift in opposite directions,
the current densities add because the charge polarities are opposite. The electron charge density is
ρe = −ni q and the hole charge density is ρh = +ni q , where ni is the intrinsic concentration. The
total conduction current density can be written
−
→ →
− →
−
J = ρe −
→
v e + ρh −
→
v h = ni (µe + µh ) q E = σ E (1.10)

This equation defines the conductivity σ of the intrinsic semiconductor. It is given by

σ = ni (µe + µh ) q (1.11)

Example 4 A rod of intrinsic silicon is 1 cm long and has a diameter of 1 mm. At room temper-
ature, the intrinsic concentration in the silicon is ni = 1.5 × 1016 per m3 . The electron and hole
mobilities are µe = 0.13 m2 V−1 s−1 and µh = 0.05 m2 V−1 s−1 . Calculate the conductivity σ of the
silicon and the resistance R of the rod.

Solution. The conductivity is calculated from Eq. (1.11) as follows:

σ = ni (µe + µh ) q = 1.5 × 1016 × (0.13 + 0.05) × 1.602 × 10−19

= 4.33 × 10−4 S/ m

The resistance is calculated from Eq. (1.5) as follows:

∆ 0.01
R= = = 29.4 MΩ
σS 4.33 × 10 × π (0.5 × 10−3 )2
−4

1.5 n-Type and p-Type Semiconductors

The preceding example illustrates how poor a conductor intrinsic silicon is at room temperature.
The conductivity can be increased by adding certain impurities in carefully controlled minute
quantities. When this is done, the semiconductor is called a doped semiconductor. There are two
classes of impurities that are used. These are donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Typically
one impurity atom is added per 108 semiconductor atoms. A semiconductor that is doped with a
donor impurity is called an n-type semiconductor. One that is doped with an acceptor impurity is
called a p-type semiconductor.

1.5.1 n-Type Semiconductor

An n-type semiconductor is produced by adding a donor impurity such as arsenic, antimony, or
phosphorus to an intrinsic semiconductor. Each donor atom has five valence electrons. When a
donor atom replaces an atom in the crystal lattice, only four valence electrons are shared with
the surrounding atoms. The fifth valence electron becomes a free electron as illustrated in Fig.
1.8. The number of free electrons donated by the donor atoms is much greater than the number
of free electrons and holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. This makes the conductivity of the n-
type semiconductor much greater that of the intrinsic semiconductor. Because the number of free
electrons is far greater than the number of holes, the free electrons are the majority carriers. The
semiconductor is called n-type because the majority carriers have a negative charge.
10 CHAPTER 1. CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Figure 1.8: Two-dimensional illustration of the crystal lattice of an n-type semiconductor

Hole-electron pairs are continually formed by thermal agitation of the lattice in an n-type
semiconductor. Because of the large number of donor electrons, there are many more free electrons
available for recombination with the holes. This decreases the mean lifetime for the holes which
decreases the number of holes in the n-type semiconductor compared to the intrinsic semiconductor.
For this reason, the current due to the flow of holes in an n-type semiconductor is often neglected
in calculations.
It is important to understand that a donor atom is electrically neutral if its fifth valence electron
does not become a free electron in the lattice. If the fifth electron becomes a free electron, the
number of protons in the atom is greater than the number of electrons by one. In this case, the
donor atom becomes a bound positively charged ion.

1.5.2 p-Type Semiconductor

A p-type semiconductor is produced by adding an acceptor impurity such as gallium, boron, or
indium to an intrinsic semiconductor. Each acceptor atom has three valence electrons. When an
acceptor atom replaces an atom in the crystal lattice, there are only three valence electrons shared
with the surrounding atoms. This leaves a hole as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. The number of holes
created by the acceptor atoms is much greater than the number of free electrons and holes in the
intrinsic semiconductor. This makes the conductivity of the p-type semiconductor much greater
that of the intrinsic semiconductor. Because the number of holes is far greater than the number
of electrons, the holes are the majority carriers. The semiconductor is called p-type because the
majority carriers have a positive charge.
Hole-electron pairs are continually formed by thermal agitation of the lattice in a p-type semicon-
ductor. Because of the large number of holes, there are many more holes available for recombination
with the free electrons. This decreases the mean lifetime for the free electrons which decreases the
number of electrons in the p-type semiconductor compared to the intrinsic semiconductor. For this
reason, the current due to the flow of free electrons in a p-type semiconductor is often neglected in
calculations.
It is important to understand that an acceptor atom is electrically neutral if the hole created by
the absence of its fourth valence electron is not filled by an electron from an adjacent silicon atom.
1.5. N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS 11

Figure 1.9: Two-dimensional illustration of the crystal lattice of a p-type semiconductor.

Once an electron fills the hole, the number of electrons in that atom is greater than the number of
protons by one. In this case, the acceptor atom becomes a bound negatively charged ion.

1.5.3 Mass-Action Law

In an intrinsic semiconductor, we have noted that the electron concentration and the hole concen-
tration are both equal to the intrinsic concentration, i.e. n = p = ni . If this were not true, the
material would not be electrically neutral. We have seen that adding an n-type impurity to the
semiconductor increases n and decreases p. Similarly, adding a p-type impurity increases p and
decreases n. It can be shown that the product of n times p is a constant independent of the doping
type and the doping level. The product is given by

np = n2i (1.12)

where ni is given by Eq. (1.8). This relation is called the mass-action law.
To understand this equation, consider an intrinsic semiconductor in which n = p = ni . Assume
that donors with the density DA = ni are added to the semiconductor at t = 0. This initially
doubles the total number of free electrons, which causes the recombination rate with the holes to
double. This causes the hole density to drop from ni to ni /2. The initial free electron density
is 2ni which drops to 2ni − ni /2 after the increase in recombinations. Thus the product of the
electron and hole concentrations is (2ni − ni /2) × ni /2 = 3n2i /4. Now suppose that the number
of donors is increased by the¡ factor ¢N , where N is large. In this case, the product becomes
(N ni − ni /N ) × ni /N = n2i 1 − 1/N 2 ' n2i . Although this is not an exact proof, it illustrates the
basic mechanism. A more detailed proof requires an involved thermodynamic analysis.

1.5.4 Electrical Neutrality

An intrinsic semiconductor is electrically neutral, i.e. there is no net charge stored. The addition
of n-type or p-type impurities does not change this. To state this mathematically, let ND be the
number of donor atoms per m3 and NA the number of acceptor atoms per m3 . We assume that all
donor atoms and all acceptor atoms are ionized so that there are ND bound positive charges per
Semiconductor Devices
Non-linear Devices
Diodes

Introduction.

The diode is two terminal non linear device whose I-V characteristic besides exhibiting
non-linear behavior is also polarity dependent. The non-linear, and polarity characteristics
of the diode make for a very interesting and useful device albeit at the expense of added
complexity of circuit design and analysis.

The basic circuit symbol of the diode is shown on Figure 1. Unlike the resistor, whose two
terminal leads are equivalent, the behavior of the diode depend on the relative polarity of
its terminals.

Anode Cathode

Id + Vd -

Figure 1. Diode circuit model

The conventional voltage polarity across the diode terminals and the current direction
through the diode are also indicated on Figure 1.

Depending on the polarity of the voltage Vd the diode is said to be:

Forward Biased, (Vd >0), Anode voltage is greater than the Cathode voltage, or

Reverse Biased, (Vd<0), Cathode voltage is greater than the Anode voltage.

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Diode Models.

Ideal Diode model

Consideration and analysis of the ideal diode, gives us the opportunity to conceptualize the
fundamental characteristics of these non-linear devices and to assist us in the analysis of
circuits containing diodes.

Of course the discussion of device modeling refers to the mathematical/graphical

representation of the current/voltage (I-V) characteristic of the device. The I-V
characteristic and the symbol of the ideal-diode is as shown on Figure 2.
Id short circuit

Reverse-Bias Forward-Bias Id
Region Region

+ Vd -
Vd (b)
open circuit
(a)

Figure 2. I-V characteristic (a) and symbol (b) of the ideal diode.

When a reverse bias voltage is applied the current through the diode is zero. When the
current becomes greater than zero the voltage drop across the diode is zero.

The non-linear character of the device is apparent from the examination of Figure 2.

This simplified model gives a global picture of the diode behavior but it does not represent
important details of this element. Next we discuss the real (full) model of a diode

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Full diode model

The diode is a semiconductor device constructed from silicon or other elements from
column IV of the periodic table. These materials like Si and Ge are poor conductors of
electricity. By doping Si with small amounts of an element from column III (eg. Boron –
B) or column V (e.g. phosphorous – P) the conductivity greatly increases. The change in
conductivity is associated with the freedom of electrons to move through the material.

The electrons in Si are tightly bound because of the crystal lattice structure. Adding for
example phosphorous (from column V) adds another electron to the crystal structure. This
“extra” electron is not required to maintain the crystal structure and thus it has considerable
freedom to move from site to site within the material. Materials doped with elements in
column V are known as “n type semiconductors” indicating the freely moving negative
charge – the electron.

If Si is now doped with elements from column III (Ba, Al, Ga) the crystal structure has a
deficit of one electron. This deficit of electrons looks like a net positive charge and it is
called a “hole”. Electrons within the material can easily move to fill this “hole” leaving
behind new holes at the places where they started from. The creation and thus the motion of
these holes looks like a flow of a net positive charge. Therefore, materials doped with
elements from column III are known as “p type semiconductors” indicating a net positive
charge – the hole.

A diode is constructed by fabricating p and n regions in Si as shown schematically on

Figure 3(a). The symbol of the diode and the corresponding arrangement of the p and n
regions is shown on Figure 3(b). The boundary between the p and the n regions is called
the p-n junction.
Id
p region n region

+ Vd -
(a)
Id

+ Vd -
(b)

Figure 3

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The mathematical function that describes the relationship between the voltage Vd, and the
diode current Id of a diode (the full model) is,

⎡ ⎛ Vd ⎞ ⎤
Id = Is ⎢exp ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (1.1)
⎣ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎦

where the parameters Is and VT are constants characterizing the diode. Is is called the
reverse saturation current and it is independent of the diode voltage Vd . For silicon
kT
diodes Is = 10 −12 A or less. The parameter VT ≡ (k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = the
q
temperature and q = the electronic charge) is called the thermal voltage. At room
temperature VT = 26 mV .
A typical Id versus Vd relationship for a silicon diode is shown on Figure 4. The current
increases exponentially with the voltage. A small change in the voltage increases the
current by orders of magnitude as may be seen from Figure 5 where the I-V plot is
presented in a logarithmic scale. Note that we have drawn a vertical line at Vd=0.7 Volts to
indicate the relative insensitivity of the voltage drop across the diode for large currents. We
will use this feature to develop a simplified model of the diode later on.

Figure 4. Typical I-V characteristic of a Silicon diode.

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 Figure 5. Semi-log plot of typical I-V characteristic of a Silicon diode.

For bias voltages less than 100mV the current is less than 10 −11 A and may be neglected in
most, but not all, applications. Also for Vd > 200 mV the mathematical expression relating
Id to Vd may be simplified by neglecting the Is term

⎛ Vd ⎞
Id ≅ Is exp ⎜ ⎟ (1.2)
⎝ VT ⎠

Figure 6 shows again the I-V characteristic in a range where the reverse bias
characteristics are visible.

Figure 6. Typical I-V characteristic of a Silicon diode.

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When a reverse biased voltage is applied to a diode (i.e when Vd<0) the behavior of the
diode exhibits some interesting characteristics. First if the bias voltage is small then the
current flowing through the diode is the reverse bias current Is. When the reverse bias
voltage reaches a certain value (Vb), the electric field generated across the junction results
in a very large reverse bias current. This phenomenon is called breakdown and the
corresponding voltage at which is occurs is called the breakdown voltage (Vb) as shown
on Figure 7. (The graph shown on Figure 7 does not represent the characteristics of a real
diode. It is presented for the visual demonstration of the breakdown region only.) For
silicon diodes the breakdown voltage is in the range of 50-200 Volts. Care must be taken
when designing circuits containing diodes not to exceed the breakdown voltage.

Figure 7

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Offset voltage model

The exponential dependence of Id on Vd results in a highly non-linear system but it also

gives us the opportunity to construct a simpler, albeit still non-linear, model for the diode.
Such a model is shown graphically on Figure 8.

Id
1
slope= __
Rf

Vg
Vd

Figure 8. Piecewise linear approximation model of the diode.

In this model the voltage Vg corresponds to 0.7 Volts. The slope of the “vertical” line is
very large corresponding to a very small equivalent resistance (Rf) for the diode. Since Rf is
very small it may be neglected (Rf=0, slope=∞) resulting in the model shown on Figure 9.

Id

Vg
Vd

Figure 9. Offset diode model (0.7 Volt model)

This is an enhanced version of the ideal-diode model presented earlier (see Figure 2) and it
is motivated by the full diode model. This model is called the offset diode model (or the
0.7 Volt model). The voltage Vg is called the offset voltage. For silicon diodes Vg=0.7
Volts and for germanium diodes Vg=0.2 Volts.

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Diode Circuits.

Half wave rectifier

Let’s start with the circuit shown on Figure 10. We will analyze this circuit assuming that
the diode is ideal. The input voltage Vin has the sinusoidal form shown on Figure 11.

+ Vd - +
Vin R Vo
-

Figure 10. Diode circuit

Figure 11. Sinusoidal signal Vin

We see that during the time when Vin>0 the diode is forward biased and so the voltage
across this “ideal” diode is zero. This observation is also represented by the equivalent
circuit shown on Figure 12(a), which clearly indicates that the output voltage Vo is equal to
the input voltage Vin. Similarly during the time when Vin<0, the diode is reverse biased
and so the current flowing through the diode is zero, see equivalent circuit on Figure 12(b),
and the output voltage is zero.

Id + Id=0 +
Vin R Vo Vin R Vo
- -

(a) (b)
Figure 12. Equivalent circuits for Vin>0 (a) and Vin<0 (b) for the ideal diode

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 8

The total response of the circuit to the input signal Vin is shown on Figure 13. Note that the
presence of the diode alters the output signal in a profound way: it converts an AC
(alternating current) input voltage, whose average value over time is zero, into an output
voltage whose polarity does not change over time, and which has a non-zero average value.
This type of voltage signal is called DC (direct current) since the direction of the current
does not change over time. We have just taken the first step in the design of an AC to DC
converter.

Figure 13. Input signal (top) and equivalent rectified signal (bottom)

The output signal Vo is a rectified signal of the input Vin and the circuit that generated this
signal, Figure 10 , is called Rectifier circuit. Furthermore, since it passes only half of the
input signal it is called a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit.

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 9

Let’s now again analyze the behavior of the rectifier circuit with the offset diode model.
The circuit is shown on Figure 14.

+ Vd - +
Vin R Vo
-

Figure 14. Half wave rectifier circuit

Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to the circuit of Figure 14 gives

Vo = Vin − Vd .

The voltage transfer curve for this circuit is shown on Figure 15 and it is derived from the
I-V characteristic of the diode model and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Vo

slope=1

Vg Vin
Figure 15. Voltage transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit.

From the voltage transfer curve we observe the following:

• Vo = Vin-Vg for Vin ≥ Vg,

• Vo = 0 for Vin < Vg (Open circuit)

Figure 16 shows the response of the rectifier circuit of Figure 14 for Vin = 2 sin(40π t ) .
Note the difference between Vin and Vo. The differences in the output voltage between the
full model and the offset diode model are not discernable.

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 Figure 16. Source (Vin) and rectified voltage (Vo) for the circuit of Figure 14

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 11

Full wave rectifier.

Rectifiers are used extensively in the conversion of AC signals to DC. In such a circuit the
half wave rectifier is not efficient since it “wastes” half of the signal. A circuit that
overcomes this problem is the full wave rectifier which uses four diodes as shown on
Figure 17. The diodes are arranged in a bridge configuration. The output voltage is taken
across the resistor R.

D1 D2

+ Vo -
Vin
R
D3 D4

Figure 17. Full wave rectifier circuit

First let’s consider the response of this circuit using the ideal diode model. We will apply a
sinusoidal input signal and detect the output.

Let’s consider the example with the sinusoidal input signal Vin shown on Figure 18.

In order to understand the behavior of this circuit we will look at the direction of current
flow during the positive and the negative swing of the input voltage.

Figure 18. Input signal to a full wave rectifier

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When Vin is positive, diodes D1 and D4 are forward biased and diodes D2 and D3 are
reverse biased and the direction of the current is shown on Figure 19(a). During the
negative part of the cycle, diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are
reverse biased and the current flow is indicated on Figure 19(b). Note that the current
through the resistor R is in the same direction during the entire cycle. This is the basis for
the behavior of the full wave rectifier circuit.

D1 D2 D1 D2

+ Vo - + Vo -
Vin Vin
R R
D3 D4 D3 D4

(a) (b)
Figure 19.

Figure 20. Output signal of a full wave rectifier with ideal diodes.

Now let’s consider the more realistic scenario represented by the full diode model. In this
case the direction of the current during the positive and the negative cycle is the same as
before (see Figure 21).

D1 D2 D1 D2

+ Vo - + Vo -
Vin Vin
R R
D3 D4 D3 D4

(a) (b)
Figure 21. Direction of current in the full wave rectifier during the positive cycle if Vin (a) and during
the negative cycle of Vin (b)

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 13

The difference in the response becomes apparent by considering the circuit equivalent of
the offset model of the diode as shown on Figure 22 for the positive and negative portions
of the input signal Vin. From KVL we see that

Vo = Vin − 2Vg (1.3)

Vg Vg

+ Vo - + Vo -
Vin Vin
R R
Vg Vg

(a) (b)

Figure 22. Equivalent model of the full wave rectifier during the positive (a) and negative (b) portions
of the cycle.

The resulting output is rectified during the positive and the negative cycle of the signal Vin
and it has the form shown on Figure 23 for a silicon diode characterized by Vg=0.7 Volts.
For Vin that have a small amplitude (not much greater than the offset voltage Vg) the
rectified signal may only be a small fraction of the input signal. Later in the term we will
improve this circuit by designing a “superdiode” which will have Vg=0 and thus the
rectified signal will resemble the one obtained by the ideal diode model (Figure 20).

Figure 23. Input and output signals for the full wave rectifier.

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 14

Obtaining the operating point.

Referring to Figure 24, the current Id, when Vin ≥ Vg, is

Vin − Vd
Id = (1.4)
R

Id

+ Vd - +
Vin R Vo
-

Figure 24.

This is the load line equation for this circuit. The intersection of the load line and the I-V
characteristic curve Id = Is e ( Vd / Vt

)
− 1 for the device is the operating point for the diode.
This operating point is also called the quiescent point or Q-point and it gives the value of
the current through the diode and the voltage across the diode.

For R = 100 Ω, and Vin = 2V, the load line and resulting operating point is shown on
Figure 25.

0.025

0.02 I-V curve

0.015 Operating Point

Q-Point
Id (A)

Load Line
Operating
0.01 Current

0.005
Operating
Voltage

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Vd (Volts)

Figure 25. Load line and operating point of diode in a rectifying circuit.

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 15

For comparison let’s calculate the operating point of the same circuit by using the full I-V
model of the diode. The load line equation is still the same but the I-V characteristic will
now result in a slightly different operating point. Figure 26 shows the graphical solution.

Note the small difference in the solution for the diode current for the two models. This
small difference is usually ignored. However, in certain cases where the range of operating
conditions is very wide the error associated with the use of the offset model may not be
acceptable. Therefore, care should be taken when circuit analysis is performed with
simplified models. For our scope the use of the offset model is sufficient and will be used
unless stated otherwise.

0.025

0.02

operating point
Full model

0.015
operating point
offset model
Id (A)

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Vd (Volts)

Figure 26. Load line and operating point of diode in a rectifying circuit (full diode model).

22.071/6.071 Spring 2006, Chaniotakis and Cory 16

Reverse Bias Operation. Zener Diode

Operation of the diode in the reverse bias region is limited by the maximum allowable
reverse bias voltage. As the reverse bias voltage increases above a certain value the diode
breaks down and the current in the reverse bias direction increases rapidly as it is
graphically demonstrated on Figure 7. The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is
called the reverse breakdown voltage. For diodes designed to operate in the forward bias
region the application of a reverse bias voltage should be avoided.

However, reverse breakdown may also be a very useful phenomenon and special diodes,
called Zener diodes, are fabricated to exhibit and exploit this property at well defined
voltages. These voltages range from a few Volts to hundreds of Volts. The symbol for the
Zener diode is shown on Figure 27.
I forward

I reverse
+ Vd -

Figure 27. Symbol of Zener diode.

These diodes are very useful in providing a well defined reference voltage. Operation of
these devices, like any other device, is limited by the practical considerations such as
power dissipation. Let’s consider an example of a voltage regulator circuit using a Zener
diode. The circuit is shown on Figure 28.

R1
IL
+
It Iz RLoad
Vz
-

Unregulated limiting Zener Load

source resistor regulator

Figure 28. Zener voltage regulating circuit

As long as the Zener diode is in the reverse breakdown region, the voltage across the load
is Vz, the breakdown voltage for the diode. The current through the load RL is then

VZ
IL =
RL
For the voltage Vz to be regulated the current IL must be constant. From KCL we have the
constraint
It = IL + Iz

Any excess current is returned via the diode keeping the diode voltage Vz constant.

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

2 RECTIFIERS & FILTERS:

2.0 INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required.
So it is advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of
converting a.c. voltage into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i)
Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier, iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down

transformer, rectifier, filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply
is an electronics circuit designed to provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is
independent of the load current and variations in the input voltage ad temperature. If the
output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer,
whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.

2.1 RECTIFIER:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a
high resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is
capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a
unidirectional Waveform, with a non-zero average component. A rectifier is a device,

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 29

III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).

Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:

Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a
high resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is
capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a
unidirectional waveform, with a non-zero average component.

A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load

currents: They are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS
currents.

Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area
of one cycle of the curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as

Area over one period

i) Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
T
1
Vdc V d ( wt )
T0

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the
area of one cycle of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the
base.
T
1
Vrms V 2 d ( wt )
T0

iii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value
Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 30
III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iv) Form factor:
It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

v) Ripple Factor ( ) : It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the

d.c. component in the output is known as “Ripple Factor”.
Vac
Vdc
2
Vac Vrms Vdc2

vi) Efficiency ( ):

It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the
rectifier circuit converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power
i / p power

vii) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
destroying the junction.

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF
p ac(rated)

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

ix) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called
regulation. The percentage regulation is defined as

VNL VFL
% Re gulation *100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.

1) Half - Wave Rectifier

2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier

2.2.1) HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a
pulsating voltage using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying
element i.e., p-n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The
a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 32

III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

V=Vm sin (wt)

The input to the rectifier circuit, Where V m is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence
it conducts. Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The
waveform of the diode current (or) load current is shown in fig 3.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative
half- cycle no power is delivered to the load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )
6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. Peak Factor

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. form factor
11. o/p frequency

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the
diode be idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward
direction i.e., in the ON state and Rr (=∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state.
Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in the load resistance RL is given by V=Vm sin
(wt)

i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE

T
1
Vdc V d ( wt )
T0

2
1
Vdc V ( )d
T 0
2
1
Vdc V ( )d
2
1
Vdc Vm sin( wt )
2 0

Vm
Vdc

ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:
Im
I dc

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms V 2 d ( wt )
T 0

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

2
1
Vrms (Vm sim ( wt )) 2 d ( wt )
2 0

Vm
Vrms
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

V) PEAK FACTOR Im
I rms
peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)
Peak Factor =2
vi) FORM FACTOR
Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm /
Form Factor =1.57

vii) Ripple Factor:

Vac
Vdc
2
Vac Vrms Vdc2
2
Vrms Vdc2
Vac
2
Vrms
1
Vdc2

1.21

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
*100
i / ppower

p ac
= *100
Pdc
=40.8

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
transformer used in the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF
Pac(rated)

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not
fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
destroying the junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the
negative half- cycle. For half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

used as a
power rectifier circuit.

2.2.2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half
cycles of the applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two
diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a
center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which produces two
sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to
the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown
in the fig 4 below

Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and
at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal
to the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative
and the anode of D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts.
The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the
input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows in the both the half cycles of ac
voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE

ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms V 2 d ( wt )
T 0

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 38

III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

2
1
Vrms (Vm sim ( wt )) 2 d ( wt )
2 0

IV) RMS CURRENT

2I m
I rms

V) PEAK FACTOR
peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)
Peak Factor =2
vi) FORM FACTOR
Rms value
Form factor=
average value

(V m / 2 )
Form factor=
2V m /
Form Factor =1.11
vii) Ripple Factor:

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 39

III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
*100
i / ppower

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF
Pac(rated)

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
destroying the junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the
negative half- cycle. For half- wave rectifier, PIV is 2Vm

xi) % Regulation

.
Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

2.2.3) BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier
circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase
rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge"
configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is
that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and
cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the
current flows through the load as shown below (fig 7).
The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8),
but diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.

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III SEMESTER ELECTRONICS Electronic Devices & Circuits

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across
the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier,
therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality,
during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one so the
amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input
VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for
a 50Hz supply)

Prof. Vijay V. Chakole, Department of Electronics Engineering, KDKCE, Nagpur Page 43