Estructuras IV

1. Reinforced concrete (RC)

Prof. : Ana Bertol Gros (abertol@usj.es)

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 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• Most people believe that concrete has been in common use for many
centuries, but this is not the case. The romans did make use of a cement
called pozzolana before the birth of Christ. They found large deposits of a
sandy volcanic ash near Mt. Vesuvius and in other places in Italy. When they
mixed this material with quicklime and water as well as sand and gravel, it
hardened into a rocklike substance and was used as a building material. One
might expect that a relatively poor grade of concrete would result, as
compared with today's standards, but some Roman concrete structures are
still in standing today. One example is the Pantheon, which is located in Rome
and was completed in A.D. 126.

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 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• The real breakthrough for concrete happened in 1824, when an
English bricklayer named Joseph Aspdin, after long and laborious
experiments, obtained a patent for a cement that he called Portland
cement. He made this cement by taking certain quantities of clay
and limestone, pulverizing them, burning them in his kitchen stove,
and grinding the resulting clinker into a fine powder. During the early
years after its development, this cement was used primary in stuccos.
This wonderful product was adopted very slowly by the building
industry.

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 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• The first uses of concrete are not very well known. In 1832, Le Brun
built a concrete house and followed it with the construction of a
school and a church with the same material. In about 1850, Lambout
built a concrete boat reinforced with a network of parallel wires or
bars. Credit is usually given to Monier, however, for the invention of
reinforced concrete. In 1867, he received a patent for the
construction of concrete basins reinforced with a mesh of iron wire.
His stated goal in working with this material was to obtain lightness
without sacrificing strength.

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE:
CONCRETE + STEEL

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE
• Reinforced concrete is a construction material made up of concrete
working together with steel to resist building efforts.
• Concrete is a material formed by the mixture of aggregates, using a
hydraulic binder, called Portland cement.
– It has a considerable compressive strength but very low tensile
strength
– It works really well when faced with different weather conditions
• Corrugated steel is a kind of rolled steel formed by an alloy of Carbon
steel, complemented with other elements.
– It has a really great tensile strength
– It works poorly when faced with different weather conditions

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 CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• Concrete and steel reinforcing work together beautifully in reinforced
concrete structures. The advantages of each material seem to
compensate for the disadvantages of the other. For instance, the
great shortcoming of concrete is its lack of tensile strength, but tensile
strength is one of the great advantages of steel. Reinforcing bars
have tensile strengths equal to approximately 100 times concrete
has.
• The two materials bond together very well so there is little chance of
slippage between the two; thus, they will act together as a unit in
resisting forces. The excellent bond obtained is the result of the
chemical adhesion between the two materials, the natural roughness
of the bars, and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformations rolled
onto the bars surfaces.
• Reinforced bars are subject to corrosion, but the concrete
surrounding provides them with excellent protection. The strength of
exposed steel subjected to the temperatures reached in fires of
ordinary intensity is nil, but enclosing the reinforcing steel in concrete
produces very satisfactory fire ratings. Finally, concrete and steel
work well together in relation to temperature changes because their
coefficients of thermal expansion are quite close.

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 ADVANTAGES
• The tremendous success of this universal construction material can be
understood quite easily if its numerous advantages are considered.
– It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with
most other materials.
– Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water.
During fires of average intensity, members with a satisfactory cover of
concrete over the reinforcing bars suffer only Surface damage without
failure.
– Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
– It is a low-maintenance material
– As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life.
– A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary
variety of shapes from simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches
and shells.
– A lower grade of skilled labour is required for erection as compared with
other materials such as structural steel.
– It is a rather cheap construction material. It also has a cheap construction
process.

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 DISADVANTAGES
• To use concrete successfully, the designer must be completely familiar
with its weak points as well as its strong ones. Among its disadvantages
are the following:
– Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile
reinforcing.
– Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens
sufficiently. In addition, framework or shoring may be necessary to
keep the forms in place for roofs, walls, floors, and similar structures
until the concrete members gain sufficient strength to support
themselves. Formwork is very expensive, it cost around one-third to
two-thirds of the total cost of the concrete structure.
– The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy
members. This becomes an increasingly important matter for long-
span structures, where concrete's large dead weight has a great
effect on bending moments.
– Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means
members will be relatively large, an important consideration for tall
buildings and long-span structures.
– It needs a longer construction process, it has to be carefully placed
and cured, which prolongs the building time and makes quality
control more complicated.

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 CODES
• CTE: Código Técnico de la Edificación

• La instrucción de hormigón estructural vigente (EHE-08) de quedó

derogada en julio de 2021 con la introducción del nuevo CÓDIGO
ESTRUCTURAL.

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE:
CONCRETE + STEEL

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 CONCRETE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnr94rh32Zs

• Concrete is a stone-like material that results from the mixture of:

– A hydraulic binder, cement
– Water
– Aggregates
– In some cases, additives

• The cement hydrates in contact with water, initiating complex

chemical reactions that derive from the setting and hardening of the
mixture, obtaining at the end of the process a material with a stony
consistency.

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 CEMENT
• Cement is one of the main hydraulic binders. A binder is a material
capable of joining fragments of one or more materials and giving
cohesion to the whole through chemical transformations in its volume
that originate new compounds. And hydraulic binders are those that
can harden both in contact with water and air.

• The most used cement is Portland Cement, obtained by joint grinding

of clinker (a mixture of limestone and clay) and natural gypsum
stone.

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 WATER
• Water has two functions in concrete. On the one hand, it serves to
hydrate the cement and on the other it gives the workability to the
mass.
• If the amount of mixing water exceeds the minimum required, the
excess water will evaporate and a series of voids will be created in
the concrete that will decrease its strength and durability, hence the
concrete must be mixed with the least amount of water possible.
• Water must have a pH greater than 5.

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 AGGREGATES
• Aggregates are natural sands and gravel which must have strength and
durability characteristics, at least as the ones requited for the concrete.
• The EHE-08 distinguishes two types of aggregate:
– Coarse aggregate or gravel
– Fine aggregate or sand (fraction <4mm)
• The maximum size of the aggregate should not exceed a third of the
narrowest dimensions between the sides of the elements. The workability of
the concrete and its methods of consolidation depend on the aggregate size,
a wrong size can develope voids in the structure, loosing its resistance.
• Aggregates must be strong, durable and clean. Should dust or other particles
be present, they may interfere with the bond between the cement paste and
the aggregate. The strength of the aggregate has an important effect on the
strength of the concrete, and the aggregate properties greatly affect the
concrete’s durability.

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 ADMIXTURES
• Materials added to concrete during or before mixing. They are used to
improve concrete performance in certain situations as well as to lower its cost.
There is a rather well-known saying regarding admixture, “that they are to
concrete as beauty aids are to the populace”.

– Products incorporated into concrete in a small proportion (<5% of

cement’s weight)
– They are added either before kneading, during it and/or afterwards.
– They modify some of concrete’s usual properties, characteristics, or
behaviour, when fresh and/or hardened.
– They are added to concrete finely divided in order to improve some of its
properties or give it special characteristics.

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 DOSAGE

• Concrete components are dosed by weight, except for water, which

is dosed by volume.

• To ensure a correct design strength, the following must be limited in

concrete:
– The maximum water/cement ratio (A/C)
– The minimum cement content, expressed in kg/m³

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 WHAT IS CONCRETE?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOHURuAf5iY&t=327s

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 CONCRETE NAMING

• Los hormigones se tipifican según el siguiente formato (pg.82 CE):

T – R / C / TM / A
• T es el tipo de hormigón

• R es la resistencia a compresión del hormigón en (N/mm²)

• C es la consistencia del hormigón:

• TM es el tamaño máximo del árido en (mm)

• A es el tipo de ambiente:

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 TYPE

• Mass concrete (hormigón en masa): uses concrete only in massive

form to resist the stresses. Used in foundations, walls and gravity dams
HM

• Reinforced concrete (hormigón armado): uses steel reinforcement

passively to resist tensile stresses. Very widespread in civil
construction and building.
HA

• Prestressed concrete (hormigón pretensado): uses steel

reinforcement to actively compress the concrete and prevent it from
cracking. It is becoming more and more used in construction.
HP

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 STRENGTH
• The characteristic strength (fck), expressed in N/mm², is the strength
value that is adopted in the project for the concrete compressive
strength in 28 days; this value is used as the basis for every
calculation.
• The concrete compressive strength is its fundamental characteristic
and is determined by breaking test tubes. Its value fck presents the
probability that 95% of the broken test tubes exceed the required
resistance for the building.
• The characteristic strength is the one used to typify the resistant class
of concretes following the instruction EHE-08. It is recommended to
use the following series:

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 STRENGTH
• We’ve broken 20 concrete test samples and have obtained the
following results, could we say we have a HA-25 concrete?

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 STRENGTH
• Design compression concrete strength (fcd), is the strength that will
be used to check ULS limits, calculated from the characteristic
strength fck with the following expression:

• Concrete safety factor is: γc =1,5

• Regarding the concrete’s longitudinal deformation modulus, it is
necessary to take into account that it is a material that does not
behave linearly, that is, that there is no linear relationship between
stresses (σ) and strains (ε).

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 STRENGTH
• For permanent loads, as long as concrete stresses do not exceed
40% of the service strength fcm, the secant longitudinal deformation
modulus (módulo de deformación longitudinal secante) can be
used, which can be calculated from the following expression:

• For instantaneous or live loads, the initial longitudinal deformation

modulus will be used (módulo de deformación longitudinal inicial),
which would correspond to the slope of the tangent at the origin for a
28-day-old concrete and calculable by:

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 CONSISTENCY

• It is the deformation easiness that fresh concrete has. It mainly

depends on the amount of mixing water. It tells us about the concrete
ability to surround the reinforcement bars and fill the formwork.
• It is classified, according to the Abrams cone test, into the following
groups:

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 AGGREGATE SIZE
• The maximum aggregate size is measured in mm

• The aggregate size has to be limited to ensure that concrete will be

able to flow easily among reinforcement bars and the formwork.

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 EXPOSURE CLASS
• The environment exposure class to which a structural element is
subjected is defined by the set of physical and chemical conditions
to which it is exposed which can cause the structure to degrade as a
consequence of different effects among the loads and stresses
considered in the structural analysis.

• The environment exposure class to which the structure is subjected

will require the following conditions to be met:
– Maximum water/cement ratio, minimum cement content
– Concrete cover
– Minimum strength

• When a structure contains elements with different exposure class, the

designer must arrange them according to every exposure class.

https://apps.fomento.gob.es/cea/

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 EXPOSURE CLASS

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 EXPOSURE CLASS

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 EXPOSURE CLASS

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 EXPOSURE CLASS

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 CONCRETE NAMING

• Los hormigones se tipifican según el siguiente formato:

T – R / C / TM / A
HA-25/F/45/Qc
• T es el tipo de hormigón:
– HM: Hormigón en masa
– HA: Hormigón armado
– HP: hormigón pretensado
• R es la resistencia a compresión del hormigón en (N/mm²)
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, 90 y 100
• C es la consistencia del hormigón:
Seca (S), Plástica (P), Blanda (B), Fluida (F), Líquida (L)
• TM es el tamaño máximo del árido en (mm)
• A es el tipo de ambiente:
I, IIa, IIb, IIIa, IIIb, IIIc, IV, Qa, Qb, Qc, H, F, E.

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 FRESH CONCRETE PROPERTIES

• Docility (docilidad): concrete ability to be moulded.

– Gravel/sand relation: ↑ Strength ↓ Docility
– Aggregate size: ↑ Strength ↓ Docility
– Voids inside the element: ↓ Strength ↑ Docility
– Sand thickness: ↓ Strength ↑ Docility

• Homogeneity (homogeneidad): Regular distribution of the different

components of the concrete. It requires good mixing, careful
transportation and adequate pouring to avoid segregation or settling
of the aggregate.

• Specific weight (peso específico): it is used as an indicator of the

mixture’s uniformity. It reveals changes in the content of water,
cement or in the granulometry of the aggregates.

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE:
CONCRETE + STEEL

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 WHY CONCRETE NEEDS REINFORCEMENT?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZINeaDjisY&t=306s

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 REINFORCING STEEL
• Corrugated steel or rebar, is a class of rolled steel specially designed
to build reinforced concrete structural elements. It is a steel alloy with
0.22% Carbon, 0.05% Phosphorus, 0.05% Sulphur and 0.012% Nitrogen.
These are steel bars that present protrusions or corrugations that
improve adhesion with concrete, and have great ductility, which
allows bars to be cut and bent more easily.

• They work together to resist a certain type of stress in combination

with concrete. The reinforcement can also fulfil a mounting or
constructive function, and are also used to prevent cracking of
concrete.

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 REINFORCING STEEL
• EHE distinguishes two types of reinforcements:
– Passive reinforcement: resist loads passively.
• Straight corrugated bars or steel rolls (barras corrugadas)
• Electrowelded mesh (mallas electrosoldadas)
• Electrowelded trusses (celosía electrosoldada)

– Active reinforcement: resist actively resist loads, used in

prestressed concrete.

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 ELECTRO-WELDED WIRE MESH
• Used to cover surfaces, such as slabs, walls, foundations…
• Advantages:
– Easy and quick assembly
– Eliminates possible assembly mistakes
– Good anchorage thanks to the transversal bars
• Diameters (mm): 4 – 4,5 – 5 – 5,5 – 6,5 – 7 – 7,5 – 8,5 – 9 – 9,5 – 10,5 –
11 – 11,5
• Steel: B 400/500 T
• Common measures: 15x15, 20x20, 15x30, 20x30 (cm)

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 ELECTRO-WELDED WIRE TRUSS MESH

• Used for prefabricated semi resistant elements such as joists, precast

slabs…
• Formed by:
– Longitudinal elements: corrugated bars or wires
– Connection elements: corrugated or straight wires
• Truss types:
– Wrapping the truss (a)
– Welded to rebars (b)

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 REINFORCING STEEL

• Reinforcing steel naming: B fy SD : B500SD

• Where:
– B: Steel for concrete (Betón)
– fy: tensile strength (N/mm²)
– S: weldable (soldable)
– D: very ductile (gran ductilidad)

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 REINFORCING STEEL

Para tener un rango de

magnitudes en la
cabeza, pensad que un
boli bic tiene 8,3(mm) de
diámetro. Las armaduras
de 6(mm) prácticamente
nunca se usan y las de
8(mm) solo para cercos.

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 REINFORCING STEEL

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 REBARS ADHERENCE
• Adherence: basic characteristic to ensure the working concrete-steel
relation.
• Functions:
– Ensures the bars anchorage
– Controls concrete cracking
• Adherence mechanisms:
– Adherence: instant physicochemical interaction at the steel-cement
interface.
– Friction: Mechanical interaction when concrete penetrates steel
indentations.
– Coining: the most important mechanism that creates a sliding resistance
due to the steel corrugations shape.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Tensile strength (limite elástico) (fy): is the maximum tensile stress the
material can resist under elastic behaviour. Units: N/mm².
• Ultimate strength (carga unitaria de rotura) (fu): is the maximum
tensile stress the material can resist before breaking. Units: N/mm².
• Ultimate strain (alargamiento de rotura) (ɛu): strain that Steel
undergoes before breaking.
• Relation fs/fy : the relation between tensile strength and ultimate
strength represents the material’s ductility. The bigger the relation, the
more ductile the material.

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 TENSILE STRENGTH
• Like for concrete, the characteristic tensile strength for steel fyk is
defined as the maximum stress that the material is capable of
resisting in the elastic range.
fyk =500(Mpa)

• When checking that the RC structure satisfies the ULS limits, the design
tensile strength fcd, will be used, with the following expression:

• Where ys is the safety coeficient for steel:

γs = 1,15

• In general, the deformation modulus for passive steel reinforcement is

the value Es=210.000(N/mm2)

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 TENSILE STRENGTH
• This is the characteristic stress-strain diagram for passive
reinforcements. The diagram is the same whether the steel works in
tension or compression.

• The calculation stress-strain diagram for passive reinforcement is

obtained by an oblique line parallel to the Hooke law, so that the
elastic regime reaches up to a limit stress equal to the design tensile
strength fcd, to which corresponds a strain εyd. Alternatively, the
second of the branches (plastic range) is allowed to be drawn
horizontally, so that the maximum stress that the reinforcements could
absorb would be, precisely, the design tensile strength fcd.

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 DUCTILITY
• Ductility is steel’s ability to undergo large deformations without failing.
• The steel ductility is very important in reinforced concrete, since
concrete is a fragile material, which puts the tensile reinforcements in
charge of "warning" about an imminent collapse. The larger the area
enclosed by the plastic zone the more ductile steel will be. For the
stress / strain diagram, it is proportional to the ratio fs/fy and to the
ultimate elongation point. Ductile steels work better under fatigue
behaviour to resist cyclical loads.

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE:
CONCRETE + STEEL

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 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRENGTH

• Density (densidad): fundamentally depends on the type of

aggregate, the compaction method and the occluded air.
Reinforced concrete has a density of 25 kN/m³ and mass concrete,
23 kN/m³.

• Compactness (compacidad): value linked to density. Influences

durability, very compact concretes delay the corrosion process of
the reinforcements.

• Permeability (permeabilidad): defines the ease of water penetration,

by pressure or by capillarity. A well-dosed and compacted concrete
is generally waterproof.

• Wear resistance (Resistencia al desgaste): characteristic required in

concretes used in areas of high mechanical friction (roads, industrial
floors, ...)

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 SHRINKAGE
• Irreversible volume loss experienced by concrete over time under
conditions of constant temperature with non-stress origin.
• After the concrete has been cured and begins to dry, the extra
mixing water that was used begins to work its way our of the
concrete to the surface, where it evaporates. As a result, the
concrete shrinks and cracks. The resulting cracks may reduce the
shear strength of the members and be detrimental to the
appearance of the structure. In addition, the cracks may permit
the reinforcing to be exposed to the atmosphere or chemicals,
thereby increasing the possibility of corrosion. Shrinkage
continues for many years, but under ordinary conditions probably
about 90% of it occurs during the first year. The amount of
moisture that is lost varies with the distance from the surface.
Furthermore, the larger the surface area of a member in
proportion to its volume, the larger the rate of shrinkage; that is,
members with small cross sections shrink more proportionately
than those with large cross sections.

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 SHRINKAGE
• The amount of shrinkage is heavily dependent on the type of
exposure. For instance, if concrete is subjected to a considerable
amount of wind during curing, its shrinkage will be greater. In a
related fashion, a humid atmosphere means less shrinkage, whereas
a dry one means more.

• To minimize shrinkage it is desirable to:

– Keep the amount of mixing water to a minimum
– Cure the concrete well
– Place the concrete for walls, floors, and other large items in small
sections
– Use construction joints to control the position of cracks
– Use shrinkage reinforcement
– Use appropriate dense and nonporous aggregates

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 CREEP
• Under sustained compressive loads, concrete will continue to deform
for long periods of time. After the initial deformation occurs, the
additional deformation is called creep, or plastic flow. If a
compressive load is applied to a concrete member, an immediate or
instantaneous elastic shortening occurs. If the load is left in place for
a long time, the member will usually be two to three times the initial
deformation. Perhaps 75% of the total creep will occur during the first
year.

• Should the long-term load be removed, the member will recover

most of its elastic strain and a little of its creep strain. If the load is
replaced, both the elastic and creep strains will again develop.

• The amount of creep is largely dependent on the amount of stress. It

is almost directly proportional to stress.

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 CREEP
• Long-term loads not only cause creep but also can adversely affect
the strength of the concrete. Several other items affecting the amount
of creep are:

– The longer the concrete cures before loads are applied, the
smaller will be the creep. Steam curing, which causes quicker
strengthening, will also reduce creep.
– Higher-strength concretes have less creep than do lower-strength
concrete stressed at the same values. However, applied stresses
for higher-strength concretes are, in all probability, higher than
those for lower-strength concretes, an this fact tends to cause
increasing creep.
– Creep increases with higher temperatures.
– The higher the humidity, the smaller will be the free pore water
that can escape from the concrete. Creep is almost twice as
large as 50% humidity than at 100% humidity. It is obviously quite
difficult to distinguish between shrinkage and creep
– Concretes with the highest percentage of cement-water paste
have the highest creep because the paste, not the aggregate,
does the creeping.

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 DURABILITY
• Deterioration processes:
– Reinforcement corrosion due to the presence of water and oxygen
near them.
– Concrete carbonation due to the environment pH reduction.
– Action of chlorides present in marine aerosol, flux salts, etc. making
reinforcement to lose its protection layer.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PLF18H9JGHs

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 DURABILITY
• A structure’s durability is the ability to withstand, during the useful life
for which it has been designed, the physical and chemical conditions
to which it is exposed which could lead to the structure degradation.
Degradation processes in reinforced concrete structures are
inevitable over time and it is therefore necessary to adopt the
appropriate measures in the construction process (design, execution,
commissioning, use and maintenance). Agents that negatively affect
RC structure’s durability are:

– Mechanical: actions on the structure (wrong use, impacts).

– Physical: mainly, thermal actions.
– Biological: bacteria, fungi, algae or mosses (industrial plants, food
industry, sewage networks, etc.).
– Chemical: acides, sulfates, alkalis, etc.

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 DURABILITY

• Reinforced concrete durability will also be affected by the

reinforcement corrosion. Over time, this corrosion can lead to a
significant loss of mechanical capacity, triggering an unwanted
failure mechanism. The alkalinity of the concrete acts as a protective
coating, but the gradual carbonation due to the effect of CO2 from
the environment that penetrates through concrete pores reduces the
pH level. If this level falls below 9 in the area of contact with the
reinforcement, the alkaline layer of calcium hydroxide will disappear.
Another form of loss of the protective layer is the action of chloride
ions transported by water (marine waters, swimming pools). Finally,
the oxygen in the air is, by definition, the other major responsible for
the degradation of the steel reinforcement, in this case by oxidation:
this can cause the size of a reinforcement to increase up to 6 times,
causing large cracks in the concrete that would propagate in a
longitudinal direction (parallel to the reinforcements).

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 DURABILITY FAILURE PREVENTION

• Identify the ambient exposure class that define the environment

aggressiveness to which the element or group of elements is
subjected.
• One of the greatest enemies of concrete durability is water, so the
shapes and structural details must be thought in detail from the water
evacuation perspective (no water, no problem). The design should
foresee waterproof and sealed joints, drips, etc.
• Cracking control (EHE art 49), using reinforcement design to satisfy
said service limit state and paying attention to areas with a change in
section.
• The design must allow accessibility to all structural elements for
maintenance operations during the use of the building.
• The active and passive reinforcements must be provided with suitable
cover according to the environmental conditions; these covers will
be considered in the calculation during the project phase and must
be ensured during the execution phase (tabla 37.2.4.1).

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