Polynomials and Rational

Functions (2.1)

The shape of the graph of a

polynomial function is related to the
degree of the polynomial
Shapes of Polynomials
† Look at the shape of the odd degree
polynomials
f ( x) = x − 27 x
3

f ( x) = x − 5 x + 4 x + 1
5 3
Graph of Odd polynomial
y=x^5-5x^3+4x+1

5
4
3
2
1
0
-3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
-3
Graph of Odd Polynomial

f ( x ) = x − 27 x3

y=x^3-27x

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-20

-40

-60
Graphs of even degree polynomials
† Now, look at the y=x^4-6x^2

shape of the even 30

degree polynomial 25

20

f (x) = x − 6 x
4 2 15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-5

-10

-15
 Graph of even degree polynomial
† Here is another f(x)=3x^2+6x-1

example of an 50

even degree
40
polynomial :
30

f ( x) = 3 x + 6 x − 1
2 20

10

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4
-10
Generalization:
† The graphs of odd-degree
polynomials start negative, end
positive and cross the x-axis at least
once.
† The even-degree polynomial graphs
start positive, end positive, and may
not cross the x axis at all
Characteristics of polynomials:
† Graphs of polynomials are
continuous. One can sketch the
graph without lifting up the pencil.
† 2. Graphs of polynomials have no
sharp corners.
† 3. Graphs of polynomials usually have
turning points, which is a point that
separates an increasing portion of the
graph from a decreasing portion.
Turning points and x intercepts
† Theorem 1 : Turning points and x
Intercepts of Polynomials
† The graph of a polynomial function of
positive degree n can have at most
n-1 turning points and can cross the
x axis at most n times.
Largest value of the roots of a
polynomial
† Theorem 2: Maximum value of an x-
intercept of a polynomial. If r is a zero of
the polynomial P(x) this means that P(r) = 0.
For example,
p ( x) = x − 4 x
2

† is a second degree polynomial . and

p (4) = 42 − 4(4) = 0
† , so r = 4 is a zero of the polynomial as well as
being an x-intercept of the graph of p(x).
Cauchy’s Theorem
† A theorem by a French mathematician
named Cauchy allows one to determine
the maximum value of a zero of a
polynomial (maximum value of the x-
intercept).
† Let’s take an example: the polynomial

p( x) = x − 4 x
2
Cauchy’s Theorem
† According to this theorem

r < 1 + maximum value of { 1 , −4 }

=1+4=5

† The numbers within the absolute value

symbols are the coefficients of the polynomial
p(x).
p( x) = x − 4 x
2
Result of application of Cauchy’s
theorem
† From this result we have , which
means -5 < r < 5 . This tells us that
we should look for any potential x
intercepts within the range of -5 and
5 on the x –axis. In other words, no
intercepts (roots) will be found that
are greater than 5 nor less than -5.
,
Conclusion
† From the graph of
p(x) = x −4x
2

we find that the other zero is located

at (0,0). Thus, the two zeros , 0 , -4,
are within the range of -5 to 5 on the
x-axis. Now, let’s try another
example:
An Example:
† Example: Approximate the real zeros of
P( x) = 3 x3 + 12 x 2 + 9 x + 4
† First step: Coefficient of cubic term must equal one, so
divide each term by three to get a new polynomial Q(x)=
4
x + 4 x + 3x +
3 2

3
† Roots of new polynomial are the same as the
roots of P(x).
Example, continued
† Step 2: Use the theorem:
⎧ 1⎫
r < 1 + max ⎨ 4 , 3 , ⎬
⎩ 3⎭

r < 1+ 4 = 5
r <5
Example, continued
† Step3: We know that all possible x intercepts
(roots) are found along the x-axis between -5
and 5. So we set our viewing rectangle on our
calculator to this window and graph the
polynomial function.

† Step 4. Use the zero command on our

calculator to determine that the root is
approximately -3.19 (there is only one root).
Rational Functions
† Definition: Rational function: a quotient of two
polynomials, P(x) and Q(x), is a rational function
for all x such that Q(x) is not equal to zero.
Example: Let P(x) = x + 5 and
Q(x) = x – 2 then

R(x)= x+5
x−2
is a rational function that is defined for all real
values of x with the exception of 2 (Why?)
Domain of rational functions
† Domain : { x x ≠ 2}
† and x is a real number. This is read as “the set of all
numbers, x , such that x is not equal to 2.
† X intercepts of a rational function: To determine the x-
intercepts of the graph of any function, we find the
values of x for which y = 0 . In our case y = 0 implies
that 0 = x + 5

x−2
† This implies that x + 5 = 0 or x = -5 .
Y-intercept of a rational function
† Y intercept: The y intercept of a function is the
value of y for which x = 0 . Setting x = 0 in the
equation we have y = , or -5/2. So, the y-
intercept is located at ( 0, -2.5). Notice that
the y-intercept is a point described by an
ordered pair, not just a single number. Also,
remember that a function can have only one y
intercept but more than one x-intercept
† ( Why?)
Graph of a Rational function:
1. Plot points near the value at which the function is
undefined. In our case, that would be near x = 2. Plot
values such as 1.5, 1.7. 1.9 and 2.1, 2.3, 2.5. Use your
calculator to evaluate function values and make a table.
2. Determine what happens to the graph of f(x) if x
increases or decreases without bound. That is, for x
approaching positive infinity or x approaching negative
infinity.
3. Sketch a graph of a function through these points.

4. Confirm the results using a calculator and a proper

viewing rectangle.
Graph of rational function
50
40
30
20 y=(x+5)/(x-2)
approaches
10 zero as x gets small
approaches zero as x gets large
0
Series1
-2 -1-10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-20 undefined at
-30 x=2
-40
-50
Conclusions:
† From the graph we see that there is a vertical
asymptote at x = 2 because the graph
approaches extremely large numbers as x
approaches 2 from either side.
† We also see that y = 0 is a horizontal
asymptote of the function since y tends to go
to zero as x tends to either a very large
positive number or very small negative
number.
Exponential functions

The equation f ( x) = b x
defines the exponential function with
base b . The domain is the set of all real
numbers, while the range is the set of all
positive real numbers
( y > 0). Note y cannot equal to zero.
Riddle
† Here is a problem related to exponential functions:
† Suppose you received a penny on the first day of
December, two pennies on the second day of December,
four pennies on the third day, eight pennies on the
fourth day and so on. How many pennies would you
receive on December 31 if this pattern continues?
† 2) Would you rather take this amount of money or
receive a lump sum payment of $10,000,000?
Solution (Complete the table)
Day No.
pennies
1 1
2 2 2^1
3 4 2^2
4 8 2^3
5 16
6 32
7 64
Generalization
† Now, if this pattern continued, how many
pennies would you have on Dec. 31?
† Your answer should be 2^30 ( two raised to
the thirtieth power). The exponent on two is
one less than the day of the month. See the
preceding slide.
† What is 2^30?
† 1,073,741,824 pennies!!! Move the decimal
point two places to the left to find the amount
in dollars. You should get: $10,737,418.24
Solution, continued
† The obvious answer to question two is to take
the number of pennies on December 31 and
not a lump sum payment of $10,000,000
† (although, I would not mind having either
amount!)
† This example shows how an exponential
function grows extremely rapidly. In this case,
the exponential function
f ( x) = 2
x

† is used to model this problem.

Graph of f ( x) = 2 x

† Use a table to graph the exponential

function above. Note: x is a real
number and can be replaced with
numbers such as 2 as well as
other irrational numbers. We will use
integer values for x in the table:
Table of values
x y

-4 1 1
2 −4 = 4
=
2
1 16
-3 2 −3 =
8
-2 −2 1
2 =
4
-1 −1 1
2 =
2
2 =1
0 0
1
21 = 2
2
2 =4
2
Graph of y = f ( x ) = 2
x
Characteristics of the graphs of f ( x) = b x

where b> 1

† 1. all graphs will approach the x-axis as x gets large.

† 2. all graphs will pass through (0,1) (y-intercept)
† 3. There are no x – intercepts.
† 4. Domain is all real numbers
† 5. Range is all positive real numbers.
† 6.
The graph is always increasing on its domain.
† 7. All graphs are continuous curves.
Graphs of f (x) = b x if 0 < b < 1
† 1. all graphs will approach the x-axis as x gets large.
† 2. all graphs will pass through (0,1) (y-intercept)
† 3. There are no x – intercepts.
† 4. Domain is all real numbers
† 5. Range is all positive real numbers.
† 6.
The graph is always decreasing on its domain.
† 7. All graphs are continuous curves.
 1 −x
Graph of f ( x) = 2 = x
2
† Using a table of values once again, you will obtain the following graph.
The graphs of f ( x) = b and f ( x ) = b − x will be symmetrical with
x

respect to the y-axis, in general.

12

10

8
graph of y = 2^(-x)
6
approaches the positive x-axis as x gets large
4

2 passes through (0,1)

0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Graphing other exponential
functions
† Now, let’s graph f ( x) = 3 x

† Proceeding as before, we construct a

table of values and plot a few
points.Be careful not to assume that
the graph crosses the negative x-
axis. Remember, it gets close to the
x-axis, but never intersects it.
Preliminary graph of f ( x) = 3 x
Complete graph
30
y = 3^x
25

20

15 Series1

10

0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Other exponential graphs
† This is the graph of
−x
f ( x) = 4
† It is symmetric to the
graph of f ( x ) = 4 x
† with respect to the y-axis
† Notice that it is always
decreasing.
† It also passes through
(0,1).
Exponential function with base e
† The table to the left
1 2 illustrates what happens
to the expression
10 2.59374246 x
⎛ 1⎞
( ⎜1 + ⎟
100 2.704813829
1 ⎝ x⎠
+
1000 1
2.716923932 † as x gets increasingly
/
x larger. As we can see
10000 2.718145927
) from the table, the
^ values approach a
1000000 x
2.718280469 number whose
approximation is 2.718
Leonard Euler
x
† Leonard Euler first demonstrated that ⎛ 1 + 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x⎠
† will approach a fixed constant we now call “e”.
† So much of our mathematical notation is due to Euler
that it will come as no surprise to find that the
notation e for this number is due to him. The claim
which has sometimes been made, however, that Euler
used the letter e because it was the first letter of his
name is ridiculous. It is probably not even the case
that the e comes from "exponential", but it may have
just be the next vowel after "a" and Euler was already
using the notation "a" in his work. Whatever the
reason, the notation e made its first appearance in a
letter Euler wrote to Goldbach in 1731.
† (http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/e.html#s19)
Leonard Euler
† He made various discoveries
regarding e in the following
years, but it was not until 1748
when Euler published
Introductio in Analysis in
infinitorum that he gave a full
treatment of the ideas
surrounding e. He showed that
† e = 1 + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3!
+ ...

† and that e is the limit of

† (1 + 1/n)^n as n tends to
infinity. Euler gave an
approximation for e to 18
decimal places,
† e = 2.718281828459045235
Graph of f ( x) = e x

graph of y = e^x † Graph is similar to

25 the graphs of
20 f ( x) = 2 x
15 † and
10
Series1 f ( x ) = 3x
5
Has same
characteristics as
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 these graphs
Growth and Decay applications
† The atmospheric pressure p „ Find the pressure at
decreases with increasing sea level ( h =1)
height. The pressure is
related to the number of
kilometers h above the sea
level by the formula:
„ Find the pressure at
a height of 7
P(h) = 760e −0.145 h kilometers.
Solution:
„ Find the pressure at „ Find the pressure at
sea level ( h =1) a height of 7
kilometers

P (1) = 760 e − 0.145(1)

= 657.42 P (7) = 760 e − 0.145 ( 7 ) = 275.43
Depreciation of a machine
† A machine is initially † Solution:
worth V dollars
0
† but loses 10% of its V (t ) = V0 (0.9t )
value each year. Its
value after t years is
given by the formula V (8) = 30000(0.98 ) = $12,914
V (t ) = V0 (0.9 )
t

† Find the value after 8

years of a machine
whose initial value is
$30,000
Compound interest
† The compound interest formula is
nt
⎛ r⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ n⎠
† Here, A is the future value of the
investment, P is the initial amount
(principal), r is the annual interest
rate as a decimal, n represents the
number of compounding periods per
year and t is the number of years
Problem:
† Find the amount to which $1500 will grow if deposited in
a bank at 5.75% interest compounded quarterly for 5
years.

† Solution: Use the compound interest formula:

nt
⎛ r⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟
† ⎝ n⎠ Substitute 1500 for P, r = 0.0575,
† n = 4 and t = 5 to obtain
(4)(5)
⎛ 0.0575 ⎞
A = 1500 ⎜1 + ƒ ⎟ =$1995.55
⎝ 4 ⎠
Logarithmic Functions
† In this section, another type of function will
be studied called the logarithmic function.
There is a close connection between a
logarithmic function and an exponential
function. We will see that the logarithmic
function and exponential functions are
inverse functions. We will study the concept
of inverse functions as a prerequisite for
our study of logarithmic function.
One to one functions
We wish to define an inverse of a function.
Before we do so, it is necessary to
discuss the topic of one to one
functions.

First of all, only certain functions are one

to one.
Definition: A function is said to be one to
one if distinct inputs of a function
correspond to distinct outputs. That is,
if
Graph of one to one function
† This is the graph of a one to one function. Notice that if we choose two
different x values, the corresponding values are also different. Here,
we see that if x =- 2 , y = 1 and if x = 1, y is about 3.8.
† Now, choose any other
† pair of x values. Do you
† see that the
† corresponding y
† values will always be
different?
Horizontal Line Test
† Recall that for an equation to be a function, its graph
must pass the vertical line test. That is, a vertical line
that sweeps across the graph of a function from left to
right will intersect the graph only once.

† There is a similar geometric test to determine if a

function is one to one. It is called the horizontal line
test. Any horizontal line drawn through the graph of a
one to one function will cross the graph only once. If
a horizontal line crosses a graph more than once,
then the function that is graphed is not one to one.
Which functions are one to one?
40 12

30 10

20 8

10 6

0 4
-4 -2 0 2 4
-10 2

-20 0
-4 -2 0 2 4
-30
Definition of inverse function
† Given a one to one function, the inverse function is
found by interchanging the x and y values of the
original function. That is to say, if ordered pair (a,b)
belongs to the original function then the ordered pair
(b,a) belongs to the inverse function. Note: If a
function is not one to one (fails the horizontal line
test) then the inverse of such a function does not
exist.
Logarithmic Functions
† The logarithmic function with base two is defined to be the
inverse of the one to one exponential function x
y=2
† Notice that the exponential 9
† function
y=2 x 8
7
6
5 graph of y = 2^(x)
† is one to one and therefore has 4
approaches the negative x-axis as x gets
an inverse. 3 large
2
passes through (0,1)
1
0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Inverse of exponential function
† Start with
y=2 x

† Now, interchange x and y coordinates:

x = 2y
† There are no algebraic techniques that can be used to solve
for y, so we simply call this function y the logarithmic
function with base 2.
log x = y
2
† So the definition of this new function is
† log x = y if and only if
2 x=2 y

† (Notice the direction of the arrows to help you remember

the formula)
Graph, domain, range of
logarithmic function
† 1. The domain of the logarithmic function is the same as
the range of the exponential function
† (Why?) y=2 x

† 2. The range of the logarithmic function is the same as

the domain of the exponential function
† (Again, why?)
y=2 x

† 3. Another fact: If one graphs any one to one function

and its inverse on the same grid, the two graphs will
always be symmetric with respect the line y = x.
•

Three graphs: y = 2 x , log 2 x = y , y=x

Notice the symmetry:

• •

• • •
• •
•
•
Logarithmic-exponential
conversions
† Study the examples below. You should be able to
convert a logarithmic into an exponential expression
and vice versa.
† 1. log 4 (16) = x → 4 x = 16 → x = 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
† 2.
( )
log 3 ⎜ ⎟ = log 3 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = log 3 3−3 = 3
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
† 3. 125 = 5 → log5 (125) = 3
3

1
† 4. 1
81 = 9 → 81 = 9 → log81 ( 9 ) =
2
2
 Solving equations
Using the definition of a logarithm, you can solve equations
involving logarithms: See examples below:

log b (1000) = 3 → b = 1000 → b = 10 → b = 10

3 3 3

log 6 ( x ) = 5 → 6 = x → 7776 = x
5
Properties of logarithms
† These are the properties of logarithms. M and N are
positive real numbers, b not equal to 1, and p and x are
real numbers.

1. log b (1) = 0 5. log b MN = log b M + log b N

M
2. log b (b) = 1 6. log b = log b M − log b N
N
3. log b b = 1x
7. log b M p = p log b M
4. b logb x
=x 8. log b M = log b N iff M = N
Solving logarithmic equations
1. Solve for x: log 4 ( x + 6) + log 4 ( x − 6) = 3 →
2. Product rule log 4 ( x + 6)( x − 6) = 3 →
3. Special product
log 4 ( x 2 − 36 ) = 3 →
4. Definition of log
43 = x 2 − 36 →
64 = x − 36 →
2

5. X can be 10 only 100 = x 2 →

6. Why?
±10 = x →
x = 10
Another example
† Solve:

log π − log(10000π ) = x →
† 2. Quotient rule
π
log =x→
† 3. Simplify 10000π
† (divide out common factor of pi)
⎛ 1 ⎞
log ⎜ ⎟=x→
† 4. rewrite
⎝ 10000 ⎠
log10 ⎡⎣10 −4 ⎤⎦ = x →
† 5 definition of logarithm
10 x = 10 −4 →
† 6. Property of exponentials x = −4
Common logs and Natural logs
† Common log † Natural log

log x = log10 x ln( x) = log e x

e ≈ 2.7181828
Solving an equation
1. Solve for x. Obtain the † Solution:
exact solution of this ln( x + 1) = 1 = ln( x ) →
equation in terms of e
(2.71828…) ln( x + 1) − ln( x ) = 1
2. Quotient property of logs ⎛ x +1⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ =1→
⎝ x ⎠
3. Definition of (natural log) x +1
e1 = →
4. Multiply both sides by x x
5. Collect x terms on left side ex = x + 1 → 0 →
6. Factor out common factor ex − x = 1 →
7. Solve for x
x (e − 1) = 1 →
1
x=
e −1
Solving an exponential equation
† Solve the equation † Solution:
−2 x −1
5 = 80 5−2 x −1 = 80 →
ln ( 5−2 x −1 ) = ln(80) →
1. Take natural logarithm of both
sides

2. Exponent property of logarithms ( −2 x − 1) ln(5) = ln(80) →

3. Distributive property −2 x ln(5) − 1ln(5) = ln 80 →
4. Isolate x term on left side −2 x ln(5) = ln 80 − ln 5 →
5. Solve for x ln 80 − ln 5
x=
−2 ln(5)
Application
† How long will it take money † Solution:
to double if compounded mt
monthly at 4 % interest ? ⎛ r⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟
† 1. compound interest ⎝ m⎠
formula 12 t
2. Replace A by 2P (double ⎛ 0.04 ⎞
† 2 P = P ⎜1 + ⎟
the amount) ⎝ 12 ⎠
† 3. Substitute values for r
and m 2 = (1.003333...)12t
† 4. Take ln of both sides ln 2 = ln ( (1.003333...)12t )
† 5. Property of logarithms
† 6. Solve for t and evaluate ln 2 = 12t ln(1.00333...)
expression ln 2
= t → t = 17.36
12 ln(1.00333...)