PHINMA-UNIVERSITY OF PANGASINAN

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

ARC 022 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1

RSW No. 1

TITLE:
“Application of Building Materials to the
Modern world today” - Metals, Glass,
Glazing and Concrete.
DUE DATE 14 APRIL 2021
DUE:

STUDENT : USON, LENARD S.

YEAR & SECTION : A1-2BSARC-05
INSTRUCTOR : AR. MARK JEFFERSON M. CALLANTA
“APPLICATION OF CONCRETE IN
MODERN WORLD TODAY”
INTRODUCTION
Concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert
particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded
together by cement and water.

Concrete is characterized by the type of

aggregate or cement used, by the specific qualities
it manifests, or by the methods used to produce
it. In ordinary structural concrete, the character of
the concrete is largely determined by a water-to-
cement ratio. The lower the water content, all else
being equal, the stronger the concrete. The
mixture must have just enough water to ensure

CONCRETE SLABS
that each aggregate particle is completely surrounded by the cement paste, that the
spaces between the aggregate are filled, and that the concrete is liquid enough to be
poured and spread effectively. Another durability factor is the amount of cement in
relation to the aggregate (expressed as a three-part ratio—cement to fine aggregate to
coarse aggregate). Where especially strong concrete is needed, there will be relatively
less aggregate.

The strength of concrete is measured in pounds per square inch or kilograms per
square centimetre of force needed to crush a sample of a given age or hardness.
Concrete’s strength is affected by environmental factors, especially temperature and
moisture. If it is allowed to dry prematurely, it can experience unequal tensile stresses
that in an imperfectly hardened state cannot be resisted. In the process known as
curing, the concrete is kept damp for some time after pouring to slow the shrinkage
that occurs as it hardens. Low temperatures also adversely affect its strength. To
compensate for this, an additive such as calcium chloride is mixed in with the cement.
This accelerates the setting process, which in turn generates heat sufficient to
counteract moderately low temperatures. Large concrete forms that cannot be
adequately covered are not poured in freezing temperatures.
 Concrete that has been hardened onto imbedded metal (usually steel) is
called reinforced concrete, or ferroconcrete. Its invention is usually attributed to Joseph
Monier, a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with
iron mesh; he received a patent in 1867. The reinforcing steel, which may take the form
of rods, bars, or mesh, contributes tensile strength. Plain concrete does not easily
withstand stresses such as wind action, earthquakes, and vibrations and other bending
forces and is therefore unsuitable in many
structural applications. In reinforced concrete,
the tensile strength of steel and the
compressional strength of concrete render a
member capable of sustaining heavy stresses of
all kinds over considerable spans. The fluidity of
the concrete mix makes it possible to position
the steel at or near the point where the greatest
stress is anticipated.

PRECAST CONCRETE STAIRS

Another innovation in masonry construction is the use of prestressed concrete. It
is achieved by either pretensioning or posttensioning processes. In pretensioning,
lengths of steel wire, cables, or ropes are laid in the empty mold and then stretched and
anchored. After the concrete has been poured
and allowed to set, the anchors are released
and, as the steel seeks to return to its original
length, it compresses the concrete. In the
posttensioning process, the steel is run
through ducts formed in the concrete. When
the concrete has hardened, the steel is
anchored to the exterior of the member by

CONCRETE FINISH FLOORING

some sort of gripping device. By applying a measured amount of stretching force to the
steel, the amount of compression transmitted to the concrete can be carefully regulated.
Prestressed concrete neutralizes the stretching forces that would rupture ordinary
concrete by compressing an area to the point at which no tension is experienced until
the strength of the compressed section is overcome. Because it achieves strength
without using heavy steel reinforcements, it has been used to great effect to build
lighter, shallower, and more elegant structures such as bridges and vast roofs.

In addition to its potential for immense strength and its initial ability to adapt to virtually
any form, concrete is fire resistant and has become one of the most common building
materials in the world.

TYPES OF CONCRETE USED IN CONSTRUCTION AND THEIR

APPLICATIONS

o Normal Strength Concrete

The concrete that is obtained by mixing the
basic ingredients cement, water and aggregate
will give us normal strength concrete. The
strength of these type of concrete will vary from
10 MPa to 40MPa. The normal strength concrete
has an initial setting time of 30 to 90 minutes that
is dependent on the cement properties and the
weather conditions of the construction site.

o Plain Concrete
The plain concrete will have no
reinforcement in it. The main constituents are the
cement, aggregates, and water. Most commonly
used mix design is 1:2:4 which is the normal mix
design.The density of the plain concrete will vary
between 2200 and 2500 Kg/meter cube. The
compressive strength is 200 to 500 kg/cm2.These
types of concrete are mainly used in the construction of the pavements and the
buildings, especially in areas where there is less demand of high tensile strength. The
durability given by these type of concrete is satisfactory to high extent.

o Reinforced Concrete
The reinforced cement concrete is defined as the concrete to which reinforcement
is introduced to bear the tensile strength. Plain
concrete is weak in tension and good in
compression.Hence the placement of
reinforcement will take up the responsibility of
bearing the tensile stresses. R.C.C works with the
combined action of the plain concrete and the
reinforcement.The steel reinforcement used in
the concrete can be in the form of rods, bars or in the form of meshes. Now fibers are
also developed as reinforcement.

Fiber reinforced concrete are concrete that

use fibers (steel fibers) as reinforcement for the
concrete. Use of meshes in concrete will give
ferrocement.Whatever be the type of
reinforcement used in concrete, it is very
necessary to ensure proper bond between the
concrete and the reinforcement. This bond will
control the strength and the durability factors of the concrete.

o Prestressed Concrete
Most of the mega concrete projects are
carried out through prestressed concrete units.
This is a special technique in which the bars or the
tendons used in the concrete is stressed before
the actual service load application.During the
mixing and the placing of the concrete, these
tensioned bars placed firmly and held from each
end of the structural unit. Once the concrete sets and harden, the structural unit will be
put in compression.This phenomenon of prestressing will make the lower section of the
concrete member to be stronger against the tension. The process of prestressing will
require heavy equipment and labor skill (jacks and equipment for tensioning). Hence
the prestressing units are made at site and assembled at site. These are used in the
application of bridges, heavy loaded structures, and roof with longer spans.

o Precast Concrete
Various structural elements can be made
and cast in the factory as per the specifications
and bought to the site at the time of assembly.
Such concrete units are called as the precast
concrete.The examples of precast concrete
units are concrete blocks, the staircase units,
precast walls and poles, concrete lintels and
many other elements. These units have the
advantage of acquiring speedy construction as only assemblage is necessary. As the
manufacturing is done at site, quality is assured. The only precaution taken is for their
transportation.

o Lightweight Concrete
Concrete that have a density lesser than
1920kg/m3 will be categorized as lightweight
concrete. The use of lightweight aggregates in
concrete design will give us lightweight
aggregates.Aggregates are the important element
that contributes to the density of the concrete. The
examples of light weight aggregates are the
pumice, perlites, and scoria.The light weight concrete is applied for the protection of the
steel structures and are also used for the construction of the long span bridge decks.
These are also used for the construction of the building blocks.
 o High-Density Concrete
The concretes that have densities ranging
between 3000 to 4000 kg/m3 can be called as the
heavyweight concrete. Here heavy weight aggregates
are used.The crushed rocks are used as the coarse
aggregates. The most commonly used heavy weight
aggregates is Barytes.These types of aggregates are
most commonly used in the construction of atomic
power plants and for similar projects. The heavy weight aggregate will help the structure
to resist all possible type of radiations.

o Air Entrained Concrete

These are concrete types into which air
is intentionally entrained for an amount of 3
to 6% of the concrete. The air entrainment in
the concrete is achieved by the addition of
foams or gas – foaming agents. Some
examples of air entraining agents are resins,
alcohols, and fatty acids.

The influences of air entrainment on concrete strength includes:

1. Effect of Air Entrainment on Concrete Compressive Strength

2. Effect of Air Entrainment on Flexural Strength of Concrete

o Ready Mix Concrete

The concrete that mix and bathed in a
central mixing plant is called as ready-mix
concrete. The mixed concrete is brought to
the site with the help of a truck-mounted
transit mixer. This once reached in the site
can be used directly without any further
treatment.The ready-mix concrete is very precise and specialty concrete can be
developed based on the specification with utmost quality.The manufacture of these
concrete will require a centralized mixing plant. These plants will be located at an
adjustable distance from the construction site. If the transportation is too long then it
will result in setting of concrete. Such issues of time delay are cope up with the use
retarding agents that delays the setting.

o Polymer Concrete
When compared with the conventional concrete, in polymer concrete the
aggregates will be bound with the polymer instead of cement. The production of polymer
concrete will help in the reduction of volume of voids in the aggregate. This will hence
reduce the amount of polymer that is necessary to bind the aggregates used.

Hence the aggregates are graded and mixed accordingly to achieve minimum voids
hence maximum density.

This type of concrete has different

categories:

 Polymer Impregnated Concrete

 Polymer cement concrete

 Partially Impregnated

o High-Strength Concrete
The concretes that have strength greater
than 40MPa can be termed as high strength
concrete. This increased strength is achieved
by decreasing the water-cement ratio even
lower than 0.35. The calcium hydroxide
crystals that are the major concern product
during hydration for the strength properties is
reduced by the incorporation of silica fume.In
terms of performance, the high strength concrete ought to be less performing in terms
of workability which is an issue.

o High-Performance Concrete
These concretes conform to a particular standard but in no case, will be limited to
strength. It has to be noted that all the high strength concrete can be high-performance
type. But not all high-performance concrete (HPC) are high strength concrete.

Standards that conform to the high-performance concrete are enlisted below:

 Strength gain in early age

 Easy placement of the concrete

 Permeability and density factors

 Heat of hydration

 Long life and durability

 Toughness and life term mechanical

properties

 Environmental concerns

o Self – Consolidated Concrete

The concrete mix when placed will
compact by its own weight is regarded as
self-consolidated concrete. No vibration
must be provided for the same
separately.This mix has a higher workability.
The slump value will be between 650 and
750.This concrete due to its higher
workability is also called as flowing concrete.
The areas where there is thick
reinforcement, self – consolidating concrete works best.
 o Shotcrete Concrete
Here the concrete type differs in the
way it is applied on the area to be cast. The
concrete is shot into the frame or the
prepared structural formwork with the help
of a nozzle. As the shooting is carried out in
a higher air pressure, the placing and the
compaction process will be occurring at the
same time.

o Pervious Concrete
Pervious or permeable concrete are
concrete that are designed such a way that it
allows the water to pass through it. These
types of concrete will have 15 to 20% voids
of the volume of the concrete when they are
designed.The pervious concrete is created by
unique mixing process, performance,
application methods etc. These are used in
the construction of pavements and driveways where storm water issues persist. The
storm water will pass through these pervious concrete pavements and reach the
groundwater. Hence most of the drainage issues is solved.

o Vacuum Concrete
Concrete with water content more
than required quantity is poured into the
formwork. The excess water is then removed
out with the help of a vacuum pump without
waiting for the concrete to undergo
setting.Hence the concrete structure or the
platform will be ready to use earlier when
compared with normal construction technique.These concretes will attain their 28 days
compressive strength within a period of 10 days and the crushing strength of these
structure is 25 % greater compared with the conventional concrete types.

o Pumped Concrete
One of the main property of the
concrete used in large mega construction
especially for the high-rise construction is
the conveyance of the concrete to heights.
Hence one such property of concrete to
easily pump will result in the design of
pumpable concrete.The concrete that is
used for pumping must be of adequate
workability so that it is easily conveyed
through the pipe. The pipe used will be rigid or a flexible hose that will discharge the
concrete to the desired area.The concrete used must be fluid in nature with enough fine
material as well as water to fill up the voids. The more the finer material used, greater
will be control achieved on the mix. The grading of the coarse aggregate used must be
continuous in nature.

o Stamped Concrete
Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete
where realistic patterns similar to natural stones,
granites, and tiles can be obtained by placing
impression of professional stamping pads. These
stamping is carried out on the concrete when it is
in its plastic condition.Different coloring stains and
texture work will finally give a finish that is very
similar to costlier natural stones. A high aesthetic
look can be obtained from a stamped finish
economically. This is used in the construction of driveways, interior floors, and patios.
 o Limecrete
This is a concrete type in which the cement is replaced by lime. The main
application of this product is in floors, domes as well as vaults. These unlike cements
have many environmental and health benefits. These products are renewable and easily
cleaned.

o Asphalt Concrete
Asphalt concrete is a composite
material, mixture of aggregates and
asphalts commonly used to surface roads,
parking lots, airports, as well as the core of
embankment dams. Asphalt concrete is also
called as asphalt, blacktop or pavement in
North America, and tarmac or bitumen
macadam or rolled asphalt in the United
Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.

o Roller Compacted Concrete

These are concrete that is placed and
compacted with the help of earth moving
equipment like heavy rollers. This concrete is
mainly employed in excavation and filling
needs.These concretes have cement content
in lesser amount and filled for the area
necessary. After compaction, these concretes provide high density and finally cures into
a strong monolithic block.

o Rapid Strength Concrete

As the name implies these concretes will acquire strength with few hours after its
manufacture. Hence the formwork removal is made easy and hence the building
construction is covered fastly. These have a wide spread application in the road repairs
as they can be reused after few hours.

o Glass Concrete
The recycled glass can be used as aggregates in concrete. Thus, we get a concrete
of modern times, the glass concrete. This concrete will increase the aesthetic appeal of
the concrete. They also provide long-term strength and better thermal insulation also.

IN CONSTRUCTION

Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire
resistance compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures
made of concrete can have a long service life. Concrete is used more than any other
artificial material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are
made each year, more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.

Mass structures
Due to cement's exothermic chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete
structures such as dams, navigation locks, large mat foundations, and
 large breakwaters generate excessive heat during hydration
and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects, post-
cooling is commonly applied during construction. An early
example at Hoover Dam used a network of pipes between
vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water
during the curing process to avoid damaging overheating.
Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the
pour, the concrete mix used, and ambient air temperature,
the cooling process may last for many months after the
concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-
cool the concrete mix in mass concrete structures.

Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal

byproduct is the use of roller-compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix which has a
much lower cooling requirement than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in
thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller compacted into a dense, strong mass.

Surface finishes

Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous and

have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many
finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and
preserve the surface against staining, water
penetration, and freezing.

Examples of improved appearance include stamped

concrete where the wet concrete has a pattern
impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or
brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with
coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and table tops is polished concrete where
the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives and sealed with polymers
or other sealants.

Other finishes can be achieved with chiseling, or more conventional techniques such as
painting or covering it with other materials.
The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an
important stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structures.

Prestressed structures
Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced
concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
construction to oppose tensile stresses experienced in
use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or slabs,
by better distributing the stresses in the structure to
make optimal use of the reinforcement. For example, a
horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement
along the bottom of the beam counteracts this. In pre-
tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using
steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a
tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete, after casting.

More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are paved with
this material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the
most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days.

Underwater placement
Concrete may be placed and cured underwater. Care
must be taken in the placement method to prevent
washing out the cement. Underwater placement methods
include the tremie, pumping, skip placement, manual
placement using toggle bags, and bagwork.

Grouted aggregate is an alternative method of forming a

concrete mass underwater, where the forms are filled with
coarse aggregate and the voids then completely filled with
pumped grout.
 Roads
Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on, more reflective and last
significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share
than other paving solutions. Modern-paving methods and design practices have changed
the economics of concrete paving, so that a well-designed and placed concrete
pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less expensive over the
life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can be used, which eliminates
the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for slightly sloped
roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through
use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise
needed in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer
mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.

Energy efficiency
Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced
locally from local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job
site. Similarly, relatively little energy is used in producing and combining the raw
materials (although large amounts of CO2 are produced by the chemical reactions
in cement manufacture). The overall embodied energy of concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5
megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for most structural and construction
materials.

Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a
building. Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames. Air leakage
accounts for a large percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass
properties of concrete increase the efficiency of both residential and commercial
buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling, concrete's
thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings inside and
minimizing heating and cooling costs. While insulation reduces energy loss through the
building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern
concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an
energy-efficient building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels
made of either insulating foam or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls
of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

Fire safety
Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel
frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer
under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel
frames, for the same effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre,
can also be used in extreme environments like a missile launch pad.

Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made
of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry
technology and Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow
blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape
of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high
winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal
horizontal movement. However, this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete
structures, particularly where a relatively higher flexing structure is required to resist
more extreme forces.

Earthquake safety
As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension.
Larger earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear
loads subject the structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures
without reinforcement, like other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during
severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced masonry structures constitute one of the
largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be reduced through seismic
retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul, Turkey)

Environmental and health

The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental and
social consequences. Some are harmful, some welcome, and some both, depending on
circumstances.
A major component of concrete is cement, which similarly exerts environmental and
social effects. The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon
dioxide, a major greenhouse gas (the other two being the energy production and
transportation industries). Every tonne of cement produced releases one tonne of
CO2 into the atmosphere. As of 2019, the production of Portland cement contributed
eight percent to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, largely due to the sintering of
limestone and clay at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F). Researchers have suggested a number of
approaches to improving carbon sequestration relevant to concrete production. In
August 2019, a reduced CO2 cement was announced which "reduces the overall carbon
footprint in precast concrete by 70%."

Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which can
cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to
divert, dam, and control flooding. Concrete dust released by building demolition and
natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution.

Concrete is a contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than asphalt.

Workers who cut, grind or polish concrete are at risk of inhaling airborne silica, which
can lead to silicosis. This includes crew members who work in concrete chipping. The
presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can
cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is
complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment.