Tycho Brahe:

Observation and Measurement

Then: Late 1500’s

The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was one of many early

scientists of the Scientific Revolution, a time period between 1500
and 1700 when many scientists discovered natural laws and
created processes to test theory. In 1572, he observed a supernova
for nearly eighteen months, and also the first recorded
comet in 1577. In addition to observing and charting
over 750 stars and heavenly bodies, Tycho’s greatest
contribution to science was his insistence in the use of
careful observation and very detailed, accurate records
on everything he did. He also created the most
rudimentary telescope to make more accurate
observations of the heavens. The emphasis he placed on
observation and accurate records laid the base work for how other Tycho’s Great Comet of 1577.
theories and methods can be applied and tested by future scientists.
In that way his contributions still affect modern science.

Now: Observations in Space

That’s random!
Even today scientists still keep careful, accurate
It’s recorded that Tycho Brahe
records when observing and proving scientific theory. died of a urinary tract infec-
Kepler was Brahe’s assistant and later used Brahe’s tion. He attended a banquet of
a Baron in Prague, and didn’t
records of Mars’ movements to further his theories of use the bathroom for fear of
planetary motion. insulting his host. This combined with alcohol
had caused complications.

1. List three (3) of Brahe’s discoveries and contributions to modern astronomy.

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 Nicolaus Copernicus:

Father of modern astronomy

Then: the father of modern astronomy disbelieves in the authorities of the heavens

Up until the 1500s, everyone in Europe assumed that the ancient Greek philosophers
such as Ptolemy and Aristotle were the authorities on the universe. As the age of
exploration disproved some of their theories, people started to question what else was
inaccurate. Nicolaus Copernicus is considered the first man brave enough to not only
use logic and observation to do so, but to also publish the book that triggered the
Scientific Revolution. This book was titled THE REVOLUTION OF THE CELESTRIAL
SPHERES and he published it in 1543. He observed that the earth-centered, or geo-
centric, planet rotation theories of Ptolemy that the Catholic church supported
couldn’t be true because the planets’ patterns in the sky would be too complicated.
Instead of assuming the theories of the past were correct and
making his observations fit them, he dared to theorize a different
possibility. He considered the possibility of a sun-centered, or
heliocentric, universe model.

Now: from theory to foundation of science

Copernicus’s heliocentric theory had a major influence on several

other prominent observers of the scientific revolution. Eventually,
Copernican Theory model
more astronomers proved he was accurate. Today his theory,
the Copernican theory, is a key part of modern astronomy. That’s random!
This is why he’s often referred to as the Father of Modern Nicolaus Copernicus was so afraid
Astronomy. to publish REVOLUTION OF THE
CELESTRIAL SPHERES against
the beliefs of the church that he didn’t do so until he
was on his death bed.
1. Evidence from the Text-Support the following sentence
with evidence in the form of a direct quote from the text:
Nicolaus Copernicus is considered the first man brave enough to use logic and observation to disprove some
classic Greek theories.

2. Would you be scared to publish your ideas if they were different from what most people thought like
Copernicus did? Why or why not?

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 Galileo Galilei:

Father of Experimental Science

From Barter to Coinage

Galileo is perhaps one of the most well 1-“I hope to show that I proceed with much greater piety
known figures of the scientific revolution. He than they do, when I argue not against condemning this
created the first telescope that resembles book, but against condemning it in the way they suggest-
what modern science uses today. Using it, he
that is, without under standing it, weighing it, or so much
observed craters in the Earth’s moon, and
that Jupiter had its own moons. Galileo did as reading it.” -Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of
scientific experiments to test his theories of Tuscany, 1615
motion of objects, or mechanics. For this
reason, he is considered the Father of 2-“and because I had prepared a very excellent
Experimental Science.
instrument for myself, I perceived (as I had not before, on

Most importantly, Galileo found evidence that account of the weakness of my previous instrument) that
backed up Copernicus’s theory of a sun-centered beside the planet there were three starlets, small indeed,
universe. He wrote a highly controversial book but very bright. Though I believed them to be among the
called DIALOGUE OF THE TWO CHIEF WORLD
host of fixed stars, they aroused my curiosity somewhat
SYSTEMS in which a discussion between two
fictional characters about helio-centric, (or sun by appearing to lie in an exact straight line parallel to the
circled by planets system) and geo-centric ecliptic,” -1610, Galileo Discovers the Moon
(earth centered with sun, planet, and stars
circling it) universal system models was held.
3-“First we must propound all those that have been
It covertly pushed Copernican Theory of sun-
centered system. This book lead to his trial by put forward to prove the earth’s stability by Aristotle,
the Catholic Church for heresy, or a belief Ptolemy, and others, trying next to resolve them.
opposed to the religious beliefs of the church. Finally we must produce those by which a person may
He tried to stay true to his beliefs, but
become persuaded that the earth, no less than the
eventually he recanted them when
threatened with death. moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among
the natural bodies that move circularly.” - Dialogue of
the Two Chief World Systems

1. Which one of the Letters and Discoveries of Galileo is about the movement of the Earth? How does he
state the Earth moves?

2. What is the meaning of the word “recanted” in the following sentence: “He tried to stay true to his
beliefs, but eventually he recanted them.”

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 Sir Isaac Newton:

math and motion

Then: A mathematicians theories became law
Almost thirty years after Galileo’s trial at the Catholic Church in Italy, the Scientific Revolution hit its golden years in
the capable hands of an English mathematician. Sir Isaac Newton reviewed all the other research on mathematics,
motion, and space. Then he made his own observations and notes. Using them together, he created four theories that
have since then been proven and are considered laws in modern science. In addition to his theories, he wrote a book
titled PRINCIPIA MATMATICA and it was published in 1687. He also invented the complex math called calculus, so
scientists had formulas and processes to logically solve advanced theories or problems.

Now: Newton’s FOUR laws

The first and most influential law Newton created was the law of gravity. He wanted to know how the moon stayed in
orbit around the Earth. As the story was told, he saw an apple fall from a tree and theorized that the same force that
pulled the apple to the group also made the Earth and Moon tug on one another. He realized that the mass, or amount
of matter, an object has as well as the distance between two objects determined how much influence they have on
each other.

His other three laws had to do with motion. They explained how the universe is like a machine, and described exactly
how everything moves in space.

Step 1: Drop a book and a piece of paper from the same height at the
same time.
Question #1: Which object falls faster? Which object falls slower? Why
do you think that is?
Step 2: Place the same paper on top of book. Drop the book again.
Question #2: Do they fall separately or together? How does the way the fall confirm his
theory about gravity?
The book and the paper form a vacuum, making them stick together. Newton asserted
that if all objects were in a vacuum, or space without any matter or air resistance, an
elephant and a feather would fall at the same time...
Newton’s first and second laws of gravity discuss how two objects respond to each other and
air resistance. In short, an object will accelerate, or gain speed, if the forces acting upon it are
unbalanced; the amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the amount of net force,
or unbalanced force, acting upon it.

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 Johannes Kepler:

The Planets’ Path

Then: An assistant builds on his boss’s theories

Tycho Brahe was given the island of Hven by King Fredrick II of Denmark in 1576, and as he set up his
observatory, he found an assistant. This assistant was the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Kepler
dedicated his own study time to the orbits of the planets. Up
Did you know? until this time, Copernican theory that the planets move in
circular orbits around the sun was considered the most
A young Johannes Kepler
suffered from a horrible accurate theory. Orbits are the paths heavenly bodies (suns,
infection of smallpox. The stars, moons, planets) make around each other. However,
disease left him with weak vision and Kepler observed Mars closely and discovered that it moved in
crippled hands.
a elliptical, or oval, orbit around the sun. This discovery not
only confirmed Copernican Theory, but built upon it, and
rocked the Scientific Revolution community.

In addition to his orbit deduction, Kepler also found that the closer to the sun a planet was, the faster it
moved. This theory helped Sir Isaac Newton with his laws of motion in
later years.

Lastly, Kepler also discovered that the human eye sees images in reverse
like a camera lens. He toyed with the newly-invented refractor telescope
and wondered how light works within it to show the heavens upside
down. From there, he took the data he’d gathered and applied it to the
human eye. He also created an upgraded version of the telescope, called
the Keplerian telescope. He also invented glasses for the near- and far-
sighted and wrote a book about his optic research titled ASTRONOMIAE
PARS OPTICA.

1. Define the meaning of the word deduction in the following sentence: “In addition to his orbit
deduction, Kepler also found that the closer to the sun a planet was, the faster it moved.”

2. Why did Kepler’s discovery of elliptical orbits “rock the scientific community?” Use a quote from the
text to prove it.

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 Francis BACON:

The Right steps in the right order

Then: Science could expand human knowledge into the future
The many studies of the Scientific Revolution piqued the interest of several
philosophers. One of them was an English gentleman by the name of Francis Bacon. He
was fascinated with how those first scientists observed, studied, and theorized to
discover and understand natural law. He said that science should be approached
systematically and close observation was the only way to find the truth of all things.
If done in this way, he felt vehemently that scientific research should be funded, and
requested that the King of England do so. He also wrote a book about approaching
scientific research this way. THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING was published in 1605.

Now: scientists still use Bacon’s system

That’s Random!
Later, scientists developed Bacon’s systematic approach with other
Francis Bacon was first
philosophers’ suggestions into a procedure called The Scientific Method
employed as an interior
and it is still used in modern times. The Scientific Method combines
designer.
mathematics, observation , and logic into six duplicable steps:
1. State a problem or question.
2. Gather information about the problem.
3. Theorize a hypothesis, or assumption about the problem. (Note, a hypothesis is different from a solution in that it
hasn’t been tested yet.)
4. Test the hypothesis by experimentation.
5. Record and analyze data on the experiment.
6. Draw conclusions on what the experiment’s data revealed.

A study in November 2015 used The Scientific Method to test fat rats. The problem was obesity in Americans. The scientists gathered
information on the topic, looking at previous studies and experiments as well as the diets of the American population, and realized that
previous experiments weren’t controlled enough to give good data. They hypothesized that high-fat, high-calorie foods would make the rats
fat. They tested the hypothesis by feeding rats high-fat, high-calorie foods. They recorded how much food they fed the rats and how fat the
rats became. Then they drew the conclusion that their hypothesis was correct.

1. Do you think the Scientific Method would work without one of its steps? Why or why not?
2. If you were the King of England and Bacon argued that you should fund science, would you? Why or
why not?
3. Define the word “vehemently” in the following sentence: “If done in this way, he felt vehemently that scien-
tific research should be funded...”
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 Rene Descartes:

Doubt until proven true

Now: Deduce from doubt

Another major contributor to The Scientific Revolution was the French

philosopher Rene Descartes. He emphasized that past science and
knowledge should be doubted until proven to be true rather than
accepted on faith. This highly contradicted the way people of his time
and the church approached the natural world. He took it a step beyond
the material experiments and tests, and argued that even these
methods of collecting data could trick man’s senses. He said only clear
thinking and logic could offer proof of the truth.
Descartes also emphasized the belief that the
physical, natural world followed key physic and mathematical laws, so only logic could work
with them.

Descartes wrote a book called DISCOURSE ON THE METHOD, and he wrote it in French
rather than in Latin so that all common men and women could learn to think for themselves.

Now: How sleuths and scientists Use logic

Though on a grander scale, the application of logic and reason emphasized by Descartes is
still used in many fields of science. Detective and criminal investigation work is especially good at utilizing reason and
logic to find the truth. Descartes “doubt until proven true” way of
Did you know?
thinking is also used in various steps of the Scientific Method.
The famous line “I think, there for I
am” is a phrase Descartes wrote as
a statement for individual existence
as a single, irrefutable truth.

1. In your own words, describe Descartes theory of how science

should be approached.

2. Do you think Descartes’ theories would have been as well known if he’d written “Discourse on the Method” in
Latin? Why or why not?

3. What is the meaning of the word “contradicted” in the following sentence: “This highly contradicted the way
people of his time and the church approached the natural world.”

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 Scientific Revolution Inventions

Still Used Today

The inventions of the scientific revolution took science to a new level by offering more accurate ways to observe and measure the
natural world. Study the four scientific tools below and take note of what they are used for.

Thermometer barometer
Though it is not certain, Galileo probably made the In 1643, Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli created
first thermometer. A German scientist named Daniel the barometer by placing liquid mercury in a glass
Gabriel Fahrenheit created a more accurate model in tube and placed it upside down in a dish. He observed
the early 1700s. He placed liquid mercury in a glass how it moved up and
tube and observed how down with changes in
it expanded and rose pressure of the
within it as the atmosphere over a couple
temperature increased. days. The barometer
He also created the became a great tool for
Fahranheit studying weather.
temperature scale that
is still used in the U.S.
Use: Measuring barometric
Use: Measuring air temperature. Did you know?
pressure in the atmosphere.
These basic tools led to major
advances in technology, such
as steam trains and other
industrial creations that made Europeans the
most advanced continent in the world afterward.

Telescope Microscope

Thought first created Dutch lens makers in the

in Holland, the 1500s created the first
telescope went microscope, but around
through many 1680 Antonie van
upgrades during the Leeuwenhoek made his own
scientific revolution powerful version. He was
from such men as the first man to see the
Kepler, Brahe, and complex microscopic world
Galileo. of bacteria.
Use: To observe the Use: To see tiny plants and
heavenly bodies, such as stars, planets, and animals not visible to the naked eye with
comets. powerful lenses.

1. Which of these tools has made the greatest impact on our lives? Defend your answer with two examples
proving its great impact.
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With student reading about the physics behind the sound of a finger snapping.

The scientific method:

Oh Snap! A Finger Snap Mini lab
Review the scientific method- Do not read the “Did You Know” upside-down information until the end!
1. The question to analyze: What makes the noise when a person snaps his/her fingers?
2. Gather information about the question: Snap your fingers and write down what you observe. Write at least
three observations down.
3. Theorize a hypothesis, or assumption about the question: After observing, hypothesis how and at what point the
noise is actually being made.
4. Test the hypothesis by experimentation. Try isolating each action: A) Try to snap your fingers so that your
middle finger (2) does not actually touch your palm. If this is too difficult you can use your other
3 hand to block the middle finger from making contact with the palm. B) Try snapping with your
4 2

5 pointer (1). C. Try snapping so that all other fingers are pointed up (5,4,3,1). D. Now, snap
1 normally. Why is it louder?
5. Record and analyze data on the experiment (record what your findings were from A,B,C
palm
and D).
6. Draw conclusions on what the experiment’s data revealed. What is actually making the
noise?

Now read the upside down explanation. Were your observations correct?

finger lands anywhere on top of the third finger and ends up only hitting the palm.
properly with the striking point of the second finger. In this case, no part of the second
not in contact with the palm, but it can also happen if the third finger doesn't align
reduction in the total "snap" sound. This usually happens because the third finger is simply
experiment), only the first two components will be heard and there will be a significant
order to get the full "snap" sound. If the second finger only hits the palm (like in 4C of the
second finger must hit both the palm and a small portion of the top of the third finger in
a compression of air between the fast moving second finger, the palm and third finger. The
third "pop" sound is the most audible of the three components and because it is caused by
(3) The "pop" sound from the rapid compression and subsequent decompression of air. The
fourth (ring) finger with the palm.
(2) The "impact" sound from the third finger colliding with a groove created by contacting the

(1) The "friction" or "sliding" sound between the third (middle) finger and the thumb.

DID YOU KNOW...

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