Nav Aids Note

NAV AID SOLUTIONS, FAHAD HASSAN (BMA 46th)
GPS
1.a) explain what is meant by " pseudo random noise" codes(PRN codes)
b) describe briefly the two code which are transmitted
c) explain why two frequencies are used
Answer. A)Pseudo random noise code: Its satellite have a unique code to identify the satellite called a
random noise code.
The satellites are identified by the users through this PRN codes. These PRN codes are only pseudo
random . If these codes were actually random , 2*1023 possibilities would exist. Among these only few
codes are suitable for auto correlation which is necessary for measurement of the signal propagation
time. The 37 suitable codes are refereed as GOLD codes(named after the mathematician). These
correlation amongst these codes are particularly weak, thus making the identifications possible.
B)Transmission of signals: Its satellite translate the signal into different codes.
a.P- code: Precision code is only received by USA military and its allies. Only their GPS receiver has
access and and can decode the P-code.
In case of P- code, the chief frequency is 10.23 Mbits/sec. The entire sequence is a266 days long but only
7 days piece of code is used. during this period there is no repetition of the code.
P code can be transmitted encrypted. During this anti spoofing mode the P code is encrypted into Y
code.
b.C/A code: It is known as course acquisition Code. All civil uses of GPS decode the CA code And it also
helps the military receivers to access more accurate P-code.
The CA code is weight of a sequence of oS keeps having a frequency of 1. 023 MHz. The duration of each
shift is about 01 microsec and inter sequence is repeated in one millisecond
This codes are modulated by phase modulation techniques on to carrier frequencies.
L1= 1575.42 megahertz
the L1 signal consists of both P-code & C/A code and L2 signal consists only P-code.
C) Reason for using 2 frequency:
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the L1 signal consists of both P-code & C/A code and L2 signal consists only P-code.
L1 frequency is accessible by any civil user as well as the military services. But L2 frequency is only
accessible by the US military and its allies for their own security advantages. Therefore there are two
frequencies used in GPS.
Dual frequency receiver are also used for eliminating the error due to ionospheric and tropospheric
delay.
2. Describe the working principle of GLONASS? (see no 10)
3.Describe how the position is determined by GPS receiver?
Position fixing by GPS:
The position fixed obtained by the receiver is basically by determining the distance from the receiver to
each of the selected satellite. This range measurement is achieved by measuring the time required to
travel from the selected satellite to the receiver.
The product of the velocity of the radio waves and the time taken for the satellite signal to reach the
receiver will give the range of the satellite to the user.
R = Cx (t1-t2)
Where C = velocity of the radio waves
t1-t2 = time taken for satellite signal to reach the receiver
All the satellites are equipped with atomic clocks and since this clocks are very expensive the receivers
are not provided with atomic clocks. The receiver clocks therefore are synchronised with satellite clocks.
This gives an error in range measurement and range obtained is termed pseudo range.
Hence with respect to satellite clock, 4 unknown elements:
1. Latitude 2. Longitude 3. Attitude 4. User clock error
The position of satellite S1(X1, Y1, Z1 ) is known to the user by 30 seconds. Navigational message and
from this satellite the following equation obtained
PR1-(CxΔt) = √ (X1 − X) 2 + (Y1 − Y) 2 + (Z1 − Z) 2
Here, PR1= pseudo range from satellite S1
(Cx Δt)= error in range measurement due to error in users clock
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Since there are four elements are known they can be resolved from 4 equation obtained from 4
different satellite. The other three satellites gives following equations
PR2-(CxΔt) = √ (X2 − X) 2 + (Y2 − Y) 2 + (Z2 − Z) 2
PR3-(CxΔt) = √ (X3 − X) 2 + (Y3 − Y) 2 + (Z3 − Z) 2
PR4-(CxΔt) = √ (X4 − X) 2 + (Y4 − Y) 2 + (Z4 − Z) 2
With the help of this equation 3D pics of tangent is obtained.
- hence for ship floating on water if 2D(latitude, longitude) fix is required three equation from three
satellite will be sufficient.
- if satellite clock and uses clock are perfectly synchronised then a ship's position can be fixed by 2
satellite.
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4.Describe the limitation of GLONASS system receiver.
Global navigational satellite system(Glonass) if based on a satellite navigation system which

continuously transmit coded signal in frequency bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the
earth surface to identify their position and velocity in real-time based on ranging measurements like
GPS. The system is counterpart to the United States GPS and both Systems share the same principle in
the data transmission and positioning method. Glonass is operated by Russian aerospace defence
forces. It was designed to have an accuracy of 65 metre but in reality it has an accuracy of 20 m in
civilian signal and 10 m in military signal.
The general system limitations are as follows:
1. Lack of integrity
2. Lack of availability and continuity of service.
3. Critical phase of flight.
4. No control by an International Civil body
The system also have following error -
1. Satellite clock error
2. Atmospheric error(due to ionosphere and troposphere)
3. Receiver errors.
4. Atmospheric Errors
5. Receivers clock errors
6. Solar flare
7. System accuracy
5. List and describe the main sources of errors in the determined position of GPS.
The main sources of errors in GPS:
- ionosphere and troposphere delay
- users clock error
- satellite clock error
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- Satellite geometry
- multipath error
-Satellite orbits
- SA(selective availability)
Ionospheric and tropospheric delay:
When radio waves radiated from satellite passes through different layers of the ionosphere and
troposphere the velocity of wave very which affects the time difference measurement and the fix will
not be accurate.
For this a dual frequency receiver receives both of The frequencies and correction is calculated and
compensated with the receiver.
For low elevation of satellite, radio waves is affected by refraction. So, receiver is designed to select
satellites whose elevation is more than 9.5 degrees.
Users clock error:
If the users clock is not perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock the range measurements will not
be accurate. This error can be eliminated within the receiver by obtaining the pseudo range from 3
satellites automatically.
Satellite clock error:
This error is caused due to error in the satellite clock with respect to GPS time. This is monitored from
ground based control segments and eliminated.
Satellite geometry:
The geometry of the position of the satellites determine the angle of cut of the position lines. As the
angular separation between the satellites are higher, more accurate is the fix.
To indicate the satellite geometry, the DOP (dilution of precision ) values are used.In DOP calculations
the following different varients are used.
-GDOP(geometric dilution of precision)
-PDOP(positional dilution of precision)
-HDOP(horizontal dilution of precision)
-VDOP(vertical dilution of precision)
-TDOP (time dilution of precision)
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GPS receiver is promulgated to select the best available satellites, considering their elevation and
geometry.
Multipath error:
This error is caused by satellite signal arriving at the ships antenna both directly from the satellite and
having being reflected by some other object causing in accuracy in range measurement, sitting the
antenna at a suitable place can minimise this error.
Satellite orbits:
Although satellites are very precisely placed in orbits, slight shifts are possible due to gravitation
forces.Sun & moon have waek influence over the satellite orbits.how ever this is monitored from the
ground control segment of the satelliye & corrections applied as necessary. The error resulting is never
more than 2 meters
SA(selective availability):
SA if the international degradation of SPS(satellite positioning system)SA is controlled by the United

States department of Defence to limit accuracy for non us military and government users. The potential
accuracy of C/A code around 10M-30 M is reduced to 100M-150 M.Mean while it is permanently
deactivated due to broad distribution & worldwide use of GPS.
6. Describe why three or more satellite fixes required to determine position whereas two satellites
are enough to fix a two-dimensional position the surface of the earth.
GPS is based upon the measurement of the distance between satellite in orbit and a receiver the
receiver measures the propagation time of the satellite signal being received. The range measured are
not true but are pseudo range, as they contain the receiver clock offset error. Receiver processor can
resolve the 3 range equation to remove the effect of receivers clock offset. Provide a 2D fix or it can
resolve 4 pseudo range equation, to provide a 3D fix. This is called trilateration. By 3 satellites 3D fix can
be achievable if receiver has a atomic clock means receiver does not have clock offset error.
(BMTI BOOKLET)
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7. Explain the concept of Galileo. Are the advantage of Galileo over Navstar.
Galileo is European owned Global Navigation satellite system providing a highly accurate global
positioning service under civilian control.
Galileo will be fully compatible with GPS and GLONASS but independent from them.
The fully developed Galileo will consist of 30 satellites (27 operational and 3 active spare) with 3 circular
medium Earth orbit(MEO) planes at an altitude of 23.222 km above the earth and an inclination of 56
degree to the equator. It will produce Global.
The Galileo system will have 5 main services
1. Open access navigation
2. Commercial navigation
3. Safety of life navigation
4. Public regulated navigation
5. Search and rescue services
Accuracy:
1. Single frequency - 15 m
2. Dual frequency- 4 metres
In addition, its service is guaranteed
It is not for war purpose,so system will not be tempered in times of war
Controlled by civil administration instead of military
SUBJECT GLONASS NAVSTER GALILEO

CONTROL RUSSIAN AEROSPACE US DOD EUROPEAN SPACE
DEFENCE FORCE AGENCY
SATELLITE NUMBER 27(24+3) 27(24+3) 30 (27+3)
ORBITS 3 6 3
SATELLITE PER ORBIT 8 4 9
ALTITIUDE 19100 KM 20200 KM 23222 KM
ORBIT TIME 11H 15M 11H 58M 13H
INCLINATION 64.8 55 56
AVAILABILITY CONTINUES & GLOBAL CONTINUES & GLOBAL CONTINUES & GLOBAL
USE/PURPOSE WAR WAR CIVIL NAVIGATION
SPECIAL FEATURE HIGH LAT LOW TO MIDDLE LAT SAR FUNCTION
LIMITATION SAME SAME SAME
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8. Describe the principles, usage, limitation, coverage area and accuracy of GPS.
GPS system based on a satellite navigation system which continuously transmit coded signal in
frequency bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the earth surface to identify their
position and velocity in real-time based on ranging measurements . The system is developed by United
States DOD( department of defence) . The System utilizes the principle of the data transmission and
positioning method.
The correct name of the system is navstar (navigation system for timimg & ranging). This system is more
accurate than any other satellite based systems like GLONASS or Galileo that exists today. If provides
accurate position information with great accuracy in all weather conditions.
System Information:
Control: United States DOD( department of defence)
Satellite: total 27 satellites (24 operational and 3 active spare)
Orbits: 6 circular medium Earth orbit(MEO) planes
Satellite per orbit: 4 satellite per orbit
Altitude: 20200 km above the earth
Orbit Inclination: 55 degree to the equator
Orbit time: 11h 58m
Nature of service: No end user agreement, meaning controlling agency has the final decision on the use.
Service is not guaranteed
Availability : Continues.
Special Feature: Specially provides very good accuracy in low to middle latitudes
Purpose/ Uses: It was primarily developed for war purpose by US defense. However it is open for
civilian use for navigation purpose.
Limitations:
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3. Receiver errors.
6. Solar flare
7. System accuracy
Coverage: Global coverage
Accuracy:
Single frequency 10-25meters
Duel frequency: 5-10 meters
9. Describe the principles, usage, limitation, coverage area and accuracy of DGPS.
Principal:
Differential correction techniques are used to enhance the quality of location data gathered using Global
positioning system receiver. Differential correction can be applied in real-time directly in the field or
when post processing data in the office. Alto both methods are based on the same underlying
principle,each accesses different data sources and achieves different level of accuracy. Combining both
methods provides flexibility during data collection and improved Data integrity.
The DGPS requires that a GPS receiver, known as the base station, be set up on a precisely known
location. The base station receiver calculate its position based on satellite Signals and compare this
location with the known location. The difference is applied to the GPS data recorded by the GPS
receiver.
Three methods are used for differential correction
1. Real time differential correction
2. Reprocessing real time data
3. Post processing
Which method is suitable depends upon the project specifications, the end use of data and the sources
available for the differential correction
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Usage of DGPS:
To achieve the accuracy needed for quality geographical information system records from 1 to 2 to
meters up to a few centimetres the DGPS technology is used.
Limitations of DGPS:
1. The coverage area to take advantage of the DGPS is limited
2. To ensure greater coverage area more DGPS stations need to be added
3. The position accuracy degrades as the distance between DGPS stations and GPS receivers increases
4. It is not an independent mean of position fixing, it requires GPS receivers to get position
6. No control by civilian users
7. Lack of accuracy for critical phases of flight
Coverage of DGPS:
The coverage of DGPS stations are not worldwide but DGPS stations are being deployed worldwide
because they are cost effective way to broadcast DGPS corrections over relatively large areas to mobile
Marine users.
Accuracy of DGPS: The typical accuracy of Differential GPS(DGPS) is +/- 3-5 metres.
10. Describe the principles, usage, limitation, coverage area and accuracy of GLONASS.
Global navigational satellite system(glonass) if based on a satellite navigation system which continuously
transmit coded signal in frequency bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the earth surface
to identify their position and velocity in real-time based on ranging measurements like GPS. The system
is counterpart to the United States GPS and both Systems share the same principle in the data
transmission and positioning method. Glonass is operated by Russian aerospace defence forces. It was
designed to have an accuracy of 65 metre but in reality it has an accuracy of 20 m in civilian signal and
10 m in military signal.
System Information:
Control: Russian aerospace defence forces
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Altitude: 19100 km above the earth
Orbit Inclination: 64.8 degree to the equator
Orbit time: 11h 15m
Nature of service: No end user agreement, meaning controlling agency has the final decision on the use.
Service is not guaranteed
Availability : Continues.
Special Feature: Specially suited for high northern latitudes where other GNSS use may be problematic.
Purpose/ Uses: It was primarily developed for war purpose by Russian defence. How ever it is open for
civilian use for navigation purpose.
Limitations:
3. Receiver errors.
6. Solar flare
7. System accuracy
Coverage: Global coverage
Accuracy: 2.8-7.8m
Single frequency: 8-33meters
Duel frequency: 5-10 meters
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11. Describe the principal, usage, limitation, coverage area and accuracy of Galileo.
Galileo is European owned Global Navigation satellite system providing a highly accurate global
positioning service under civilian control.
Galileo is based on a satellite navigation system which continuously transmit coded signal in frequency
bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the earth surface to identify their position and
velocity in real-time based on ranging measurements like GPS. The system is counterpart to the United
States GPS and Russian GLONASS.All Systems share the same principle in the data transmission and
positioning method.
Galileo will be fully compatible with GPS and GLONASS but independent from them.
System Information:
Control: European space agency (civilian authority)
Altitude: 23.222 km above the earth
Orbit Inclination: 56 degree to the equator
Orbit time: 13 hours
Nature of service: its service is guaranteed. It is not developed for war purpose, so system will not be
tempered in times of war
Availability : guaranteed
Special Feature: Global Search & rescue(SAR) functions
Purpose/ Uses: The Galileo system will have 5 main services
1. Open access navigation
2. Commercial navigation
3. Safety of life navigation
4. Public regulated navigation
5. Search and rescue services
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Limitations: The system is still under development & partially functional. It cover the area up to 75
degree now, worldwide coverage when fully operational.
3. Receiver errors.
6. Solar flare
7. System accuracy
Coverage: Global coverage when fully operational
Accuracy:
Single frequency: 15 meters
Duel frequency: 4 meters
12. What do you understand by following and the effect they have on GPS?
a) Spoofing b) jamming c) solar flares d) satellite based augmentation.
(BOOK-2)
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AIS
1. Briefly describe the principal function of AIS?
All ships of 300 GT and upwards on the international voyage and cargo ships of 500 GT upwards not
engaged on international voyage and passenger ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with an AIS.
AIS automatically transmits on ships identity,position,speed,navigation of status and other safety related
information and receive similar data from other ship. The basic function of AIS is to improve safety and
security.
The principal functions of AIS is described below
Collision avoidance:AIS was developed by the IMO technical committees as a technology to avoid
collision among large vessels at sea that are not within range of shore based system and identifies
everywhere so individually. The AIS provide automatic calculation such as closest point of
approach(CPA) time to closest point of approach(TCPA), Bow crossing range(BCR) Bow crossing
time(BCT) and collision alarms that helps to take action to avoid collision.
Vessel traffic service : In busy waters and harbors a local vessel traffic system may exist to manage ship
traffic. Here,AIS provides additional traffic awareness and information about the configuration and
movement of ship.
Maritime security :AIS enables authorities to identify specific resource and their activity within or near
national territory of the EEZ. When AIS data is fused with existing radar Technology, authority are able
to differentiate between vessels which, when breached, create an alert. Thus highlighting potential
threats for more efficient use of security assets.AIS improved Maritime domain awareness and allow for
heightened security and control. Additional AIS can be applied to freshwater River system and lakes.
Search and rescue: For coordinated on scene resource of marine Search and rescue operation.
AIS can provide additional information and enhanced Awareness of available resources, even if the AIS
range is limited to vhf radio range. The AIS is also envisioned for the possible use on Search and rescue
aircraft and includes a message for aircraft to report their position.
Aids to navigation:AIS was developed with the ability to broadcast position and name of the object like
navigation aid and marker position, the aid can be located on shore such as light house or on the water,
on platforms all buoys. The US coast Guard suggest that AIS might replace racon or radar aids currently
used for electronic navigation.
Accident investigation:AIS information received by VTS is important for accident investigation to

provide the accurate time, course over ground, speed dialogue or speed over ground and rate of turn of
the ship involved for accident analysis rather than Limited information of Radar.
If it is connected to VDR and send informations then it also assist in accident investigatio
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2. Explain the two types class A and class B of AIS.
Class A type: Vessel mounted AIS transceiver(transmit and receive) which operates using self organised
time division multiple access (SOTDMA). Class A must have an integrated display transmit at 12 watt,
interface capability with multiple ship system and offer a sophisticated selection of features and
functions. Default transmit rate is very few seconds.AIS class-A type compliant devices receive all type of
AIS messages. Class A stations report their position autonomously every 2-10 seconds dependent on the
vessel’s speed and/or course changes (every three minutes or less when at anchor or moored); and, the
vessel’s static and voyage related information every 6 minutes. Class A stations are also capable of text
messaging safety related information and AIS Application Specific Messages such as meteorological and
hydrological data, electronic Broadcast Notice to Mariners, and other marine safety information
Class B type: Vessel mounted AIS transceiver(transmit and receive) which operates using carrier sense
time division multiple access(CSTDMA). Class B transmit at 2 watt and are not required to have an
integrated display. Class B can be connected to most display systems in which the received message will
be displayed in lists or overlayed on charts. Similar to Class A stations, they report every three minutes
or less when at anchor or moored, but, their position is reported less often and at a lower
power. Likewise, they report the vessel’s static data every 6 minutes, but, not any voyage related
information. They can receive safety related text and application specific messages, but, cannot transmit
them.The class B type standard requires integrated GPS and certain LED indicators. Class B equipment
receives all type of AIS messages.
3. Describe the working principle of the AIS. How the AIS uses a time division multiple access
(SOTDMA) scheme to share the vhf frequency.
AIS transponder automatically broadcast information such as their position, speed occasion of status at
regular interval via VHF transmitter built internally in the transponder. Information originate from the
ships navigational sensors typically Global Navigation satellite system (GNSS) receiver and gyro compass.
Other information such as vessel name and call sign is programmed when installing the equipment and
is also transmitted regularly. The signals are received why is transponders fitted on the other ships or on
land based systems such as VTS systems. The received information can be displayed on a screen or chart
plotter, showing the other vessels position in the same manner as a radar display.
Working principle of AIS:
-Each AIS system consists of one VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA receivers, one VHF DSC receiver, and
standard marine electronic communications links (IEC 61162/NMEA 0183) to shipboard display and
sensor systems (AIS Schematic).
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-Position and timing information is normally derived from an integral or external global navigation
satellite system (e.g. GPS) receiver, including a medium frequency differential GNSS receiver for precise
position in coastal and inland waters.
-Other information broadcast by the AIS, if available, is electronically obtained from shipboard
equipment through standard marine data connections.
- Heading information and course and speed over ground would normally be provided by all AIS-
equipped ships.
-Other information, such as rate of turn, angle of heel, pitch and roll, and destination and ETA could also
be provided.
-AIS normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of whether it is operating in the
open seas or coastal or inland areas.
-Transmissions use 9.6 kb GMSK FM modulation over 25 or 12.5 kHz channels using HDLC packet
protocols.
-Although only one radio channel is necessary, each station transmits and receives over two radio
channels to avoid interference problems, and to allow channels to be shifted without communications
loss from other ships.
-The system provides for automatic contention resolution between itself and other stations, and
communications integrity is maintained even in overload situations.
The operation of the AIS depends on the self organising time division multiple access(SOTDMA) data
communication technology. The procedure as follows:
-Each station determines its own transmission schedule (slot), based upon data link traffic history and
knowledge of future actions by other stations.
-A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots established every 60 seconds.
- AIS stations continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid overlap of slot transmissions.
-Slot selection by an AIS station is randomized within a defined interval, and tagged with a random
timeout of between 0 and 8 frames.
-When a station changes its slot assignment, it pre-announces both the new location and the timeout
for that location.
-In this way new stations, including those stations which suddenly come within radio range close to
other vessels, will always be received by those vessels.
-The required ship reporting capacity according to the IMO performance standard amounts to a
minimum of 2000 time slots per minute, though the system provides 4500 time slots per minute.
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-The SOTDMA broadcast mode allows the system to be overloaded by 400 to 500% through sharing of
slots, and still provide nearly 100% throughput for ships closer than 8 to 10 NM to -each other in a ship
to ship mode.
-In the event of system overload, only targets further away will be subject to drop-out, in order to give
preference to nearer targets that are a primary concern to ship operators.
-In practice, the capacity of the system is nearly unlimited, allowing for a great number of ships to be
accommodated at the same time.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a AIS
Advantages of AIS: AIS can provide or improve RADAR information
- helps RADAR to find targets behind a mountain or hill.
- translate radar target into ships name
- improved prediction by accounting for rate of turn
- clarifies targets information
- virtually extends radar range
- capacity of the system is unlimited. A great number of ships information accumulated at the same
time.
-AIS data is received and transmitted continuously and automatically,without intervention or

knowledge of users
Disadvantages of AIS:
- when AIS used to collision avoidance but fishing boat, leisure craft, coastal shore stations do not have
AIS, if the OOW depends on AIS data to assess the situation condition collision may occur.
- when huge density traffic unfortunately one vessel's AIS is switched off and not taking action collision
may occur.
- sometimes users forget to update the information and underway power driven vessel shows vessel at
anchor or other condition. In high density traffic it is dangerous and may result in an accident.
- the accuracy of information received is only as good as the accuracy of the AIS information
transmitted.
- As AIS is not used by all vessel,AIS usually used in conjunction with Radar. When ship is navigating at
sea information about the movement and identity of other ship in the vicinity is critical for navigators to
make decisions to avoid collision with other ship and dangers
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5. The various methods of displaying AIS information and functions of AIS. State the use of AIS at sea
and in port mentioning precautions necessary when AIS is used as an aid for collision avoidance.
The various methods of displaying AIS information:
The display panel with the unit is often the only means of showing AIS received data. Together with a
keypad, this basic configuration is known as a Minimum Keyboard and Display (MKD). The display part of
a MKD, as a minimum, consists of three lines of data, each showing bearing, range and name of the
target. In practice, most MKDs display more lines of data and may also have a simple graphical display,
showing the relative location of targets, rather like the Plan Position Indicator of a radar. To achieve the
full benefits of AIS, information ought to be display graphically on a radar, ECDIS or on its own dedicated
display. Recognizing this, IMO has mandated that from 1 July 2008 onwards, all new radar installations
must be able to display AIS targets. The ability to display AIS information on radar or ECDIS depends
entirely if the radar/ECDIS has been designed or modified for this purpose. If so, the connection can
easily be made by a qualified installer. Equipment manufacturers are the best source of information and
available options in this regard.
Method of displaying AIS information:
The AIS provides data that can be presented on the minimum display or on any suitable display devices.
Minimum display: The minimum mandated display provides not less than 3 lines of data consisting of
bearing, range and name of the selected ship. Other data of the ship can be displayed by horizontal
scrolling of data, but scrolling of bearing and range is not possible. Vertical scrolling will show all the
other ships known to the AIS.
Graphical display: When AIS information is used with a graphical display the following target types are
recommended for display.
Sleeping target: A sleeping target indicates only the presence of a vessel equipped with AIS in a certain
location and no additional information is presented until activated thus avoiding information overload.
Activated target: If the user wants to know more about a vessels motion, he have simply to activate the
target(sleeping) such that the display shows immediately
1) the vector
2) the heading
3)ROT indication (if available)
Selected target: If the user wants details information of a target(activated or sleeping) he may select it.
Then the data received as well as the calculated CPA,TCPA values will be shown in an alphanumeric
order.
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The special navigation status will also be indicated in the alphanumeric data field and not together with
the target directly.
Dangerous target: If an AIS target(activated or not) is calculated to pass a preset CPA,TCPA limits, it will
be classified and displayed as a dangerous target and an alarm will be given.
Lost target: If a signal of any AIS target at a distance of less than a preset value is not received, a lost
target symbol will appear at the latest position and an alarm will be given.
Symbols: The user should be familiar with the symbology used in the graphical display provided.
Functions of AIS:
Fuctions same as question 1
State the use of AIS at sea and in port:
Same as question 1
Precautions of use of AIS in navigation:

AIS is designed to be able to provide additional information to existing Radar or ECDIS displays. Until the
optimum display modes have been fully evaluated and decided upon internationally AIS will comprise
“stand alone” units without integration to other displays.
AIS will provide identification of targets together with the static and dynamic information listed in the
IMO Guidelines para.12. Mariners should, however, use this information with caution noting the
following important points:
a.) Collision avoidance must be carried out in strict compliance with the COLREGs. There is no provision
in the COLREGs for use of AIS information therefore decisions should be taken based primarily on visual
and/or radar information.
b.) The use of VHF to discuss action to take between approaching ships is fraught with danger and still
discouraged The MCA’s view is that identification of a target by AIS does not remove the danger.
Decisions on collision avoidance should be made strictly according to the COLREGs
c.) Not all ships will be fitted with AIS, particularly small craft and fishing boats. Other floating objects
which may give a radar echo will not be detected by AIS.
d.) AIS positions are derived from the target’s GNSS position. (GNSS = Global Navigation Satellite System,
usually GPS). This may not coincide with the radar target.
e.) Faulty data input to AIS could lead to incorrect or misleading information being displayed on other
vessels. Mariners should remember that information derived from radar plots relies solely upon the data
measured by the own-ship’s radar and provides an accurate measurement of the target’s relative course
and speed, which is the most important factor in deciding upon action to avoid collision. Existing ships of
less than 500 gt. Which are not required to fit a gyro compass are unlikely to transmit heading
information.
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f.) A future development of AIS is the ability to provide “pseudo” navigation marks by enabling coastal
authorities to provide an AIS symbol on the display in any position. Mariners should bear in mind that
this ability could lead to the appearance of “spurious” AIS targets and therefore take particular care
when an AIS target is not complemented by a radar target. It should be noted though that AIS will
sometimes be able to detect targets which are in a radar shadow area.
6. a. What is AIS. What are the potential benefits of AIS.
AIS: AIS stands for Automatic Identification System, is shipboard broadcast transponder system in which
a ship continuously transmits their identification, course, speed and other important data to all nearby
ships & shore based authorities who are equipped with a AIS over coomon VHF radio channels.
CH87B: 161.9 Mhz
CH88B:162.0 Mhz
All ships of 300 GT and upwards on the international voyage and cargo ships of 500 GT upwards not
engaged on international voyage and passenger ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with an AIS.
AIS automatically transmits on ships safety related information and receive similar data from other ship.
The basic function of AIS is to improve safety and security.
Some of the potential benefits of AIS is described below:
Collision avoidance:AIS was developed by the IMO technical committees as a technology to avoid
collision among large vessels at sea that are not within range of shore based system and identifies
everywhere so individually. The AIS provide automatic calculation such as closest point of
approach(CPA) time to closest point of approach(TCPA), Bow crossing range(BCR) Bow crossing
time(BCT) and collision alarms that helps to take action to avoid pollution.
Vessel traffic service : In busy waters and harbors a local vessel traffic system may exist to manage ship
traffic. Here,AIS provides additional traffic awareness and information about the configuration and
movement of ship.
Maritime security :AIS enables authorities to identify specific resource and their activity within on air
national territory of the EEZ. When AIS data is fused with existing radar Technology, authority are able
to differentiate between vessels which, when breached, create an alert. Thus highlighting potential
threats for more efficient use of security assets.AIS improved Maritime domain awareness and allow for
heightened security and control. Additional AIS can be applied to freshwater River system and lakes.
Search and rescue: For coordinated on scene resource of marine Search and rescue operation.
AIS can provide additional information and enhanced Awareness of available resources, even if the AIS
range is limited to vhf radio range. The AIS is also envisioned for the possible use on Search and rescue
aircraft and includes a message for aircraft to report their position.
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Aids to navigation:AIS was developed with the ability to broadcast position and name of the object like
navigation aid and marker position, the aid can be located on shore such as light house or on the water,
on platforms all buoys. The US coast Guard suggest that AIS might replace racon or radar aids currently
used for electronic navigation.
Accident investigation:AIS information received by VTS is important for accident investigation to

provide the accurate time, course over ground, speed dialogue or speed over ground and rate of turn of
the ship involved for accident analysis rather than Limited information of Radar. If it is connected to VDR
and send informations then it also assist in accident investigation.
Improved Radar information: AIS can provide or improve RADAR information
- helps RADAR to find targets behind a mountain or hill.
- translate radar target into ships name
- improved prediction by accounting for rate of turn
- clarifies targets information
- virtually extends radar range
- capacity of the system is unlimited. A great number of ships information accumulated at the same
time.
-AIS data is received and transmitted continuously and automatically,without intervention or

knowledge of users
b. Describe the following. 1)AIS static information. 2)AIS dynamic information. 3)AIS Short safety
messaging.
1)AIS static information: the information related to the vessel which remains unchanged during her
operational life span are static informations. These information’s are generally entered into the system
during the installation of the equipment. AIS static information contains the following Data-
-MMSI -IMO number -Name -Call Sign
-Dimensions -Type of vessel -Location of position fixing anntenna
2)AIS dynamic information: the information related to the vessel which is constanty changing during
different phases of during her operational life span are Dynamic informations. These information’s
generally automatically entered into the system by varios sensors such as GPS, GYRO, Speed LOG etc
which are connected with the equipment & rest input are made by the user. AIS dynamic information
contains the following Data-
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-ships position -Time in UTC -COG -SOG -HEADING -Rate of Turn -Nav status
3)AIS Short safety messaging:
Short safety-related messages are fixed or free format text messages addressed either to a specified
destination (MMSI) or all ships in the area. Their content should be relevant to the safety of navigation,
e.g. an iceberg sighted or a buoy not on station. Messages should be kept as short as possible. The
system allows up to 158 characters for message but the shorter the message the easier to find free
space for transmission. At present these messages are not further regulated to keep all possibilities
open
MAGNETIC
1. Explain with diagram the effect of permanent and induced magnetism with the change of latitude?
Effect of permanent magnetism:
The ships P,Q,R forces are constant. Deviating force which will not change regardless of the latitude The
vessel is in. For a constant deviating Force It is the DF(H) get biggest deviation will get smaller. i.e with a
stronger DF it is harder to deviate the compass needle. Similarly if the DF(H) gets smaller that aviation
will get bigger.
Show deviation varies as 1/H
If H gets bigger division get smaller and if H gets smaller deviation gets bigger.
Effects of induced magnetism:
a) vertical soft iron: The deviating force is the result of the ships VSI being induced by Z. If the magnetic
latitude change not only Z change but also DF(H) change. Show the resulting deviation is dependent
upon both Z & H.
If latitude increases Z gets bigger and the deviating force also gets bigger but DF(H) gets smaller. With a
bigger deviating force and smaller DF the deviation will therefore get bigger. As magnetic latitude
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decreases the opposite occurs and deviation will get smaller. Thus deviation varies directly as Z and also
by 1/H
Therefore deviation vary directly as tan Dip(Z/H)
b) horizontal soft iron: The deviating force is the result of the ships continuous forward and aft /
ATHWARTHSHIP HSI being induced by(H) if the magnetic latitude changes so will the DF(H) but at the
same time the strength of the deviating force will also change as it also depends upon (H). Thus the DF
gets bigger the deviating force also gets bigger and when the DF get smaller deviating Force get smaller.
This means that the deviation resulting from the HSI effect will be the same in all latitude.
2. What is magnetic de-gaussing and how it can be achieved.
Magnetic Degausing:
Magnetic degausing is the process of decreasing or eliminating a permanent magnetic field. A unit
sometimes used for measuring magnetic field is the guass, a a unit of magnetism due to magnetic
hysteresis.Reducing the strength of a magnetic field reduces the number of guass in that field., Hence
the process is called degaussing. It is generally not possible to reduce a magnetic field completely to
zero, so degausing typically induces a very small unknown field referred to as bias
Application on ship:
A steel vessel has a certain amount of permanent magnetism in its hard iron and induced magnetism in
its soft iron. Whenever two or more magnetic fields occupy the same space, the total field is the vector
sum of the individual fields. Thus, near the magnetic field of a vessel, The total field is the combined
total of the earths field and the vessels field. Not only does the Earth field affect the vessels, the vessels
field effect the earth's field in its immediate vicinity.
Since certain types of explosive mines are triggered by the magnetic influence of a vessel passing near
them, a vessel may use a degassing system to minimize its magnetic field. One method of doing this is to
neutralize each component of the field with an opposite field produced by electrical cables coiled
around the vessel. These cables, when energized, counteract the permanent magnetism of the vessel,
rendering it magnetically neutral. So that underwater mine and dynamite (which has been placed during
Second World War) cannot be detonated by ships magnetic field. The original method of degausing was
to install electromagnetic coil into the ships known simply as coiling. Magnetic degausing is originally
applied to reduce ships magnetic signatures.
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The US Navy tested in April of 2009 a prototype of huge temperature superconducting degausing coil
system referred to as HTS degausing. The system works by exciting The vessel with superconducting
ceramics cables who's purpose is to neutralize the ships magnetic signature. The main advantage of HTS
degausing coil system is greatly reduced weight and increased efficiency.
Effect on magnetic compass:
This has severe effects on the magnetic compass. The magnetic field of the vessel is completely altered
when the degaussing coils are energized, introducing large deviations in the magnetic compass. The
deviation can be removed by introducing equal and opposite force by energized coil near the compass.
This is called compass compensation. When there is a possibility of confusion with compass adjustment
to neutralize the effect of natural magnetism of the vessel,the expression degaussing compensation is
used. Since compensation may not be perfect a small amount of deviation due to degaussing may
remain on certain headings. This is the reason for swinging the ship with degaussing off & again with it
on & why there are two separate column in the deviation table.
for degausing purpose the total field of The vessel is divided into three components
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal fore & after
3. Awkward ship
The positive direction are considered downward, forward and to port respectively. These are the normal
direction for a vessel headed North or East in North latitude. Each component is opposed by a separate
degaussing field just strong enough to neutralize it.
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3. Describe the parts of a magnetic compass and their function.
Base plate: The disc or flat surface on which the rest of the compass is situated out the rest of the
compass is mounted is called base plate.
Compass needle: A very thin piece of metal. The needle sits on a tiny point so that It can smoothly
rotate.
Compass housing: It is the main part of the compass. Compass housing is the sealed plastic
compartment that incases the needle. It's often filled with liquid to keep the needle from swinging back
and forth too loosely and includes a bubble so that users understand the compass is leveled.
Dial: The dial is the ring around the compass housing, this area of marked with degrees and direction
and be rotated so that align with the needles.
Compass card: The card is aluminium disc graduated in degrees from 0 to 359 that rides on a hard sharp
pivot point.
Bowl:The card is supported by the bowl. A lubbers line ismarked on the bowl and is used as vis
ible index. Thebowl is filled with Varsol to dampen overswings by thecard. An expansion bellows
in the lower bowl servesto allow expansion of the liquid with temperaturechanges
Magnet: Several bar magnets are used to correct and align the compass
Gimbals: The bowl has two pivots that rest in a metal ring. Which has also two pivot resting in the
binacle. This arrangement permits the compass to remain level despite the motion of the ship.
Binnacle: The binnacle same as housing for the compass. It is made of a non magnetic material. It also
serves as a housing for the compasses correctors magnets, flinders bar, and quadrantal
spheres. A lighting system is normally
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Figure 2-6. Compass binnacleinstalled.
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4. Describe the correction procedure of magnetic compass and the person responsible for correction.
Coefficient Cause compensate

A Induced by H force Generally due to other reasons,
Unsymmetrical, if vessel swun rectify reasons. If present must
too quickly. be allowed for. Cannot remove
using corrector
B If +Bp place the permanent
Permanent magnetism(Bp) by P magnet red pole forward. If -Bp
force and place permanent magnet red
Induced magnetism(Bi) by VSI pole aft.
F&A induced by Z force If +Bi place flinder bar aft-fwd of
the compass. If -Bi place flinder
bar fwd-aft of the compass.
C Permanent magnet(Cp) by Q If + Cq place permanent magnet
force & induced magnetism (Ci) red pole stbd .if -Cq place
by VSI(athwart ship) induced by Z permanent magnet red pole
force.In Ci does not exist. port.
Ci can compensate by swinging
the flinder bar
D If +D place spheres on the
Induced magnetism by HSI (F&A) binacle athwartship. If-D place
and HSI(athwart ship) induced by sphere on the binacle F&A.
H force
E The distribution on Slewing the sphere out of the
unsymmetrical HSI around the awthwardship position towards
compass position induced by H the Fwd & Aft line of the vessel.
force
F Permanent magnetism by R force Using vertical force instrument
induced magnetism VSI of the (VHI) HE can be corrected when
ship acting through the the vessel is upright
compasses-by Z force and
athwart ship HSI beneath The
compass by Z when the vessel
heels.
In magnetic compass-
1.P force- acting forward and aft direction
2.Q force- acting in athwartship direction
3.VSI(fwd & aft compass) induced by Z- acting F&A direction
4.HSI(continuous F&A) induced by H-acting F&A direction
5.HSI(continuous athwartship) induced by H-acting in athwartship direction
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Sequence of placing the correctors: To achieve a good compass adjustment the correctors should be
placed in following orders,
1. Soft iron correctors
a. Flinders bar
b. Spheres
2. Permanent magnet correctors
a. Heeling error magnet
b. Horizontal magnet
Bi--D--E--HE--Bp--Cq
Preparation and check prior to carry out a swing:
1. Ensure vessel is upright
2. All cargo gear securing including lifeboat
3. All movable Steel object are kept at safe distance from compass object
4. Freedom of movement of gimble system
5. No bubble on liquid and compass card can rotate freely
6. Lubberline in the fore and aft line in the vessel.
7. Azimuth mirror has no misalignment.
8. Obtain shore reading of VSI
9. Test soft iron correctors
a)FB- head E/W compass invert FB & slow rotate
b)Spheres- Head N/S & slowly rotate its spheres.
Preparation during swing:
1. Fly flag CQ
2. Ensure no ship within 3 cable
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3.FB & spheres in position and HE to be corrected before swing
4. Keep each heading steady for at least 1.5 to 2 minute before taking deviation to avoid hysteresis or
gausing error.
5. Obtain a list of residual deviation
6.record deatails of the Swing in compass deviation book, coefficient and position of correctors
Only Masters is the ship boat responsible person to correct the compass
5. State the performance standard of a magnetic compass
Performance standard:
1.Compass card:
- card should be graduated 360 degree at interval of 1 degrees
- starting clockwise from North 000 degree
- a numerical indication to be provided at every 10 degree
- cardinal point should be indicated by capital letters(N,S,E,W)
- north point should be indicated by Emble mark
- steering compass card should be clearly readable
- readable at distance 1.4 metres both day light and artificial light. Magnifying glass is permitted
2. Material:
- compass card and connector magnet should have coercivity of at least 11.2 KA/N
- soft iron connector should have low coercivity
- other material used on binacle must be Non magnetic material
3. Performance:
Compass must operate satisfactorily under all environmental condition.
4. Constructional work:
- compass rotating uniform speed 1.5' per second at 20 +/- 3 degree Celsius
- deflection of the card should not exceed (54/H) H= the flux density
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- erode due to friction should not exceed (3/H)
5. Corrective device: The binacle should be provided with corrective devices permanent magnetism,
induced magnetism and heeling error bucket.
6. Construction:
- primary and emergency elimination with dimmer
- no electrical power is necessary
- should not be disclosed to any see condition
- manufactured with sufficient strength.
7. Positioning:
Installing in forward and aft centerline. Main lubber mark accuracy plus minus 0.5 degrees
6. Describe the operating principle of TMC? (transmitting magnetic compass)
A magnetic compass can be converted into a repeating compass by the addition of a flux Gate mounted
on a rotable platform below the compass card. A flux Gate detect the direction of a magnetic field and
dance will be influenced by the permanent magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet of the
compass card. The system will produce an output signal to drive the remote repeaters.
A basic flux gate consists of two thin wires of mumetal which wire is placed in a glass tube around which
is a coil. The two coils A and B are parallel to each other and connected so that they are magnetic fields
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are in opposition. When AC is applied to them the whole assembly is surrounded by in secondary coil(C)
which provides mutually induced EMF For the output voltage.
If the magnetic flux is produced by both A & B coils are of the same value but of opposite polarity, there
will be no induced voltage across coil C. The system is said to be balanced and the output voltage is zero.
In a TMC, this zero signal position- null position- occurs when the flux gate and the compass magnet are
at 90 degree to each other.
When the flux gate is away from this null position, the magnetic flux in coils A & B are no longer equal
and there will be an output voltage induced in coil C. The magnitude of this voltage will be proportional
to the displacement of the flux Gate from this null Position.
the output signal from the flux gate is used to drive a transmitter to operate the various repeaters and
also drive the flood get back to the null position.
7. Enumerate the probable causes to develop Coefficient Apparent A.
If the compass is well sited & there is a constant deviation, it is due to non magnetic reasons & it is
called Coefficient apparent A,i.e a constant deviation in compass that appears to exist.
On a ship where the compass is well sited HIS is evenly distributed about the compass and there will be
no deviation due to unsymmetrical HIS effects & as such no real Co-efficient A will be present.
The probable causes of Coefficient A are as follows:
1. Using an incorrect value of variation to obtain the deviation.
2. A constant error in LHA used to establish the compass error will result in a constant error in
deviations.
3. A faulty azimuth mirror used to take compass bearing.
4. Establishing compass error and hence deviation by comparing standard compass heading with the
gyro compass heading.
5. If the magnetic bearing of a distance object is established by the method of obtaining its gyro bearing
and applying the variation. An error will subsequently appear in the deviation if no gyro error.
6. If the north/south line of the compass card is not aligned with the axis of the compass needle system.
7. A faulty pivot point on the card system
8. If the vessel is swung too quickly has insufficient steadying time is allowed on each heading it will lead
2 hysteresis effects resulting in Coefficient Apparent A
9. If the lubber line is not in the forward and after line.
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8. What is coefficient? Explain which Coefficient change with change of latitude and which Coefficient
remain unchanged?
Coefficient: A Co-efficient is the maximum deviation caused by one or more of the ship's force acting at
the compass position. It must be understood that coefficient is a deviation, measured in degrees and it
is not a force.
The size of deviation depend upon the DF(H) and also the strength of deviating force. When a vessel
change hard latitude the DF(H) will also change and so will the strength of the debating force induced in
SI. This can lead to the deviations caused by permanent and induced magnetic forces changing if latitude
changes.
The coefficient which change with latitude are coeff B and coeff C:
Coefficient B: The maximum deviation caused by ships P force is called coefficient B- permanent(Bp) the
maximum deviation caused by ships VSI(F&A) of the compass induced by Z is called B induced(Bi) Thus
B=Bp+Bi
Now we need to find out how is part of the B change with the change of latitude.
1)Bp= this is caused by ships P force which is a constant debating force, as we have just seen the
deviation resulting from permanent magnetic forces very as 1/H
Thus co-efficient Bp(magnetic deviation) varies aS 1/H
2)Bi= this is caused by ships VSI(F&A) of the compass being induced by Z and as we have just seen the
deviation resulting from induced magnetism so vessel will vary tanDIP
Thus coefficient Bi(magnetic deviation) vary with tanDIP.
Coefficient C: Assuming no deviations due to induced magnetism into VSI(P/S of the compass), then the
deviatiNG force causing the deviation is the AWTHWORDSHIP ship component of the ships permanent
magnetism i.e Q force. Therefore this deviation will change exactly the same way as does causes by the
ships P force.
Thus coefficient-C (max, dev) varies as 1/H
Coefficient that not to be changed with latitude:
Coefficient that do not change with latitude are A,D & E. Disco efficient are all caused by magnetic force
being induced in HSI by F and we also have just seen this means that the deviation resulting from HSI
will be the same in all latitude as both the DF and the debating force are both dependent on H.
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10,what is VFI? Describe heeling error with cause?
RAKIB BOOKLET(page 48-49)
10. State the sequence of placing the corrector and the reasons for the same. State the precautions
needed to be taken during swinging a compass.
RAKIB BOOKLET(page 55)
11.correction of Heeling error(HE)? Why HE not remain constant with change of magnetic latitude or
why HE change with magnetic latitude?
RAKIB BOOKLET(page 48-49)
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VDR
1. Please describe the concept of VDR and the data that can be achieved from a VDR? what is the
difference between VDR and SVDR?
Black box recorder is fitted on aircraft from many years of investigate aircraft accidents and subsequent
improve of safety.
VDR is a similar Technology fitted on as a basic monitoring device. As per solas chapter-V, 2000
amendments:
1. All new ship other than passenger ship above 3000 GRT constructed on or after 1st July 2002 must
carry VDR
2. All new passenger ship constructed on or after 1st July 2002 must carry VDR
3. All passenger ship and roro ship constructed before 1st July 2002 have to install VDR before or at the
time of first survey on or after 1st July 2002
4. The other existing passenger ship the last date of installation is 1st July 2004
VDR microphones are fitted in Bridge
- near canning position - radar - chart room - radio room - ECR - bridge wings
The VDR including all sensors subject to an annual performance test. The test shall be conducted by
approved testing and servicing facility to verify the accuracy, detection and
The recovery ability of the recorded data.VDR is provided at least 12 hours of recorded data
And 2 hours backup power failure and alarm protection.
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A Typical VDR should be capable of recording the following information automatically and maintain a
sequential record of data for at least 12 hours.
- date and time
- ships position
- heading
- speed
- bridge audio
- RADAR & ARPA data
- vhf communication
- depth
- main alarms
- Rudder order and response
- engine order and response
- RPM
- echo sounder
- hull opening status
- wind speed and direction
- BT order and response
Difference between VDR & SVDR:
SUBJECT SVDR VDR

Target Existing cargo ship 3000 GT and All the passengers and newly
upwards engaged in built cargo vessels of 3000 GT
international voyage and upwards engaged in
international Voyage
Capsule Fixed type of float free type Fixed type
selectable
mandatory recorded data Date, time, position, datum, Date, time, Position, Speed,
speed, heading, bridge audio, vhf heading, bridge audio, vhf audio,
audio depth, main alarm, Rudder, hull,
door, ECDIS, engine control room
recording.
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if IEC interface is available Depth, main alarm,Rudder, Hull, stern, Wind(when

engine, hull, doors, hull stress appropriate sensors available,
wind direction,RPM)
RADAR image Where there is commercial of Mandatory
the self interface available
AIS If RADAR image not available Not required
** differs in amount of information required to be recorded. In VDR more information required to be

recorded than SVDR.
2. What is VDR, SVDR & VDR capsule? Would you recommend the connection of ECDIS as an input to a
VDR? What are some advantage and disadvantage of doing so? ** yes so that images,charts and
settings from ECDIS can be recorded
Voyage data recorder, or VDR: is a data recording system designed for all vessels required to comply
with the IMO's International Convention SOLAS Requirements (IMO Res.A.861(20)) in order to collect
data from various sensors on board the vessel. It then digitizes, compresses and stores this information
in an externally mounted protective storage unit. The protective storage unit is a tamper-proof unit
designed to withstand the extreme shock, impact, pressure and heat, which could be associated with a
marine incident (fire, explosion, collision, sinking, etc.).
Besides the protective storage unit, the VDR system may consist of a recording control unit and a data
acquisition unit, which are connected to various equipment and sensors on board a ship. The new
MSC.333(90) regulations also state a minimum of 30 days of recorded data must be held internally (this
could be within the recording control unit, data acquisition unit, Main Electronics Unit depending on the
manufacturers terminology).
Although the primary purpose of the VDR is for accident investigation after the fact, there can be other
uses of recorded data for preventive maintenance, performance efficiency monitoring, heavy weather
damage analysis, accident avoidance and training purposes to improve safety and reduce running
costs.[1]
SVDR:
Simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR), as defined by the requirements of IMO Performance Standard
MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for small ships with only basic ship's data recorded.
VDR capsule
The protective storage unit which is used for data storage may be in a retrievable fixed unit or free float
unit (or combined with EPIRB) when the ship sinks in a marine accident. The last 12 hours (48 Hours for
the 2014 regulations MSC.333(90)) of stored data in the protected unit can be recovered and replayed
by the authorities or ship owners for incident investigation.
Recommendations of ECDIS as an input to a VDR:
As per MSC RESOLUTION .333(90) (adopted on 22 May 2012)
Where a vessel is fitted with an ECDIS installation, the VDR should record the electronic signals of the
ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation. The recording method should be
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such that, on playback, it is possible to present a faithful replica of the entire ECDIS display that was on
view at the time of recording, albeit within the limitations of any bandwidth compression techniques
that are essential to the working of the VDR and in addition the source of the chart data and the version
used.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Real time vessel movements

2. The safety parameters in place
3. The warning & alarms that were being displayed.
4. Movement of surrounding vessel in conjunction of ARPA
5. Detecting the possibility of human error
6. Better accident/near miss analysis
DISADVANTAGES:
1.More input in the VDR
2. May require more maintenance
3. More chance of error & alarms which will hamper navigation
INTEGRATED BRIDGE SYSTEM
1. What is IBS? Draw the block diagram of IBS . State the advantage and disadvantages of IBS.
Integrated Bridge navigation system (IBS) is basically a combination of integrated navigation

system(INS) and other shipboard system aimed at increased safety and efficient management of the
ship, reducing workload, providing centralized control & data recording for later analysis.
IBS allows a flexible change of a set of navigation of facilities depending on the ships type and area of
operation. It has three module in the intregal part:
1. Navigational module
2. Anti collision module
3. Steering module
The IBS should include the following ( any two as per IMO)
1. Passage execution
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2. Communication
3. Machinery control
4. Safety and security
5. Loading discharging and cargo control
- failure of any module should not affect the function of other models unless they are dependent on the
data of defective module
- the equipment should be user friendly, giving prompts to the user as and when required.
- alarms should be provided to indicate any malfunctioning and should be graded to indicate the order
of priority.
- alarms should be usually visual and audible alarm until acknowledged and visual until malfunction is
rectified
Advantages of IBS:
1. Safe and efficient management of the ship.
2. Close monitoring
3. Centralised control.
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4. Reduced workload.
5. Recording system for analysis.
6. Easy operation.
7. One man control.
8. Better anti collision system.
9. Machinery control.
10. Voice recording.
Disadvantages of IBS:
1. Over reliability can create problem.
2. Power failure possibility.
3. Unexpected errors.
4. Malfunction of equipment.
5. Reduced job sector.
2. How the IBS system can be beneficial for the navigators.( integrated bridge system)
For the following causes integrated Bridge system is beneficial for the navigators
1. Centralized control unit
2. Reduces navigational workload
3. OOW is in a position to take better decisions. Since all parameters relating to navigation and intraship
are readily available to him.
4. All parameters are continuously monitored and maintained with safe limit, hence there is a reduction
in an scheduled maintenance and emergencies.
5. Increased accuracy in navigation, hence there is a savings in the streaming time and fuel
consumption.
6. More effective voyage planning
7. Better overall risk assessment and risk management.
8. Alarms for any and every malfunction are available on a gradation system. More so in view of
improper action being taken.
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9. Shipment built on ergonomic principles of user friendliness
10. Data recording system for later analysis
11. Safe and efficient management of ship.
12. Close monitoring
13. One man can control the entire system.
3. What is IBS and describe the limitations of the IBS system.
IBS: AS PER QUESTION 1
Limitations:
1. All equipment have some limitations and this must be Borne in mind while using the system.
2. An increased tendency to bypass the often sounding alarms, this tendency must be done away with.
3. Reduction in manpower, Remembering man cannot be replaced by a machine.
4. If different systems are used, pilots etc will find it difficult to pick up in short duration.
5. OOW tends to over relies on automation and as a result lethargy sets in
4. Briefly explain the three categories of INS as defined by IMO? (Integrated Navigation System)
The integrated navigation system is based on free modular concepts which allows a flexible changes of a
set of navigation of facilities depending on ships type and area of operation of the ship. The ship will
have 3 modules forming the integral part of the INS.
1. Navigational module
2. Anti pollution module
3. Steering module
Navigation module: This module will take care of VOYAGE planning, ships position fixing on a
continuous basis and ARPA plotting functions. This module will perform the following task-
- specifying the ships route and sailing mode
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- dead reckoning by imports from gyro and log
- position and speed determination by signal received from GPS/ glonass/ galileo etc.
- position fixing by inputs from Terrestrial based radio navigation system.
- automatic selection of radio navigation facilities on the basis of accuracy criteria.
- record and Reproduction of cartographic information on display.
- position and velocity determination using fixed rather markers along with ARPA
- important data logging into logbook format
- storage of navigational parameters for a given time.
- warning in case of exceeding the prescribed depth route cross track, approaching critical points
including alteration of courses.
- automatic correction of navigational charts.
Anti collision module: This module works out the best possible action to be taken in case of close
quarter situation on the basis of the following
- collision regulations
- sea room availability
- trial maneuver
- desired closest point of approach
Steering control module: This module is dedicated to steering the ship and will perform the following
functions
- steering a given course, in into account the ship dynamics, trim etc and external conditions(wind, sea
state and current etc)
- automatic course alteration in accordance with planned track including large alterations using constant
rate of return techniques
- alteration for collision avoidance and subsequent practicing.
The INS is regarded as an important part of full ship automation system with interface being provided
for data exchange.
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OTHER
1. Describe operational requirements of BNWAS.
As per Annex 11 resolution msc.128(75) operational requirements of BNWAS:
The BNWAS primarily has three modes of operation:
-Automatic
-Manual ON
-Manual OFF
Once operational, the alarm system shall remain dormant for a period of between 3 and 12 min (Td). At
the end of this dormant period, the alarm system shall initiate a visual indication on the bridge.
First stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the bridge 15 s after the
visual indication is initiated.
Second stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a second stage remote audible alarm in the back-up
officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first stage audible alarm is initiated.
Third stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm at the locations of
further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 s after the second stage remote audible
alarm is initiated.
Alarm alternatives
In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms may sound in
all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm is sounded in this way, the
third stage alarm may be omitted.
In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a longer value on
installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the back-up officer and/or Master to
reach the bridge.
Facilities shall be provided to inhibit the third stage alarm and to increase the delay between the second
and third stage alarms to 3 min.
Reset function
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The reset function shall, by a single operator action, cancel the visual indication and all audible alarms
and initiate a further dormant period. If the reset function is activated before the end of the dormant
period, the period shall be re-initiated to run for its full duration from the time of the reset.
Initiation of reset function
To initiate the reset function, an input representing a single operator action by the 00W is required. This
input may be generated by reset devices forming an integral part of the BNWAS or by external inputs
from other equipment capable of registering physical activity and mental alertness of the 00W.
Continuous activation
A continuous activation of any reset device shall not prolong the dormant period or cause a suppression
of the sequence of indications and alarms.
Emergency call facility
Means may be provided on the bridge to immediately activate the second, and subsequently third, stage
remote audible alarms by means of an “Emergency Call” push button or similar.
Facilities shall be provided for an “Emergency Call” system.
Accuracy
The alarm system shall be capable of achieving the timings stated in above paragraph with an accuracy
of 5% or 5 s, whichever is less, under all environmental conditions.
Security
The means of selecting the Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period (Td) shall be
security protected so that access to these controls should be restricted to the Master only.
Malfunctions, alarms and indications
If a malfunction of, or power supply failure to, the BNWAS is detected, this shall be indicated. Means
shall be provided to allow the repeat of this indication on a central alarm panel if fitted.
2. Explain the purpose of BNWAS and how they are achieved. List and explain the operational
sequence of indication and alarms of BNWAS.
Purpose of BNWAS:
Bridge Navigational Watch & Alarm System – BNWAS is a monitoring and Alarm system which notifies
other navigational officers or master of the ship if the officer on watch (OOW) does not respond or
he/she is incapable of performing the watch duties efficiently, which can lead to maritime accidents.
There have been many incidents in the past wherein ships have collided or grounded due to wrong
decision or inefficiency in taking a decision at the correct time. If during an emergency situation, a
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navigational officer is not capable of handling that situation, it can lead to devastating scenarios. To
avoid this BNWAS is installed on the bridge which acts similar to a dead man alarm in the engine room
A series of alert and alarm is first sounded by BNWAS in the Navigation Bridge to alert officer on watch.
If there is no response to the series of alarms, then BNWAS will alert other Deck officers, which may
include Master of the ship, so that someone can come out on the bridge and handle the situation and
tackle the problem
Operational sequence of indication and alarms of BNWAS:
Once operational, the alarm system shall remain dormant for a period of between 3 and 12 min (Td). At
the end of this dormant period, the alarm system shall initiate a visual indication on the bridge.
First stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the bridge 15 s after the
visual indication is initiated.
Second stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a second stage remote audible alarm in the back-up
officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first stage audible alarm is initiated.
Third stage alarm
If not reset, the BNWAS shall additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm at the locations of
further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 s after the second stage remote audible
alarm is initiated.
Alarm alternatives
In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms may sound in
all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm is sounded in this way, the
third stage alarm may be omitted.
In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a longer value on
installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the back-up officer and/or Master to
reach the bridge.
Facilities shall be provided to inhibit the third stage alarm and to increase the delay between the second
and third stage alarms to 3 min.
Malfunctions, alarms and indications
If a malfunction of, or power supply failure to, the BNWAS is detected, this shall be indicated. Means
shall be provided to allow the repeat of this indication on a central alarm panel if fitted.
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3. Describe the working concept of LRIT and the criteria to obtain LRIT data of a ship to member
states.
The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system designed to collect and disseminate vessel
position information received from IMO member States ships that are subject to the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).
LRIT is a maritime domain awareness (MDA) initiative to enhance maritime Safety, Security and protect
the marine environment. LRIT allows Member States to receive position reports from vessels operating
under their flag, vessels seeking entry to a ort within their territory, or vessels operating in proximity to
the State’s coastline.
There are two aspects to LRIT:
The ‘reporting’ aspect: where vessels report their **Identity **position ** A date/time stamp of
transmission
The ‘receiving’ aspect where coastal States can purchase reports when vessels are within 1,000 nautical
miles, or where port States can purchase reports when vessels seek entry to a port at a pre-determined
distance or time from that port (up to 96 hours pre-entry).
As per SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-1, on Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) refers to the
requirement for specified Convention vessels to automatically transmit their identity, position and
date/time of the position at 6-hourly intervals, with an ability to increase the rate to intervals of up to
once every 15 minutes when requested. In addition, the equipment must be able to respond to poll
requests.
The LRIT regulation will apply to the following ship types engaged on international voyages.
-All passenger ships including high speed craft.
-Cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 GRT and above.
-Mobile offshore drilling units
-Ships must automatically repost their position to their flag administration at least 4 times a day.
Working Concept of LRIT:
LRIT Shipborne equipment transmits position information to the Communication Service Provider
(CSP).
Communication Service Providers (CSP) provide the communication infrastructure and services to
ensure the end-to-end secure transfer of the LRIT message between the ship and ASP.
Application Service Providers (ASP) provide a communication protocol interface and add information to
the LRIT message between the CSP and the LRIT Data Centre.
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LRIT Data Centre collects and provides LRIT information to its users according to the Data Distribution
Plan.
LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP) defines rules and access rights (i.e. which users can receive what LRIT
information). The DDP server is managed by IMO and is populated by SOLAS Contracting Governments,
following IMO technical specifications.
International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE) routes LRIT information between LRIT Data Centres according to
the DDP.
LRIT users include the following:
Under the terms of SOLAS Regulation V/19-1.8, governments are entitled to receive LRIT information, if
they wish to do so, for security and other purposes, in four basic situations:
Flag State, an Administration is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships entitled to fly its flag
irrespective of where such ships may be located;
Port State, a Contracting Government is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships which have
indicated their intention to enter a port facility or a place under the jurisdiction of that Contracting
Government, subject to certain restrictions;
Coastal State, a Contracting Government is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships entitled to
fly the flag of other Contracting Governments, not intending to enter a port facility or a place under the
jurisdiction of that Contracting Government, navigating within a distance not exceeding 1,000 nautical
miles of its coast, subject to certain restrictions; and
Search and Rescue Service of a Contracting Government may receive, free of any charges, LRIT
information in relation to the search and rescue of persons in distress at sea.
4. What is ROTI? State the SOLAS requirement of ROTI onboard?
Rate of turn indicators: The rate of turn indicators is an equipment which indicates the instantaneous
rate at which the ship is turning. This indicator is Fed with 60 to 200 pulses per minute from the steering
repeaters and from this input it works out the instantaneous rate of turn.
A rate of turn indicator is basically a free gyro with only 2 degree of freedom(freedom to spin and tilt).
The rate of turn is based on the below formula:
Rate of turn= V/R degree/min
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V= Speed of vessel over ground
R=Radius of turn in NM
Standards:
-The dial is usually marked zero to 60 degrees per minute on either side(port and starboard)
-As per IMO the dial should not be marked less than zero to 30 degree/minute on either side graduated
in interval of 1 Degree per minute.
-The scale shall be marked with figures every 10 degree/minute. Every 10 degrees mark shall be
significantly longer than the 5 degree mark which in turn shall be significantly longer than the 1 degree
marks. The marks and figures shall be preferably in red or a light colour on a dark background.
-Indicated rate in roti shall not deviate more than 0.5 degree/minute plus 5% of the indicated rate of
turn of the ship.
- The rate of turn indicator shall meet the accuracy requirements at all ship speed upto 10 knots.
-The rate of turn indicators shall be ready for operation and comply with the standards within 4 minute
of being switched on.
Use:
- Assist in executing controlled turns
- It shows turns faster than the gyro
- very effective tool to the helmsman to maintain the vessels heading
As per solas chapter V regulation 12
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All ships over 50,000 GRT constructed on or after 14 September 1984 shall be fitted with a rate of turn
indicator
5. Describe the use of ECDIS. What are the difference between raster and vector chart?
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation information system which,
with adequate back-up arrangements, can be accepted as complying with the up-to-date chart required
by regulation V/19 & V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, by displaying selected information from a
system electronic navigational chart (SENC) with positional information from navigation sensors to assist
the mariner in route planning and route monitoring, and by displaying additional navigation-related
information if required.’
The first standard, S-57, describes the data model, object and attribute definitions for charted objects,
encoding guidelines, product specifications and data structure of the Electronic Navigation Chart (ENC).
The second standard, S-52, describes the presentation of the colours as well as chart and navigation
symbols for ECDIS.
The new amendments to SOLAS Chapter V (Safety of Navigation) Regulation 19 require mandatory
carriage of ECDIS for certain new ships built on or after 1 July 2012 and a subsequent timeline plan for
retrofitting ECDIS to existing applicable ships.
ECDIS represents an item of equipment consisting of
-Hardware
-Software
-Data
Hardware
Is generally a computer with graphics capability, a high performance PC or a graphics workstation

installed in a console linked with other items of ship’s equipment. Thus, ECDIS obtains the course from
the gyro compass, the rate of turn from the turn indicator, and the ship’s speed through water from the
log (the ship’s “speedometer”). Key features are the links with the position sensors of the ship (transit
satellite navigation system) and in particular with the GPS (global positioning system, a satellite based
positioning system. Even radar pictures can be superimposed, either as raw data from a raster scan
radar, or as synthetic ARPA (automatic radar plotting aid) radar information
The Software
Should be as the IMO Performance Stanadards [Resolution A817(19)] It consists of the user interface
(UI) and the so-called ECDIS kernel, the software that makes it possible to read the data and display a
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chart. This software is also called ‘function library’. In addition to the chart picture, the user interface
shows buttons and keys for operating the nautical chart.
The Data
Electronic navigational Chart (ENC) –There are two different types of electronic charts in use with ECDIS
and all navigation officers and marine managers should be aware of their differences and limitations.
Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC), commonly referred to as ‘vector charts’, are layered with digital
information enabling the mariner to electronically interrogate features on the chart such as buoys,
navigational marks, traffic separation schemes (TSS) and safety contours with detailed information
displayed for the user
Advantages of ECDIS:
-All chart information necessary for safe and efficient navigation is available at the click of a mouse
Simple, reliable and fast updating of the ENC
-Reduces the navigational workload as compared to use of a paper chart
-It enables the mariner to execute in a convenient and timely manner
-----Route planning
-----Route monitoring
-----Positioning
-----Real-time position plotting
---Route and waypoint management
-Real time monitoring of vessel’s position by OOW
-----Radar / ARPA can be superimposed for enhanced command action (Anti-collision)
-----Anti Grounding Tool
-----Weather and forecast data can be superimposed.
-----Ice data can be superimposed
-----Log keeping electronic and easy
-----Voyage playback possible
-----Real time update of chart possible
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One of the most important features of ECDIS that makes it a unique aid to navigation, is the capability of
generating alarms (anti-grounding, off route, etc.) based on input from sensors and analysis of chart
information
Disadvantages of ECDIS:
- Input of data to be done constantly
- real time Positioning input from all other electronic navigational AIDS
- required constant monitoring of position
- input of all data needs to be corrected and up to date
- prone to computer virus and hacking
- depends on electricity, total power failures will render ECDIS useless
- Overreliance on ECDIS when using ENC data may prove dangerous if inadequate training and
familiarisation has been given
- Unfamiliarity with ENC data and ECDIS functionality may cause operator error.
A RASTER CHART
Is basically just a visual scan of a paper chart. It is a computer based system which uses charts issued by,
or under the authority of, a national hydrographic office, together with automatic continuous electronic
positioning, to provide an integrated navigational tool.
RASTER CHARTS are digitized by “scanning” the paper chart (using technology common in desktop
publishing). Each tiny segment of each line on a chart is converted to a “raster” picture element or
“pixel”. These pixels are similar to a television picture or magnified newsprint in that they appear as
“dots” on a grid. That is where the raster chart stops: the pixels form images on a computer screen, but
the computer is “dumb” about what the images mean.
A VECTOR CHART
Is more complex. Each point on the chart is digitally mapped, allowing the information to be used in a
more sophisticated way, such as clicking on a feature (for example, a lighthouse) to get all the details of
that feature displayed.
Vector charts represent individual chart features with points, lines and polygons given through their
coordinates and appropriate codes
Comparison between Raster And Vector Charts
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Official Raster (RNCs) ENCs
An exact replica of the paper chart All data merged into cells
The same image as the paper chart is always presented. The

chart is more equivalent to the paper chart than any vector
chart including ENCs No resemblance to the paper chart
Symbols and colour are the same as the paper chart The IHO publication S-52 defines new
equivalent. colours and symbols for ENCs.
ENCs should be more accurate and reliable than the paper

version. A new operational regime is required
The same operational regime as paper charts is followed. A new operational regime is required
6. The principle of Doppler log. Describe the error of Doppler log. How to ....... Doppler log before put
in use.
Principle:
Doppler Speed log works on the measurement of Doppler principle and applied to vessel log.When the
vessel moves relative to a reference point on sea bed, the frequency of the signal transmitted & the
signal received after reflecting on seabed will be different.
Whenever there is a relative movement between a transmitting source and a receiver, there will be a
‘Doppler shift’ in the frequency received. This shift is termed as Doppler Effect named after the Austrian
physicist Christian Doppler & will be as follows:
fr= ft (c +/- v) (+ when moving ahead, - when moving astern)
Where
fr = Received Frequency
ft = Transmitted frequency
c =Velocity of sound in Sea Water (1500m/sec)
v = Velocity of the vessel
From the above formula dopler log calculates & provides the vessels speed.
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Operation:
A transducer emits continuous a high frequency sound pulse in the forward direction at an angle of 60°
to the keel.
Higher the sound frequency, smaller the transducer, narrower the beam and higher the accuracy.
The beam bounces back from the sea bottom.
The frequency of the bottom echo will be higher when the ship is moving ahead or lower if she is
moving astern.
The Doppler equation is solved to obtain ship’s speed.
When signal is bounced off the sea bed, (called Bottom Track), the speed displayed the “Speed over the
ground (SOG)”
Advantages of Doppler Log:
-Most accurate
-Can measure ahead, astern & athwartship movements
-Can be used for ocean navigation as well as berthing and maneuvering in close waters.
-Can measure very low speeds
-This log is most prevalent in today’s marine world.
Factors affecting Doppler Log performance:
The performance (accuracy) may be reduced or even lost under following conditions:
-Rough weather (may be sea state 6 or severer)
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-Improper location of sensor, e.g., too close to the propeller, thrusters, drain tubes, echo, sounder
transducer
Solution-Resit the log or adjust the sensitivity for the noise
-Aeration in the proximity of propellers while coming along side.
Solution-Make allowance when operating while coming alongside.
-Speed of sound in water with varies due to salinity , Temperature & pressure.
Solutions- By introducing salinity & temperature sensors in the transducer
-Speed of propagation error.
Solution-Modern Doppler log uses phased beams, which eliminates this error.
-Doppler’s log in ground speed only works until 300 mts of depth
Solution-When depth exceeds 300 mts Doppler log automatically switches from bottom tracking to
water tracking mode. At this point Doppler log tracks water about 10-30 mtrs below keel.
7. Write short note on the following:a)e- navigation b) SSAS c) BNWAS
A)E- NAVIGATION:
The inception of e-Navigation concept took place way back in the year 2006, when the International
Maritime Organization (IMO) decided to include a well-defined strategy to integrate new and existing
navigational tools for enhancing handling and safety of ships at the sea.
Modern ships use digital equipment such as AIS, ECDIS, Integrated Bridge Systems, Automatic Radar
Plotting Aids, Long Range Identification and Tracking, GMDSS and several other sophisticated electronic
navigational tools. The main aim of the e-Navigation concept is to develop a system which can properly
organize all the ship’s data at one place in order to help improving navigational safety of the ships.
Human error during ship navigation has been termed as one of the prime reasons for maritime
accidents. Though the number of accidents at sea has reduced lately, a lot needs to be done in order to
reduce navigational errors as a result of human negligence.The matter of concern is that in spite of
highly advanced equipment systems used in modern ships, accidents related to navigation continues to
occur.
A series of electronic technologies, both ship and shore based, are used to improve the situational-
awareness and decision making of navigation officers. These systems also help in search and rescue
during emergency, responding to any form of marine pollution from ships, improving port and ship
security, and planning and executing cargo operations. However, maritime accidents still continue to
take place around the world.
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An integrated system is therefore required which would help to collect, integrate, exchange, present,
and analyse marine information on ships and at shore using electronic systems. This would eventually
help to improve ship navigation, operations, and safety, along with protecting marine environment.
The main aim of e-Navigation is to enhance navigation safety of the ships while simultaneously reducing
the burden on navigational officers. A well coordinated and systematic system under e-navigation would
considerable increase the efficiency of the ships not only at the sea but also at the ports. Moreover,
global standardization of such systems would reduce complexity in ship’s operation and substantially
improve safety at the sea.
Several maritime organizations both public and private, along with IMO are working towards making a
robust e-Navigation system within maritime international framework. However, the it is expected that
the system thus made should be extremely beneficial to officers for ensuring appropriate navigation and
decision making, and should not reduce the navigator solely to the role of monitoring the e-Navigation
system.
b) Ship Security Alert System (SSAS):
The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is one safety measure for strengthening ship security and
subduing acts of piracy and/or terrorism against shipping. Widely Acknowledged as a part of the
International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS code), the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)
complements the International Maritime Organization (IMO)’s attempts to increase maritime vessel
security.
Cospas-Sarsat, with International Maritime Organization’s cooperation, came up with this project of Ship
Security Alert System (SSAS). The basic idea is that in case of an attempted piracy effort or terrorists act,
the ship’s SSAS beacon would be activated, responding to which an appropriate law-enforcement or
military forces would be dispatched for rescue. The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) beacon and the
Aircraft Transponder Emergency Code 7700 are operated on the fundament of similar principles.
SSAS Working Principle:
• When the maritime security staffs comprehend probable danger from pirates or terrorists a Ship
Security Alert System (SSAS) alert is triggered.
• The beacon transmits a specific country code, reacting to which the Rescue Coordination
Centres (RCCs) or SAR Points of Contact (SPOCs) of that particular region is notified discreetly.
• Once receiving the signal the national authorities of the area notified dispatch appropriate
military or law-enforcement forces to deal with the terrorist or pirate menace.
In December 2002, International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted some changes within which Ship
Security Alert System (SSAS), as was determined in Regulation 6. It also required IMO to produce
guidance on the implementation and instructions on the handling of covert alerts from SSAS
instrumentation.
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The SSAS alerts are to be sent by the security staff, necessarily at routine priority, from the ship to its
Administration directly or other proper recipient designated by the Administration.
These routine priority SSAS alerts might be chosen by Administrations to have from their flag ships
addressed to Maritime Rescue Coordination Centers in their own region or to other targets such as ship
owners or managers.
SSAS solutions which are available on the Inmarsat network inevitably render more flexibility in the
routing of SSAS alerts. In accordance with the requirements of the IMO, these alerts could be sent to any
destination, which might be a rescue co-ordination centre, or a national security organisation or the ship
owner or any other third-party organization but necessarily selected by the flag administration.
The security stuff can deliver the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) to fax, email, telex, GSM phone, or
even to other Inmarsat terminals for the sake of ship security complying with the legislation specified in
Regulation 6.
Benefits
• Fully maritime focused
• Use of the Inmarsat C, mini-C, D+ satellite service
• Upgradation over older GMDSS version.
• Global coverage
• Suitable for asset tracking
• Daily reports at routine priority
• Web based tracking
• Conforms to IMO standards and full compliance with the requirements of SOLAS XI-2/6
• Installation, testing, and instruction on usage by professionals.
BNWAS:
Bridge Navigational Watch & Alarm System – BNWAS is a monitoring and Alarm system which notifies
other navigational officers or master of the ship if the officer on watch (OOW) does not respond or
he/she is incapable of performing the watch duties efficiently, which can lead to maritime accidents.
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The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) is to monitor bridge activity and
detect operator disability which could lead to marine accidents. The system monitors the awareness of
the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically alerts the Master or another qualified OOW if for any
reason the OOW becomes incapable of performing the OOW’s duties. This is achieved through a mix of
alarms and indications which alert backup OOWs as well as the Master. BNWAS warnings are given in
the case of incapacity of the watchkeeping officer due to accident, sickness or in the event of a security
breach, e.g. piracy and/or hijacking. Unless decided by the Master only, the BNWAS shall remain
operational at all times.
Operational Requirements of BNWAS
The BNWAS primarily has three modes of operation:
• Automatic
• Manual ON
• Manual OFF
Alarms and Indications
1. Once the BNWAS is put into operation, the dormant period should be between 3 to 12 minutes.
This dormant period is the time in which the BNWAS is active without giving any alarm and it
only once the dormant period is over that the alarm is sounded and the alarm/indication is
sounded and the reset function needs to be activated
2. Once the dormant period ends, a visual indication (first stage; flashing indication) must be
activated indicating/demanding that the officer rest it, if available and active
3. If not reset within 15 seconds of the visual indication, an audible alarm is sounded (first stage)
4. If at the first stage the audible alarm is not reset, 15 seconds after the audible alarm, another
audible alarm (second stage; sound should have its own characteristic tone or modulation
intended to alert, but not to startle, the OOW) is sounded in the backup officer’s and/or
Master’s cabin
5. If at the second stage the audible alarm is not reset, 90 seconds after it, another audible alarm is
sounded (third stage; easily recognisable, indicates urgency, volume sufficient for it to be heard
throughout the locations above and to wake sleeping persons) at the locations of further crew
members capable of taking corrective actions
6. Except for passenger vessels, the second and third stage alarm can be combined to sound at all
locations. If this is applied, the third stage alarm may be omitted
7. For very large vessels, sufficient time of up to 3 minutes must be accounted for the backup
officer or the Mastre to the reach the Bridge to tend to the situation
The Reset Function
1. Reset can only be done from physically located areas of the bridge providing proper look out
2. Reset can be only be done with a single operator action (for those familiar with BNWAS, one
stroke to the round reset switch) which starts the dormant period further, cancelling the
alarms/indications
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3. Constant activation of the dormant period vis a vis the reset button should not extend the
dormant period to more than that is set or bring about any suppression of the
alarms/indications
Additionally
1. An “Emergency Call” feature must be present to immediately skip to the second and third stage
alarms. This is present for the OOW to summon immediate assistance
2. Accuracy of the BNWAS should be within the window of 5% or 5 seconds, whichever is lesser
3. Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period setting shall be restricted to the
Master only
4. To be powered from the main power supply. The malfunction indication, and all elements of the
Emergency Call facility should be powered from a battery maintained supply
5. Outputs should be available for integration with other bridge equipments if need be
Regulations for BNWAS
SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 19 states:
1. Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size
constructed on or after 1 July 2011
2. Passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first
survey after 1 July 2012
3. Cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than
the first survey after 1 July 2012
4. Cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first safety survey after 1 July 2013
5. Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2014
6. A BNWAS installed prior to 1 July 2011 may subsequently be exempted from full compliance
with the standards adopted by the organization, at the discretion of the Administration
8.Echo sounder principle & errors
FROM BMTI BOOKLET,definition from BOOK-2
9.Block diagram, control & setting of Autopilot
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GYRO
1. Describe the Apparent movement of a free gyroscope on the Earth's surface, given its position and
initial altitude.
Due to gyroscopic inertia the spin axis of a free gyroscope will remain pointing in a fixed Direction in
space i.e towards a star it was initially pointed at. As the earth rotates on its Axis a star will however
appear to move to an observer on earth. The altitude and azimuth of the star will change and during a
24 hour period it will appear to trace out a circular path.
Effect of the earth motion on the free gyroscope:
When a star appears to show such a movement then the spin axis of the free gyroscope pointing at the
stars will also trace out a circular path. A figure on the plane of the rational Horizon can be used to
illustrate this movement.
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2. Explain the behavior of a liquid ballastic during a change of speed or an alteration of course.
Whenever a vessel adjust its course and speed, it will be subjected to horizontal acceleration. In gravity
controlled gyro this accelerations act on the gravity control element producing top or bottom heavy
effect which will cause the gyro to precess. This precession of the north end of the axis is called ballistic
deflection.
Increasing speed in Northerly direction the additional heaviness cause a westerly precession. Ballistic
deflection only occurs during manoeuvre. Ballistic deflection will always precess the gyro in a direction
towards which it will finally settle after manoeuvre. It is found that, its gravity control gives and
undamped period of 84.5 minute.
Then ballistic deflection= change in the course, latitude and speed errors
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3. Explain the meaning of the term "free gyroscope" and the properties " gyroscopic inertia" & "
precision"
Free gyroscope: If the gyroscope is not constrained in any way so that there are no forces acting upon
the Rotor, so as to alter the direction in which the spin access points then the gyro is called a free
gyroscope.
A free gyroscope consist of rotor. So that it is free to point its spin axis in any direction. A free gyroscope
has 3 degrees of freedom namely
1. Freedom to spin about its own axis.
2. Freedom to tilt about a horizontal Axis.
3. Freedom to turn about a vertical Axis.
A free gyroscope has two properties:
1. Gyroscopic inertia (rigidity in space)
2. Gyroscopic precession.
Gyroscopic inertia: When a free gyroscope once gain spinning its axis it will always remain pointing in
the Same initial direction relative to a point In the space as long as no force applied upon the rotor. The
amount of inertia of a gyro possesses depends on-
a. Mass of the spinning wheel (greater the mass greater the inertia)
b. Mass distribution (the further the mass from the axis the greater the inertia)
c. Right off spin(the faster the spin the greater the inertia)
Gyroscopic precession: Precision is the direction of movement of the spin axis of a free gyroscope when
a force is applied to it. Precision will always act at right angles to the direction of the applied force.
Factors affecting on precession:
1. The direction of the spinning of the wheel(clockwise or anticlockwise)
2. The point at the force is applied to the spin axis(forward to aft, normally North side or South side)
3. The direction in which the force is applied (vertically or horizontally)
Hence If force applied vertically Precision will be horizontaly and if force applied horizontally procession
will be vertically
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4. Explain how a free gyroscope it made north seeking under the influence of gravity control?
To convert a free gyro into a north seeking device, use is made of gravity to apply a force to make the
gyro precess, hence the term gravity control.
Control has the effect of converting the circular path trace out by the spin axis into a elliptical path and
make it oscillate backwards and forwards across the Meridian.
Gravity control only makes the gyro north seeking
Two methods of gravity control are commonly used by compass manufacturers.
1. Top heavy weight control:
This method is used in sperry gyro compass.
For north seeking, to make the north end of the spin axis trace out elliptical path it must be made to
precess-
a. To the west when tilted above the Horizon
b. To the east one tilted below the Horizon
c. Roto turning anticlockwise viewed from south end.
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In order to achieve such precession all top heavy weight control gyros Must rotate anticlockwise when
viewed from South.
2. Bottom heavy weight control:
This method is used in Anschutz compasses.
Here again to make the north end of the spin axis trace out the elliptical path, it must be made to
precess.
A. To west when tilted above Horizontal
B. To East when tilted below Horizontal
C. Rotor turning clockwise viewed from North end
In order to achieve such precession, all bottom heavyweight control master rotate clockwise when
viewed from South End.
Weight of Precision varies as applied torque and torque depend on angle of tilt
Precession ∝ angle of tilt
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5. Describe the operating principle of a gyro repeater system?
Gyro synchro repeater system: Synchro repeater consists of a transmitter and receiver unit, each have a
rotor and 3 secondary coil, located at 120 degrees intervals on the stators.
The transmission rotor is given by azimuth gear wheel of the gyro.
An A/C is supplied to the transmitter rotor and 3 secondary coils to produce electromagnetic force
which causes current to flow around the three circuits. Each current produce a magnetic field around
the receiver coil and resultant error signal is induced in the receiver rotor coil.
When the rotor of both transmitter and receiver are not synchronised and error signal appear. This a
error signal to amplified to drive a Servo, which turns the repeaters compass card and turn the receiver
rotor to cancel the error signal. When the system is in synchronised state then there is no error signal
and that the system works.
6. Describe the use of damping in azimuth and and damping in tilt to cause settling of the axis and
thus produce a gyro compass.
Answer: For making the gyro spinning axis north seeking further precession have to impose, which will
damp out the gravity control electrical part traced buy the spin axis and make the gyro settle in or near
the Meridian. This process is called damping. Damping convert north seeking device into north settling
device.
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There are two ways in which the oscillation of the spin axis can be damped out:
1. Damping in azimuth (anschutz method)
2. Damping in tilt (sperry method)
1. Damping in azimuth: a torque about the horizontal axis is used to achieve a damping precession in
azimuth. This precession always acts towards the Meridian and whenever the spin Axis move out of the
Meridian damping precession in azimuth oppose the movement and tries to bring it back to the true
Meridian.
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The further out of the Meridian the spin axis, the greater the rate of damping precession.
Rate of damping precession (AZ) ∝ Sin AZ
2. Damping in tilt: A torque about the vertical axis is used to achieve the damping precession in tilt. the
precession always acts towards the horizontal and when the spin Axis move out of the horizontal(tilted
up or down) the damping precession tries to oppose it and bring it back to the Horizon. The greater the
angle of tilt of the spin axis, the more the damping precession.
Rate of damping precession (tilt) ∝ Angle of tilt
7. Describe settling of damping error and explain why this error changes with change of latitude?
The effect of drifting will not allow the gyro spin axis to remain in the Meridian and horizontal.As soon
as drifting carries the spin Axis out of the Meridian tilting will occur which produce an angle of tilt. This
in turn will bring about control and damping precession, the gyro will finally reach an equilibrium
position where drifting is balanced by control precession and tilting by damping precession in this
equilibrium position the north end of the spin axis settle out at the Meridian and tilt at the same angle
above or below the horizontal. The number of degrees the gyro settle out of the Meridian is called
settling or damping error.
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Damping error increase with latitude, this is because the rate of drifting increase with the latitude to
counteract. This increase in rate of drifting the angle of field must be increased in order to produce a
larger control precession. The effect of the increase in angle of tilt will however cause increasing in
damping precession and if equilibrium is to achieve the spin axis must be moved further out of the
Meridian to produce a larger angle of tilt to exactly balance the damping precession.
8.describe the effect of rolling on a liquid ballastic for various ships heading. Explain why the
movement of the liquid causes an error on the Cardinal heading?
When The vessel change her course it is subjected to horizontal acceleration.The compass always get
accelerated towards the position of the swing.it is maximum when the compass swing in the cardinal
heading.
the mercury swing between the north & south pot when the vessel is on a easterly or westerly course &
the swing in the north-south direction cancelling out the precession which is equal & opposite in the
both direction.(east & west)
When the vessel rolls north or South heading and have no precession means there is no surge of
Mercury.
Rolling on any other bearing, northerly or southerly and easterley or westerly component will cause a
torque about the vertical and horizontal axis, this does not cancel the precession set by opposite roll.
Therefore, compass tube connecting the Mercury pots do not allow free flow of Mercury to eliminate
the error.
9. With the aid of an diagram describe the gyro compass repeater system
Same as no 5
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10. Explain why a gyro compass that is damped in tilt will settle with its spin Axis at a small angle to
the Meridian, except when at the equator.
In North and South latitude that is damped in tilt owing to design features will settle its spin Axis at an
small angle to the Meridian because such gyro affected by settling and damping error which is the
number of degrees the gyro settles out of the Meridian. Damping error increases with latitude. This is
because the rate of drifting increases with latitude.
The effect of drifting will not allow the gyro spin access to remain on the Meridian and horizontal. As
soon as drifting carries the spin Axis out of the Meridian tilting will occur. Which interim will bring about
control and damping precession. The gyro will then reach in a equilibrium position, While drifting is
balanced by the controlled precession and tilting by damping precession. In this equilibrium position
north end at the spin Axis will settle with an small angle to the Meridian and tilted at a small angle
above or below the horizontal. This number of degree the gyro settle out of the Meridian is called
settling or damping error. Damping error increases with latitude this is because the rate increases with
latitude. But at the equator a gyro damped in tilt will settle in the Meridian and horizontal because in
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this equilibrium position there will be no precession acting on the gyro. For a gyro compass that is
damped in tilt will settle with an small angle to the Meridian except when at equator.
11. Explain with diagram how the course and speed error is produced and what is the remedial action
manufacturers takes to counteract this error.
The amount of the gyro settles out of the Meridian is called latitude correction and speed Error more
commonly just speed error. From the diagram it can be seen that the vessels course and speed and
latitude will all affect the size of the error but it is the vessels course which will decide whether the error
is east or West. On east and West heading the error will be zero.
Gyro settles in the Meridian on northerly course. Gyro settles to the west(high) at the Meridian and
southerly courses. Gyro supposed to the East(low) of the Meridian.
The Error is zero on East and West courses and maximum on North or South courses. The error will
therefore, for a given latitude wall vary as the co-course on a given course. The size of the error increase
if the latitude increase,
There are two methods used by gyro compass manufacturers to compensate for Speed error
1. Not eliminating the errors and simply allowance for it on all courses steered and bearings taken.
2. Eliminating the error at source and not allowing it to develop.
Method 1: No attempt is made to eliminate the error at all in source. A "delta tables" provided for gyro
compass with correction which has to be applied to quotes and bearings etc. Delta tables covers a range
of latitude up to 75 degree and speed up to 44 knots. This method is used in ancsthutz gyro compasses
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Method 2: Speed control knob is fitted to the gyro.By operating the knob a torque motor input an equal
and opposite rate of precision that cancels out the Apparent rate of tilting in a north/ south direction.
Course information is fed directly to the torque motor. And there is no need for latitude input as the
apparent rate of tilting is totally dependent of latitude.
12. What are the properties of gyroscope? Describe the effects of gyro failure during transiting
Singapore Street.
Properties of gyroscope:
A free gyroscope has two properties
1. Gyroscopic inertia(rigidity in space): EFI gyroscope once set, spinning will always remain pointing in
the same initial direction, relative to a point in the space,as long as no force is applied.
2. Gyroscopic precession: It is the direction of movement of the spin axis of a free gyroscope when a
force is applied. Precision will always Act at right angle to the direction of the applied force.
Effect of gyro failure in Singapore Strait:
The following problem will occur if gyro fails in the passage of Singapore Strait.
1. Malfunction of all equipments which has interface with the gyro compass.
2. Gyro repeater will not work.
3. Autopilot will not be operational.
4. Radar target's course and speed changes.
5. Radar can only operate in basic mode.(head up, relative motion)
6. Unable to maintain desired course.
Equipments affected by gyro failure:
1.ECDIS 2.AIS 3.RADAR/ARPA 4.SVDR 5.AUTOPILOT 6.GYRO REPEATER
Actions:
1. Inform the Singapore Strait VTS and proceed to anchor for repair.
2. Broadcast security/ safety message to all traffic in the vicinity.
3. Display appropriate sound and visual signals.
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13. Explain the operating principle of fibre optic gyro compass and ring laser gyro compass and they
are advantages over the mechanical/ballastic gyro compass.
FIBER OPTIC GYRO COMPASS:
Fibre-optic lines are strands of optically pure glass as thin as a human hair that carry digital information
over long distances.
They are used to transmit light signals over long distances.
E - Light Wave splits into two when enters the ring
A - One wave goes round the ring clockwise
C- One wave goes round the ring anticlockwise
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C - Clockwise light will travel little further
A- Anticlockwise light will travel little less
Phase Shift
-The speed of light is constant.
-The difference of distance travelled by the two waves is measured as a phase shift.
-This measures how fast fibre-optic ring is rotating.
-The phase shift is known as the Sagnac phase.
Fibre Optic Rings
Three rings at right angles to each other, mounted on the platform, will be sufficient to measure three
dimensional rate of turn of the platform (ship);
-Fore and Aft Ring - Vertical
-Athwartships Ring - Vertical
-Horizontal Ring
Causes of Platform Rotation
-Rotation of earth to east
-Rotation of the ship N/S
-Rotation of ship due to turning course
-Rotation of ship due to rolling
-Rotation of ship due to pitching
FOC North
-The Fibre Optic Compass calculates which way is East.
-90º to the left of this direction is North
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SOLID STATE FIBRE OPTIC COMPASS
Basic Operational Guide
-The Kallman Filter sends a beam of light to each of the fibre optic coils.
-Upon return of the beams the Kallman filter measures the Sagnac phase of each individual coil.
-Corrections are then applied on the basis of information received from the level sensing coils. These 2
coils measure ships movement in pitch and role.
-The Kallman filter sends the corrected Sagnac phases to the Micro Chip Processor.
-On receipt of the three Sagnac phase measurements the MCP searches within its own database for a
match.
-Once a match is found the direction of East is identified.
-The Micro Chip Processor readings from the Integrated Bridge System (which include position, speed
and heading) are used to help speed up the process of finding the best fit for the information given.
-The Processor then sends this information to the integrated bridge system with a 90° correction for
true north.
LASER RING GYROSCOPE
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In the 1980s, laser gyroscopes began to take over the work of their mechanical, and later, electronic,
forebears, without the slightest resemblance in principle or operation to the earlier devices. The idea
behind the ring laser gyroscope actually dates back to 1913, when a French physicist, Georges Sagnac,
experimented with rays of light moving in opposite directions around a circular cavity on a turntable.
Sagnac showed that when he rotated the turntable, the light traveling with the rotation arrived at a
target slightly after the light traveling against the rotation. He believed he had proven the existence of
ether in space. In fact, he was demonstrating a property of light that came to be understood much
better with the invention of the laser in the 1950s.
A laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) operates by exciting atoms in a plasma to
release electromagnetic energy, or photons, in a cavity. Each end of the cavity reflects the energy back
and forth, and it forms a standing wave pattern. The wave frequency—its pattern of peaks and
troughs—is determined in part by the length of the cavity.
In the laser gyroscope, the two counter rotating laser beams travel around a closed circuit or ring, which
is usually rectangular or triangular. Such a laser gyro is referred to commonly as a ring laser gyroscope.
Mirrors are located at each corner to turn the beams. At one corner, there is a detector or an output
sensor. However, rather than detecting time-of-travel differences, the detectors measure differences in
frequency, using the Doppler principle which is the basis of range-finding radars. The beam that is
traveling in the direction of rotation of the platform has a longer distance to travel and thus a lower
frequency. Conversely, the beam traveling against the direction of motion has a shorter path and a
higher frequency. The difference in frequency is directly proportional to the rotation rate.
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In an actual application Such as an aircraft autopilot, three laser gyroscopes would be used to sense
changes in pitch, roll, and yaw. In addition, there would be three accelerometers to measure
longitudinal,
Note that the ring can be active or passive. In the latter case, the cavity is simply a reflective medium,
and laser light is fed in from outside the system. In the former case, an excited plasma is placed in the
ring, and it lanses itself to produce the requisite laser beams.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
There are many characteristics desired in a gyroscope for military applications. These include accuracy,
long-term stability, low cost, high reliability, low maintenance, high tolerance to accelerations and
vibration, small size and light weight, minimum start-lip time, and low power requirements.
One of the significant attributes of the laser gyro is its use of very few moving parts. Indeed, it is
theoretically possible to build laser gyros without any moving components. Unlike the conventional
spinning gyroscope with its gimbals, bearings, and torque motors, the laser gyroscope uses a ring of
laser light, together with rigid mirrors and electronic devices. Thus the laser gyroscope is more rugged
than conventional gyros, offering the obvious advantages of much greater reliability and lower
maintenance requirements. Not only does the greater reliability of the laser gyro mean lower life-cycle
costs, but such gyros potentially could be less costly to produce in the first place. Current technological
efforts are under way to get production costs down. Indeed, some of the advanced work on very small
solid-state devices portends substantial reduction in cost and increases in reliability. The miniature laser
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gyros that may result could be used in such applications as low-cost tactical missiles and even
"guidance" systems issued to the individual foot soldier to replace his compass.
Because the laser gyro uses solid-state components and "mass-less" light, it is insensitive to variations in
the earth's magnetic and gravity fields. Likewise, shock and vibration have little impact. The laser gyros
are especially attractive for high-performance aircraft, remotely piloted vehicles, and missiles. High-
speed turns, dives, and jinking maneuvers do not represent a real problem to a laser gyro. Unlike a
conventional gyro that requires a finite time for wheels to spin up and bearings to come up to operating
temperatures, the laser gyro is essentially ready instantaneously when turned on. Again, because of the
absence of moving parts and solid-state components, a typical laser gyro has much lower power
requirements than a conventional laser and requires half as much cooling.
Disadvantages:
One of the inherent difficulties of the laser gyro is the problem of frequency "lock-in." As previously
mentioned, the laser gyro measures turning rate by sensing frequency differences. When the rate of
turn is very small and thus the frequency difference between the two beams is also small, there is a
tendency for the two frequencies to couple together, or "lock-in," and a zero turning rate is indicated.
Lock-in limits the accuracy of the laser gyro at important low turn rates. Fortunately, there are several
ways to overcome the problem of lock-in. The approach currently used in production devices is to
"dither," or vibrate, the gyroscope, either mechanically or electromagnetically. This dithering of the laser
gyroscope adds to the complexity, weight, and size of the device, and, in the case of mechanical
dithering, adds moving mechanical parts. Another approach is to rise a passive ring laser gyro. In a
passive system the laser itself is located outside the actual ring. This is in contrast to an active laser gyro,
where the laser is an integral part of the ring. To date, passive laser gyros are still in the experimental
stage; the laser gyros in production are all active devices.
Applications and the Future of the Laser Gyroscope
Laser gyroscopes are more than a laboratory experiment. A laser gyroscope system built by Honeywell is
used on the Boeing 757 and 767, the new generation of commercial transports. The European A310
Airbus uses a laser gyro unit built by Litton. Honeywell's laser gyro navigation systems are now being
installed in business jets such as the Gulfstream. Other prototype laser gyros have been test flown on
commercial aircraft, military fighters such as the A-7E and F-14, and helicopters, giving good accuracy
and outstanding reliability.
The future for the laser gyroscope is a bright one. A recent marketing survey has shown that in the last
half of this decade about 50 percent of the dollars spent on gyros for military aircraft will go for the laser
variety. In the 1990s, the amount will jump to 75 percent. According to this study, laser gyros should
start appearing in tactical missiles during the late 1980s or early 1990s. By the mid-1990s, they will
capture a predominant share of the market. The laser gyroscope is a viable contender for almost all
military and commercial applications, including military and commercial aircraft, tactical and strategic
missiles, naval and marine vehicles, land vehicles and weapon platforms, and spacecraft.
Page 75 of 80
14. Explain how gyro compass is preventing from any tendency to turn when swining pendulously As a
result of rolling or pitching. Explain how errors caused by acceleration of the compass during rolling
and pitching can be reduced.
LORAN C/E
1. Describe the operating principle of loran-C
Loran c is a hyperbolic radio navigation system. Such system operate on the principle that the difference
in time of interval of signals from two or more stations observed in the coverage area, is a measure of
the difference in distance from the point of observation to each of the stations. Loran C employees time
difference measurements of signal received from at least three fixed transmitting stations. The stations
are grouped to form a chain of which one station is labelled the master(designated M) and the others
are called secondary stations(designated X,Y or Z)
For a given master-secondary pair stations a constant difference in the time of arrival of signals defines a
hyperbolic line of position. The measurement of the received time difference from a secondary master-
secondary pair results in a second line of position. The position achieved by observing the intersections
of the two line of positions on specially latticed loran C charts.
Alternately most loran C receivers sold today are equipped with microprocessors. Which are designed to
compute and display the latitude and longitude coordinates of the receiver, based on the time
differences.
M if the master station, W,X,Y,Z are known as secondary station or slave. The master transmit a set of 8
+ 1 pulse the pulses are received by the vessel and by W,X,Y,Z.
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When the ships receiver receives the first Masters pulse it starts receiving. When the secondary stations
receives the first master pulse they wait for the short time known as coding delay then they transmit
similar set of 8 pulses.
The vessel receives the pulse from W,X,Y,Z and time the interval between receiving the master pulse
and receiving each of the four secondary pulse.
That time delay between receiving the master pulse and each of the secondary pulse depends on the
time it takes for the pulse to travel from the master and from each secondary and also the coding delay.
The time delay in effect depends on the position of The vessel. This Can be considered the other ways
that is the position of the patients. In other words if we know the time difference we know the vessels
position.
2. Describe the operating principles of e-LORAN and state the principle difference between
e-LORAN and traditional LORAN-C
Principle: E- loran is a low frequency Terrestrial navigational system based on a number of transmission
stations which emits perfectly timed and shaped radio pulses.
The stations are grouped in chains, where it consist of a single master station and two or more
secondary stations, the master station transmits first, followed by successive transmission from each of
the secondary stations of the chain. The master or secondary transmission sequence is repeated
periodically.
E-loran uses solid state transmitters precise timing(using atomic clocks) and integrity message. The
receiver unit is also able to output latitude and longitude directly.
The principal difference between E-loran and traditional Loran-C:
The principal difference between E-loran and traditional Loran-C is the addition of a data channel in the
transmitter signal. This convey application specific corrections, warning and signal integrity information
to the users receiver. It is this data channel that allows E-loran to meet the very demanding
requirements of landing aircraft using non Precision instruments, approaches and bring ship safely into
Harbour in low visibility condition.
3. List and explain the errors of LORAN-C
Errors of LORAN-C:
1. Lauren she suffers from Electronic effect of weather & Ionospheric effects in sunrise and sunset
2. The most accurate signal is the ground waves that follows the Earth surface ideally over sea water
3. At night the indirect Sky waves bent down to the surface by the ionosphere is a problem as multiple
signals may arrive via different parts(multipath interference)
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4. The ionospheric refraction to sunrise and sunset account for the particular disturbance during those
periods.
5. Magnetic Storms have serious effects as with any radio based system.
6. Loran uses ground based transmitter that only covers certain region. Coverage is quite good in North
America, europe and Pacific region.
7. The absolute accuracy of loran-C where is from 0.1 to 0.25NM. Repeatable accuracy is much greater,
typically from 60 to 300 feet.
4.Describe the components, principles, coverage and various usage of e-LORAN.
eLoran is the latest in the longstanding and proven series of low-frequency, LOng-RAnge Navigation
(LORAN) systems, one that takes full advantage of 21st-century technology. It’s a precise source of time
(phase) and frequency. Additionally, eLoran provides user bearing (azimuth) and has built-in integrity. In
full disclosure, however, eLoran is only a 2D positioning solution unless integrated with a simple
altimeter.
eLoran is a low-frequency radio navigation system ` eLoran is built on internationally standardized

Loran-C, and provides a high-power PNT service for use by all modes of transport and in other
applications. eLoran is an independent dissimilar complement to GNSS. It allows GNSS users to retain
the safety, security and economic benefits of GNSS even when their satellite services are disrupted.
eLoran uses pulsed signals at a center frequency of 100 kHz. The pulses are designed to allow receivers
to distinguish between the groundwave and skywave components in the received composite signal. This
way, the eLoran signals can be used over very long ranges without fading or uncertainty in the time-of-
arrival (TOA) measurement related to skywaves.
Although eLoran is based upon Loran-C, it has key differences:
• All transmissions are synchronized to UTC (like GPS)
• Time-of-transmission control
• The ability to use differential corrections (similar to DGPS)
• Receivers use “all-in-view” signals
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• Includes one or more Loran data channels that provide: Low-rate data messaging, added integrity,
differential corrections (dLoran and/or DGPS) and other communications including navigation
messages.
An eLoran receiver measures the TOA of the eLoran signal:
TOA = TOR – TOT = PF + SF + ASF + ∆Rx
where TOR is time of reception, TOT is time of transmission, PF is the primary factor (propagation delay
through air), SF is the secondary factor (propagation delay over sea), ASF is the additional secondary
factor (propagation delay over terrain) and ∆Rx is the delay due to receiver electronics and cables.
The primary and secondary factors are well-defined delays and can be calculated as a function of
distance. The additional secondary factor delay is mostly unknown at the time of installation.
Fortunately, the ASFs remain very stable over time. Any fine changes in ASF over time may be
compensated for by one or more differential eLoran reference station sites providing corrections over
the Loran data channel.
When eLoran is used for positioning, a minimum of three eLoran transmitting sites are needed to
calculate a two-dimensional position fix and time. Time (phase) and frequency can be derived from a
single transmitting site as well. With three sites, timing can be derived while a receiver is in motion. An
integrated eLoran/GPS receiver can take advantage of combinations of eLoran and GPS transmissions to
develop a PNT solution. Any additional measurements provide a means to improve the solution’s
accuracy (using weighted least squares) or to protect the solution’s integrity (by receiver-autonomous
integrity monitoring).
To achieve the highest accuracy levels, the user receiver corrects its TOA measurements with the
published ASF values for the area and differential eLoran corrections received through the Loran data
channel. ASF maps for specific geographic areas are distributed to users .The ASF map data would be
published by the service provider responsible for aids to navigation.
As described before, the measured ASF values remain stable over long periods of time. Any small
changes in the published ASFs due to changes in propagation path characteristics or transmitter-related
delays will be compensated for by differential corrections. For this, a differential eLoran reference
station site is deployed within 20 to 30 miles (32 to 48 kilometers) of the area of interest. The reference
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station compares its measured ASFs against the published values and broadcasts corrections to the
users through the Loran data channel. Figure 1 shows the principle of differential eLoran positioning in a
maritime environment and is representative of its use in other modalities as well.
Coverage:
Together with Loran transmitters in England, France, Germany, Norway and Denmark, the differential
eLoran reference stations provide better than 10-meter positioning accuracy at seven ports and port
approaches along the English and Scottish east coast. IOC was achieved at the end of 2014, with full
operational capability planned for 2018. Other nations have either begun, or are exploring, similar
projects.
Usage:
Maritime. There is an increasing awareness in the maritime world that no single system can provide PNT
resiliently under all circumstances. At this moment, GPS (with augmentations) is used on most
commercial vessels,Even though the introduction of GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou and other GNSS systems
will provide some resilience, the underlying (satellite) technology remains the same, only providing
relatively weak signals from space at mostly the same or close-by frequencies for compatibility and
inter-operability.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) recognizes the need for multiple PNT systems on board
maritime vessels. The organization developed the e-Navigation concept to increase maritime safety and
security via means of electronic navigation, which calls for at least two independent dissimilar sources of
positioning and time in a navigation system to make it robust and fail safe. As a follow on, IMO’s
Navigation, Communications and Search and Rescue Committee is considering performance standards
for multi-system shipborne navigation receivers, which includes placeholders for satellite, augmentation
and terrestrial systems.
The most viable terrestrial system providing PNT services that meet IMO’s requirements is eLoran. With
three eLoran transmitters in good geometry, eLoran can provide sub-10 meter (95 percent probability
level) horizontal positioning accuracy and UTC synchronization within 50 nanoseconds, sufficient to be
the co-primary PNT solution with GNSS. The General Lighthouse Authorities of the United Kingdom and
Ireland (GLAs) have installed UrsaNav’s differential eLoran reference stations to provide the world’s first
initial operational capability (IOC) eLoran system.
5. Explain and demonstrate how position fixing is achieved using Loran-C.
Page 80 of 80

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NAV AID SOLUTIONS, FAHAD HASSAN (BMA 46th)

b) describe briefly the two code which are transmitted

c) explain why two frequencies are used

This codes are modulated by phase modulation techniques on to carrier frequencies.

L1= 1575.42 megahertz

L2= 1227.60 megahertz

C) Reason for using 2 frequency:

L1= 1575.42 megahertz

L2= 1227.60 megahertz

2. Describe the working principle of GLONASS? (see no 10)

3.Describe how the position is determined by GPS receiver?

Position fixing by GPS:

Where C = velocity of the radio waves

t1-t2 = time taken for satellite signal to reach the receiver

Hence with respect to satellite clock, 4 unknown elements:

1. Latitude 2. Longitude 3. Attitude 4. User clock error

PR1-(CxΔt) = √ (X1 − X) 2 + (Y1 − Y) 2 + (Z1 − Z) 2

Here, PR1= pseudo range from satellite S1

(Cx Δt)= error in range measurement due to error in users clock

PR2-(CxΔt) = √ (X2 − X) 2 + (Y2 − Y) 2 + (Z2 − Z) 2

PR3-(CxΔt) = √ (X3 − X) 2 + (Y3 − Y) 2 + (Z3 − Z) 2

PR4-(CxΔt) = √ (X4 − X) 2 + (Y4 − Y) 2 + (Z4 − Z) 2

With the help of this equation 3D pics of tangent is obtained.

4.Describe the limitation of GLONASS system receiver.

Global navigational satellite system(Glonass) if based on a satellite navigation system which

The general system limitations are as follows:

2. Lack of availability and continuity of service.

3. Critical phase of flight.

4. No control by an International Civil body

The system also have following error -

1. Satellite clock error

2. Atmospheric error(due to ionosphere and troposphere)

5. Receivers clock errors

The main sources of errors in GPS:

- ionosphere and troposphere delay

- users clock error

- satellite clock error

Ionospheric and tropospheric delay:

Users clock error:

Satellite clock error:

-GDOP(geometric dilution of precision)

-PDOP(positional dilution of precision)

-HDOP(horizontal dilution of precision)

-VDOP(vertical dilution of precision)

-TDOP (time dilution of precision)

SA if the international degradation of SPS(satellite positioning system)SA is controlled by the United

The Galileo system will have 5 main services

1. Open access navigation

3. Safety of life navigation

4. Public regulated navigation

5. Search and rescue services

2. Dual frequency- 4 metres

In addition, its service is guaranteed

Controlled by civil administration instead of military

SUBJECT GLONASS NAVSTER GALILEO

Control: United States DOD( department of defence)

Satellite: total 27 satellites (24 operational and 3 active spare)

Orbits: 6 circular medium Earth orbit(MEO) planes