A REPORT on INDUSTRIAL TRAINING at

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

RAMACHANDRAPURAM, HYDERABAD-32.

A Report submitted to the faculty of Government Polytechnic, Visakhapatnam in partial fulfilment for the award of

DIPLOMA
In

METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

Offered by

State Board of Technical Education & Training, Hyderabad.

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION * BHEL * CORPORATE PROFILE * HPEP 2. FOUNDRIES * INTRODUCTION * PLANNING * TECHNOLOGY 3. PATTERN MAKING 4. MOULDING 5. SAND LAB 6. MELTING 7. CASTING DEFECTS 8. FETTLING * FETTLING OPERATIONS * INSPECTION

SUMMARY

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BHEL BHEL is the heavy engineering and manufacturing enterprise of its kind in the public sector in INDIA. It is an ISO Certified Company. The first plant of what is known as BHEL was established nearly 38 years ago at Bhopal and was the genesis of the Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry in INDIA. BHEL is today the largest engineering enterprise of its kind in World, with excellent track record of performance, making profits continuously since 197172. BHEL ranks among the top 12 organizations in world, engaged in the manufacture of Power generating equipment that the company provides products, systems and services in the fields of energy, industry and transportation. BHELs operations are organized around business sectors to provide a strong market route. These business sectors are power, industry and international operations. The company today enjoys national and international presence of featuring in fortune International 500. BHEL s wide range of products caters to the needs of power generation for Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear power stations transmissions, transportation, industry, oil, sugar, paper, fertilizer gas and non-conventional energy. BHEL is major contributor of equipment and system to important industries like cement, fertilizers, petrochemicals, steels paper, mining and telecommunication. The systems and equipment supplied include captive power stations, high speed industrial drive turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries, waste heat recovery boilers, Gas turbines, electrical machines, pumps, valves, seamless steel tubes, Heat exchangers, process controls, oil extraction equipment (oil rigs), coal pulverises etc. BHEL is a major producer of large size thirstier devices. It also contains digital distributed control systems for process industries and power station controls. BHEL is the only company in India with the capability to make simulators and power plants, defence applications and other operations.

BHEL has been regularly supplying on-shore-drawing rings, x-mass tree valves and wellheads to ONGC and oil India. BHEL also supplied super drilling rigs and hell-rigs. BHEL manufactures EPABX and RAX systems based on C-DOT technology starting with 256 ports RAX; BHEL has now begun manufacturing 512 ports RAX also. BHEL manufacture large size wind electric generators of unit ratings up to 250 kW for wind forms to meet the growing demand for energy. BHEL has also commissioned 3 MW wind from at ramagiri on Build-Own-Operate basis. BHEL provides, services and projects have been exported to 52 countries ranging from United States in West to New Zealand in Far East. The cumulative capacity of power generating equipment supplied by BHEL out side India is over 3000 MW. The companys overseas presence includes several projects, notable few being 150 MW (ISO) Gas turbines to Germany 60 MW and 120 MW Boilers, frame VI OPEN CYCLE Gas turbine projects, Hydro projects in Malaysia, 240 MW turnkey power station for Tripoli west power station in Libya, 2.60 MW turbine generator Packages, each for Malta and Cyprus, hydro generators in Thailand. BHEL is currently executing major gas based contract in Egypt and several Transformers contracts in Malaysia.For excellent Performance in exports, BHEL won the top exports shield from EEPC for the year 19941995 in the project export category. Today, BHEL has 14 manufacturing divisions, service centers and 4 power sector Regional centers, in addition to over 150 project spread all over India and abroad to provide prompt and effective services to customers.

1.2 BHEL CORPORATE PROFILE HYDERABAD

Up to 144 MW of Gas Turbines, Steam turbines, Circuit Breakers, Bowl Mills, Pumps, Heat Exchangers and oil rigs.

HARIDWAR TIRCHANAPALLI High pressure Boiler plant and seamless steel tube RANIPET BHOPAL JHANSI BANGALORE JAGADHISHPUR VARANASI GOINDWAL RUDRAPUR

Up to 500 MW of Steam turbines. Casting & Forging.

Boiler Auxiliaries Plant. Up to 210 MW of Steam & Hydro turbines. Gears, Traction Motors. Transformers Electronics Division, Control equipment division, amorphous Silicon solar cell plant. Insulator Plant. Heavy Equipment Repair Plant. Industrial Valves Plant. Component Fabrication Plant.

1.3 BHEL HYDERABAD HPEP 1.3.1 The plant location BHEL R.C. Puram is located at a distance of 28 Kms. from Hyderabad- Mumbai trunk road. BHEL complex at R.C.Puram is 4 Kms. away from Lingampally Railway Station, which is on Secunderabad-Mumbai broad gauge railway line. It is situated at an altitude of about 545 Mts above mean sea level (MSL) Hyderabad city is at 7828` longitude and 1732 altitude. The factory area is 750 acres out which present fenced area is 350 acres and area of 400 acres is available for future expansion of the factory. 1.3.2 Products at BHEL Hyderabad 1. TURBINES a) Steam Turbines. b) Gas Turbines. 2. TURBO GENERATORS a) Steam Turbine Generators. b) Gas Turbine Generators. c) Air Cooled Generators. 3. TURBO COMPRESSOR 4. SWITCH GEARS & CIRCUIT BREAKERS 5. PUMPS 6. OIL FIELD EQUIPMENT (OIL RIGS) 7. PULVERIZING MILLS OR BOWL MILLS 8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 9. SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS 10. MOTORS

1.3.3 Products and collaborations INDUSTRIAL TURBINES MARINE TURBINES OILRIGS SWITCHGEARS TURBO, HYDRO SETS MOTOR AND FEED PUMPS COOLING WATER PUMPS 1.3.4 Functions BHEL R.C.puram has mainly two functions 1. PRODUCT FUNCTIONS. 2. SERVICE FUNCTIONS. 1.3.5 Product Functions: 1.3.5.1 GAS STEAM TURBINES AND COMPRESSORS SHOP - 01 SHOP: It is the biggest shop floor with an area of 35,311 Sq. M (approximately accommodating 1000 people.) It contains nearly 250 Machines. 1. STEAM TURBINES: It has Utility sets- 60,110,120 and Industrial sets at a capacity of 1.5 MW to 60 MW 2. GAS TURBINES: The following frames with capacities of Gas turbines are produced in this shop a) Frame-III (1.80 MW) b) Frame-V (25.26 MW) c) Frame-VI (38.4 MW) d) Frame-IX (110 -132 MW) : : Promo Seaport USSR Weir Pumps England UK : : : : Siemens- West Germany English Electric Co. UK. Oil Well Corporation USA Asia, Sweden

3. COMPRESSORS: a) Centrifugal Compressor b) Horizontal split type c) Vertical split type d) Barrel type 1.3.5.2 ELECTRICAL MACHINES (Turbo Alternators Shop) - 02 SHOP: In this shop produces Turbo generators with a capacity of 1.5MW, 210MW and 500MW. Synchronous Condenser, Exciters BFP Motors (Boiler Feed Pump), Alternators etc. 1.3.5.3 SWITCH GEAR - 03. SHOP: Circuit breaker, Air Blast circuits breakers, Minimum oil circuit breakers, Sulphur hexa fluoride gas breaker, Fuel Nozzle for Gas Turbines, Delta Panel for Bowl mills, Control panel Electrical machines, Plasma coatings show for gas Turbines. 1.3.5.4 FERROUS FOUNDRY - 04 SHOP: All Castings required for Plant Manufacturing product Groups. E.g.; exhaust hoods, Guide blade carriers, Bearing pedestals & Housings, Gear box Casings and Mill base & Gear housings. 1.3.5.5 NON-FERROUS FOUNDRY - 05 SHOP: All Non-Ferrous Castings required for the Plant Manufacturing Products. Casting of Aluminium alloys, Copper alloys, Babbitt metal etc., 1.3.5.6 HEAT EXCHANGERS AND FABRICATION SHOP - 06 SHOP: Heat Exchangers,
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L.P. heaters, H.P. Heaters, De-aerators, Ejectors, Fabrications, Stator Frames, Bowl mill shells, Foundation frames etc. 1.3.5.7 TOOL ROOM - 07 SHOP: Jigs and Fixtures, Single and Multi Point Cutting Tools, Press Tools, Backing cone shop. 1.3.5.8 COMMON WORKSHOP - 08 SHOP: In Heat treatment the following operations are carried out in this shop isHardening, Tempering, Normalizing, stress relieving, Carburising, Nitriding, etc. Forging (Mainly blades) In Surface treatment the following operations are carried out in this shop is Copper Plating, Nickel Plating, Cadmium Plating, Zinc Plating, Tin Plating, Hard Chrome Plating, and Babbiting. 1.3.5.9 PATTERN SHOP - 09 SHOP: This shop is to prepare and repair of patterns required for both ferrous and non ferrous foundries. 1.3.5.10 REPAIRS - 10 SHOP: 210 MW Spares centre, Area Maintenance shop, Rewinding Section, Reconditioning section,
9

Refrigeration & Air conditioning section, 1.3.5.11 SPARES CENTRE: Area Maintenance shop. Rewinding Section. Reconditioning section. Refrigeration & Air conditioning section. 1.3.5.12 PULVERIZERS AND OIL RIGS 51 BUILDING: Oil field equipment, Pulverizes, Bowl mills, Tube mills. 1.3.5.13 CENTRAL LABORATORY 29 BUILDING: Mechanical Testing Lab, Metallography Lab, Chemical analysis Lab. 1.3.5.14 PUMPS - 70 BUILDING: Pumps 9000 Sq. mts, Boiler feed Pumps (Capacity 210 MW, 500 MW), Condensate pumps, Oil pump, Cooling water Pumps. 1.3.6 INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY - 90 BUILDING: 1.3.6.1 Service functions:
a) b)

Personal department, Financial and accounts,

c) Quality services, d) External service and spares,

e)

Human resource development centre.

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Chapter-2

FOUNDRIES
At BHEL the foundry was established in 1966 with CSSR (CHZEC) collaboration for the production of ferrous and non ferrous castings. In BHEL there are two Foundries 1. 04-Ferrous Foundry 2. 05-Non Ferrous Foundry . 2.1 FERROUS FOUNDRY The ferrous foundry at BHEL is a semi production foundry. In the starting period is only the jobbing foundry i.e., it only as an auxiliary for the other shops in BHEL. Presently BHEL ferrous foundry is engaged for the manufacturing of Grey Cast Iron, SG Iron, steel and Hi chromium alloy castings required for the various product groups within the BHEL. Like steam turbines, Gas turbines, Turbo compressors, Electrical machines, Pumps, Oil field equipment and Pulverizers The metals which are casted in ferrous foundry and the major components produced in this foundry are as follows: MATERIAL Grey Iron CASTING NAME Exhaust Hoods Bearing Pedestals Mill Base Gear Box Castings Forward Castings Guide Blade Carriers Bearing Pedestals Bearing Housings Bi-metallic rolls Bull Ring Segments Ball mill Liners Bearing Housing SHOP 01 shop 01 shop 51 Building 51 Building 01 Shop 01&02 Shops 01 shop 04 shop 04 shop 51 Building 01 shop USED IN Turbines Turbines Bowl Mill Bowl Mill Turbo Generators Turbines & Generators Turbines Bowl Mills Bowl Mills Ball / Tube Mills Gas Turbines

Steel Ni-Hard Hi Chromium S.G.Iron

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2.1.1 Flow Chart for a Casting:

DESIGNS INDENTS AND DRAWINGS FOUNDRY AND PLANNING TECHNOLOGY PROCESS DRAWING PATTERN MAKING MOULDING AND CORE MAKING ASSEMBLY AND POURING FETTLING HEAT TREATMENT INSPECTION DISPATCH

12

2.2 CASTING FACILITIES IN BHEL: In ferrous foundrys maximum capacity is up to 25 Tons piece weight casting required for turbine, Turbo generators. Pumps etc., with following machinery facility Sl No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. EQUIPMENT 3x2.5T core less induction furnace operating at 500 cycles 4x5T core less induction furnace 1x20T core less induction furnace 3x continuous core sand mixers 2x automatic sand conveyor belts sand sucking and pumping machine Sand Muller 750Kgs sand Muller 2x250 kgs Sand Mullers 2 sand mixers of 100 & 50 kgs capacity 5 jolt squeeze machines Centrifugal casting M/Cs 3 No Knock out machine 2 Nos 20T & IT each Mould drying Ovens 2 Nos. have a capacity of 30 & 75 T each Core backing ovens 2 Nos Ladles Lip pour type Bottom pour type Tundish type Spectrometer Carbon Sulphur analyzer Sand testing equipments Moulding boxes of various sizes APPLICATION For the melting of G.I, Ni-hard & SG Iron with capacity of 2.5T For melting of Grey Iron For holding and super heating of Grey iron To supply core sand mix To supply Si-sand to C.C.S machines To mull the sand up to 750Kgs To mull sand for moulding of bull ring segments and other small castings For the mixing of 2 part sand system core sands For making small moulds by using match plate patterns For the production of Bimetallic rolls of different sizes To remove the casting from the moulding boxes For the drying of mould i.e., to remove the moisture from the moulds For the backing of cores For handling of all metals For handling of Steel For Mg treatment of SG Iron For express the chemical analysis of various metal samples For analyzing of carbon & Sulphur contents of metal samples For determine various properties of moulding and core making sands & Resins used in foundry. For moulding

15. 16. 17. 18.

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2.3 PLANNING: Fore seeing the future manufacturing requirements and making the sequential operations to reach an ultimate objective is called planning. The planning will see what where the work is to be done with their facilities. The planning phase involves fore casting demand and translating the demand fore cast into production plan that optimizing customer satisfaction. The twin objectives of maximum customer satisfaction are not compatible. Planning is divided into two groups 1. 2. Material planning and control Production planning and control

2.3.1 MATERIAL PLANNING AND CONTROL: It is depend on close relationship between various departmental heads one may be charged with manufacturing, another production control the other may have the charge of inventory control and probably not excluding traffic. All of those are somehow or other related to what it is involved in the acquisition continued operation of manufacturing.

Material planning and management has reached a stage today. When it is cant longer be performed efficiently without specific knowledge and training, irrespective of the nature of an industrys manufacturing operations. Its dependence over a widely dispersed area has made its imperative to be treated as a responsibility of purchasing, production management and inventory control etc.

Material planning and control is essential for effective plant operation. Effective material planning and control is aimed at ensuring that an adequate but not an excessive stock material is in hand to meet operating requirements. Material should move through the plant in a flowing stream and no storage of materials is required at any point. Large quantities of materials tie up the cash and their incurs substantial carrying costs. On the other hand low material stock limit the flexibility of production schedules, prevent
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manufacture of economic lot quantities purchases. The maintenance of a proper balance between the cost of carrying excessive stock of materials and those, which result from inadequate stock, is the principle function of material planning and control.

2.3.1.1 ACTIVITIES OF MATERIAL PLANNING AND CONTROL: 1. 2. 3. Receipt of specific material requirements from production stocks. Preparation of annual requirements of all input materials. Preparation of Material requisition order for all materials as per

material requirements and issue purchase procurement action. 4. 5. Receipt of purchase files with requires. Scrutinize and send technical and quality recommendations with

technology production charge in charges.

6.

Monitoring on follow up for, theyre in coming materials through

purchase department and directly with suppliers. 7. Maintaining foundry materials register for all the incoming

materials.
8.

Maintaining S.R.Vs (Store Requisition Voucher) for all materials.

2.3.2 PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL: Planning looks ahead anticipates possible difficulties and decides in advance as how the production best is carried out. Products are manufactured by the transformation of raw material. This is how production is achieved. The control phase makes sure that the performed production constantly maintained. The fundamental objectives of PPC is that the product shall be produced in the best and the cheapest method that it shall be of the required quality and that it shall be of the required quality and it shall be produced at the right time.

15

The PPC system performs many functions. Fore casting Prior planning Order writing Production design Process planning & route Planning phase Active planning Material control Tool control Loading Scheduling ACTIVE PHASE DISPATCHING

Process reporting CONTROL PHASE Corrective action Expending

Re-planning

PC department in BHEL has vital role to play in all the operations concern to the supply of input materials monitoring the production activities in every stage till the supply of the equipment to the customer. It prepares the overall view of the performance in stages such as a) b) c) Broad objectives Yearly planning Monthly plan

While supplying input materials corrective action of the bottleneck will be taken.

PPC also plans sub-contract activities to match the individual components, sub assemblies to match with main equipments to avoid the last minute rush up. PPC also identifies the weak area of productivity and suggests for improvements. PPC makes

16

project plan customer/work order wise and highlights the critical operations and makes the feasibility of the supply of top management.

Foundry PPC prepares annual budgets while in advance and submits to MPC for their material planning activities. PPC receives casting indents for each work order/ customer from engineer grown up through their product PPC. PPC studies the indents and makes the feasibility of supply of the castings and makes the yearly plan.

Basing on the priority of the objects monthly plan will be used to the ferrous and Non Ferrous foundries and monitoring the daily program to meet the project requirements.

PPC makes the backlog plan for the shortage of production and gives priority on shops. After making feasibility study the drawing will be forwarded to foundry technology and give it backs to PPC. PPC will study the pattern shop load and plans for the manufacturing of patterns. Once the casting will be monitoring and supply of the casting will be made as per requirement.

Production planning generally has several constraints. Demands must be met with in reasonable limit inventories in personal area usually limited. A customer will not wait indefinitely for a product to be delivered. The length of the time that acceptable is dependent on the industry and the product. Inventories present an investment in material that is not producing immediate revenue and therefore must be limited. Some inventories are necessary for efficient manufacturing in lot sizes and for balancing personal and equipment requirements with customer demand.

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2.4 TECHNOLOGY: Through study of plain drawing before casting is called methodizing. Methoding of casting is very important to manufacturing a defect free casting with required quality and to get highest yield, which helps to produce the casting at most economical cost. For this method engineer of Foundry is to play an important role at every right from pattern making to the dispatch of final product. The following points are to be kept in mind to achieve the goal: When the plain drawing is issued by an indenter for manufacturing of casting, a thorough study has to be made keeping in view the faculties available to manufacture the in respect of size, grade and weight. Apart from this it is also required to consult the indenter for change of castings shapes needed to get a defect free casting such as sharp corners to be converted to radii or sudden change of wall thickness to be modified etc. 2.4.1 Process drawing preparation: Study of the casting drawing to get clear idea of the casting. Going through the demands of designer with respect to a) Material b) Mechanical properties c) Order quantities d) Any future repetition of order. Next to be decided is the type of pattern and its construction whether solid type or split type with one parting line or two parting lines or more. Mechanical allowances and technological allowances are to be given clearly on process drawing. Markings are to be made with red pencil indicating the closure of openings, drilled holes, oil holes etc. Position of casting in drag or cope has to be done accordingly after reviewing function wise importance of the surface.

18

While designing the type of patterns, its advantages and disadvantages for moulders, core maker, assembly of mould and cores and from metallurgical point of view etc, has to be kept in mind. Wherever necessary, loose pieces follow boards and chills are to be provided to achieve directional solidification of the casting. Suitable gating system has to be designed and shown accordingly on the process drawing. Appropriate sizes of moulding boxes are to be specified keeping in view the sand required at bottom, at sides and at top. It is also important to provide required space to keep a specified pouring basin at a suitable place for convenient pouring.

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Chapter-3

PATTERN MAKING PROCEDURE

Pattern making plays a crucible role to produce castings in foundries. Pattern design, selection and inspection of materials, manufacture and inspection of patterns play an important role in the quality of castings. Pattern is the principal tools during the casting process. The quality of the casting procedure depends largely on the material of the patterns, its designer and construction. It is he who is responsible for details of form and construction. He creates the first tangible equidance of the matching to be. He must be also to interpret the engineering drawing prepared by the designer, visuals the object in three dimensions, draw the layout of the item, and finally produce a pattern complete with gating, risers, and other auxiliary items of tooling. First take the drawing to study carefully and draw a layout with the use of 1:1 scale. After preparing the process chart distribute to the pattern maker. The pattern maker uses this instruction to prepare the patterns. Pattern designer mention the all details about patterns and pattern materials and allowances in the process chart or layout. In the BHEL generally all types of patterns are prepared. Most commonly used patterns are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. One piece or solid pattern. Two piece or split pattern Multiple or loose piece pattern Match plate pattern Cope and drag pattern Follow board pattern Gated pattern Sweep or stickle pattern Skeleton pattern Segmental or part pattern
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3.1 Selection of parting plane: Selection of parting plane mainly depends on the following factors a) The area on which roundness is required. b) The convenience for drawing the pattern from the mould without trouble. c) The material of the casting. d) The convenience for supporting / holding the cores 3.2 Core box is needed for: a) To get all internal details of the casting. b) Where a self core is not possible. c) The requirement also depends upon the selection of the pattern. d) Size and shape of the hollowness of the casing. e) Soundness and accuracy required on the hollow portion. The pattern used for producing a casting of desired dimension is not identical with the casting dimensionally because of metallurgical and mechanical factors involved. A number of allowances must be made on the pattern to produce a dimensionally correct casting. 3.3 Different allowances on Pattern: The pattern used for producing a casting of desired dimension is not identical with the casting dimensionally because of metallurgical and mechanical factors involved. A number of allowances must be made on the pattern to produce a sound casting they are 1. Shrinkage allowance - Contraction during cooling - 1.5% 2. Machining allowance generally depends on the following factors i) ii) iii) iv) v) Material of the casting. Method of moulding. Extent of surface finish required. Area of the surface of the job. Possibility of distortion.

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3. Distortion allowance: Some times large flat and thin objects or 'U', 'V', 'T' shaped castings etc distort when reproduced from a straight or a perfect pattern. 4. Draft allowance: 1/16 inch foot is provided on vertical walls of the pattern for machine draw patterns about 10 taper is provided for easy withdrawal of the pattern. 3.4 Pattern Wood: There are different kinds of materials used for making patterns Most commonly used materials are wood. Hard wood Soft wood number of castings to be produced. Grade I Large castings & large number of castings each time. Pattern made with seasoned teak wood. Grade II Same as above except that all necessary supports and reinforcements are of teak wood. Patterns for pump castings and turbine castings come under this grade. Grade III Small numbers of castings require. If the size of casting is large and the requirement is small then the pattern is made in soft wood. Patterns for exhaust wood castings fall under this grade. Grade IV Using soft wood patterns are rejected after few casting s are made depending upon the situation and requirement. Fillets can be made in putty. Hard wood for patterns: Soft wood for patterns: 8-10% moisture is allowed. 10-12% moisture is allowed. Teak wood Deader grade 'A'

The pattern grades are graded I and IV depending upon their revert of applications,

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3.5 In plant standard of colour codification for patterns:

SL. NO 1

PART OF PATTERN EQUIPMENT

G.I

Main body of pattern internal surface of Red core boxes, working surfaces of Black Yellow Checker red with blue colour Yellow template ,riser & gating system Core prints Surface to be m/c Seating area of external chills

COPPER & AL & ITS ITS ALLOYS ALLOYS Yellow Grey

2 3 4

Black Black Red Red Checker red with black colour

Internal chills

Blue

Black

3.6 Types of Patterns: 1) One piece. 2) Two piece. 3) Multiple pieces. 4) Match plate. 5) Cope and drag pattern. 6) Follow board pattern 7) Gated pattern. 8) Sweep pattern 9) Skeleton pattern. 10) Segmental pattern 11) Master pattern.

Chapter-4

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MOULDING 4.1 Introduction: Production of a desired shape by a sand casting process first involves sand around a suitable pattern in such a way that the pattern can be withdrawn to leave a cavity of required shape in the sand. This procedure is called as Moulding or Sand casting. Sand casting involves two or more parts in which castings have a simple shape; a two-part mould can be used, each half being contained in a box frame. This upper frame is known as the cope and the lower frame is called as drag. While the two halves fitted together are termed as a Mould box or Flash, the surface at which the two halves of the sand meet when cope and drag are fitted together is called the parting surface.

4.2 Sand casting process:

1. 2.

Moulding sand preparation. Mould preparation. Core preparation. Core making. Mould assembly. Pouring of the molten metal. Knocking out operation. Fettling. Heat treatment.

3. 4.
5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

4.3 BHEL uses the following types of moulding processes: 4.3.1 Dry sand moulding: Dry sand moulding is the modification of green sand moulding practice by baking the moulds at 2000 to 3000 C in ovens. Organic binders such as molasses dextrin and resins are used in the sand mixer. Both moisture and clay contents are more in dry sand mould mixture to obtain good properties upon driving with good dimensional tolerances on cast surfaces.

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Composition: Return sand Moulding sand River sand Dextrin Molasses Water Properties: Green strength Dry strength Permeability Procedure of mixing: The dry ingredients are charged into the sand mixer and are mixed for minimum three minutes. Moulds made of these sands should be dried as per the following cycle 40 to 150oC.............. 150 to 200oC.............. 1.5 hrs. 4.5 hrs. ......... ......... ......... 1 to 1.5 kg per sq cm. 15 kg per sq cm (min) 70 to 120. .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 70%Natural 10% 10% 0.5% 2.5% 6.5 to 7.5%

Above 300oC ............... 5.0 hrs. If any moisture is there in the mould blowholes will occur in the casting. 4.3.2 CO2 Moulding: Co2 moulding sand is used for small cores and mainly for segments. In this process sodium silicate is used as a binder. Co2 gas will be passing through the mould after ramming the sand in the mould box. Co2 gas forms the weak acid which hydrolyzes the sodium silicate thus forming the amorphous bond. This process does not require for baking. Na2SiO3 + Co2 4.4 Air cure sand system: For this sand or river sand which has clay content below 2% are used. There are two types of sand systems. ------------Na2Co3 + SiO2 (Silica gel)

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4.4.1 Two part system: Most of the moulding process is done by this system in BHEL. In this system river sand or high silica sand is mixed with phonemic and acid catalyst this phonemic resin. Resin acts as a binder of sand and Catalyst acts as an accelerator. Thus sand sets after 15 to 20 min. but after 24 hrs it will give minimum compressive strength and permeability. Beach sand or River sand is used for Grey iron castings and High silica sand is used for Steel and SG Iron castings because for steel requires more refractoriness than GI moulds. Composition: Sand Resin ........ ....... 100% .2.5% 1%

Catalyst........ Sand specifications: Silica Clay

................ 90% .................0.5%

AFS grain size No.....40 to 50 Preparation of sand mix: Catalyst used should be per toluene sulphuric acid in liquid form. First catalyst shall be added to the sand and mixed thoroughly for 1.5 minutes and then discharged. Properties: Bench life Compressor strength (range 1 to 24 hrs) Dry cycling for moulding 4.4.2 Three part sand system: This also acts as two-part system but it has metallic drier in addition. This also called as ABC sand. By these sand small cores are make here thus sand takes more time for setting than two part sand system. So that for critical cores and small cores this sand is used. ........... 15 to 20 min. ...........7to20kg per sq. cm ...........150 to 200oC for 1.5 hrs.

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Composition: Sand Binder Accelerator Catalyst Sand specifications: Silica Clay AFS grain size ...... 90% min. ...... 0.5% max. ...... 40 to 50 ........100% ........ (Part A).......... 2.2 to 2.5% of sand by weight. ....... (Part B)..........5 to 7% of part A by weight. ........ (Part C)........Isocyanate 15 to 20% of part B by weight.

4.5 Ingredients of the moulding sand: Moulding sand are mixtures of three or more ingredients. Green sand contains clay and water as well as the principal sand constituents SiO2. 4.5.1 Sand: Granular particles of the sand, SiO2 principally comprise 50 to 95% of the total material in moulding sand. The sand grains may differ in the following way. 1. Angular 2. Sub angular 3. Circular In BHEL sub-angular grain size sand particles are commonly used for moulding purpose. 4.5.2 Clay: Moulding sand may contain above 2 to 50% of clay with suitable water content. 4.5.3 Water: Water present in amounts of about 1.5 to 8%, activates the clay in the sand, causing the aggregate to develop plasticity and strength.

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4.6 Special additives of moulding sands: 4.6.1 Sea coal, graphite: It is used to improve surface finish of the mould and cores. 4.6.2 Zircon It is used to improve the refractoriness of mould. 4.7 Gating System The term gating system refers to all passageways, through which the molten passes and enters the mould cavity. The gating system consists of the following: 1. Pouring cups and basins. 2. Down sprue 3. Runner (slag trap or dirt trap), 4. In gates 5. Risers Correct gating and riser systems considerably influence the casting quality. The gating system must allow the mould to be filled smoothly with molten metal in predetermined time and manner. Too quick flow of molten metal would shock the mould walls. Wet them out and also cause air entrapment. Too slow flows would result in improper filing of the mould cavity and at the same time heavy scabbing are expected due to exposure of the mould surfaces for the longer time than desirable. Gating system also prevent dirt (or) slag from entering the mould cavity. Runners must be so located as to cause the solidification to start from farthest end of the mould cavity and proceeds towards the down spur. Metal streams flowing in the mould must be split so as to ensure quick and uniform filling of the mould and directional solidification avoiding local heating. Down spur should not suck metal from mould since such sucking will create contraction cavities in connecting spots. Risers are needed to feed the casting as it solidifies, thus eliminating shrinkage cavities and other mould gases during filling of the mould. For designing a gating system and riser system having above characteristics, it is necessary to.
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1. Determine the manner of intake of metal in the casting, i.e. determine the position of in gates. 2. Determine optimum time for filling the mould with metal, based on which the linear velocity of flow, runner size. Number of in gates and their sizes are to be determined. 3. Determine size of other parts of the gating system. 4. Determine shape, size and location of risers. 4.7.1 Elements of Gating System: Pouring Basin: Absorbs the first shock of metal at the start of the pouring and retains dirt during pouring. Pouring basins are either cut in the mould or molded in a special frame called pouring box. The main purpose of pouring basin is to establish the proper flow system as rapidly as possible. It is designed to regulate the rate of metal entry, metal flow smoothly in to the spur and turbulence is largely avoided. Down Sprue: It connects pouring basin with slag trap. Usually it is cylindrical and tapered to flow smoothly and without any air aspiration. The sprue should be tapered downward so that molten metal always touches the wall of the sprue. This avoids metal sucking the gas from the mould due to vertex formation during metal fall in to the sprue. Recommended taper on the sprue is 0.5 (to 1.0) depending on the height of sprue. The base of the sprue usually enlarged and made deeper that the runner. This deeper and enlarged cavity beneath the sprue is called the sprue well. It serves as a cushion to the falling weight of the metal and absorbs its kinetic energy. The width and depth of the sprue well are about 1.5 times those of the runner. Runner (Slag trap or Dirt slag):
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Its purpose is to retain slag, distribute metal in ingates and distribute metal from down sprue to in gates and retain dirt and slag to increase the retain ability of ceramic strainers or wire screens (for light metals) or some time inserted in dirt trap. Although the runner is generally preferred in the drag, it may sometimes be located in the streamlined to avoid aspiration and turbulence in order to obtain a flow of approximately equal volume through each in gate. The path of the runner is reduced in area after each successive in gate by an amount of equal to the in gate area. Such Multiple in Gating is usually advised in the case of light metal castings.

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Chapter-5

SAND LAB
The quality of a foundry's green sand has a definite impact on the quality of the castings. Maintenance and control of the system sand is not only an important job but also a demanding one, requiring a battery of tests aimed at improving consistency. Knowing why and how sand testing is performed, therefore, can offer important clues to improving quality in foundry.

Sand testing falls into two categories: checking consistency and evaluating physical and chemical properties of a sand mix. Tests such as moisture, permeability, green compression and compactibility are used to check consistency of the sand. Such tests, along with actual mold testing and physical tests like Loss on Ignition (LOI), AFS clay, 25 micron clay, methylene blue (MB) clay and screen analysis can explain casting quality.

To obtain comparable results, each test must be run according to AFS standard methods. Testing equipment must be checked and calibrated. Samples, usually a quart or larger, should be taken nearest the point of use, and casting quality should be correlated to sand test results. It's important to follow statistical process control procedures, and graphing results makes them easier to track.

The testing process is divided in to three stages: sampling of the bulk material, sample preparation, and testing 5.1 Sampling (a) Always try to obtain a generous, representative sample of the sand to be tested. (b) Keep in an air-tight container to prevent loss of moisture.

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5.2 Specimen preparation (a) When preparing a number of specimens from the same sample, replace the lid of the container after weighing out each specimen. (b) Carefully level out the sand surface in the specimen tube before placing under the plunger of the Standard Rammer. (c) Never use sand which has already been rammed up once to form a specimen. (d) Always ensure that the height of a specimen is correct, that is within the tolerance specified. (e) Reject any specimen which shows any sign of damage. (f) Green sands should be tested immediately; dried or baked sands as soon as they have cooled in desiccators and with cured sands the length of time between curing and testing should be stated when reporting results. (g) Any deviation from standard ramming practice should be reported with results. 5.3 Specimen Testing (a) Handle specimens carefully. (b) Always test three specimens and report the average result. (c) For research work never use the same specimen for two different tests, ie, Permeability and Compression Tests. (d) Always follow the instructions with regard to rate and method of applying load to specimens eg, the Hand Operated Universal Sand Strength Machine should be loaded evenly at the rate of 7.5 psi compression in 15 seconds. 5.4 Sand Rammer This machine is designed for preparing AFS standard test specimens for the determination of compression, tensile, transverse, shear and splitting strength by compacting a predetermined weight of sand in a tube, or a core box of the required shape. This is achieved by dropping a known weight a fixed distance, and using the energy produced to compact the sand.

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Procedure: (a) Spray the tube conditioner swab with liquid release agent. This should be done as necessary to maintain the swab in a slightly moistened condition. (b) Slide the specimen tube down over the conditioner and back again, then place one cup over the end of the tube and set up vertically with the cup at the base. (c) Weigh out sufficient sand to form a test piece 2 inches ( 1/32 inches) when rammed, using scales sensitive to 0.5 g. Transfer to the specimen tube. Start with about 165g sand, and if this proves to be more or less than required, find by repeated trials, the correct weight of sand to form a test piece within the permitted tolerance. (d) Transfer the sample to the specimen tube, level out the surface of the sand if necessary. (To obtain uniform distribution of contents and more even ramming of strong sands, place a second pedestal cup over the top of the tube and invert tube before placing under the ramming plunger). (e) Use the cam positioned on the left hand side of the rammer to raise the plunger of the rammer. Insert the specimen tube and cup containing the sand under the plunger and make sure that the spigot on the cup is located in the hole in the base of the rammer frame. Rotate the cam to release the plunger head to enable it to enter the tube and come to rest gently on the sand.

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(f) Ram with three drops of the sliding weight by turning the cam handle three revolutions. (In special cases it may be necessary to give more than three rams; if this is done it should be mentioned when reporting results). The top of the plunger shaft will be level with the centre line O on the tolerance plate when the height of the test piece is exactly 2 inches. (g) Unless the specimen is required for green permeability or shatter index tests, strip from the tube by inverting over the stripping post and pushing tube gently downwards. (h) When ramming sands which are very weak in the green state use a split specimen tube in place of the standard precision tube. After ramming remove the bottom cup, place on a flat drying plate and loosen the clamps. The specimen is left on the plate by lightly tapping and removing the two halves of the tube without deforming the specimen. 5.5 Moisture content test Moisture in molding sand develops the plasticity of the clay bond, and different types and amounts of clay require different amounts of water to achieve the best properties. The water consumption in the sand system is directly related to the tons of metal poured. Water also acts as the main coolant and heat extractor in the system. Procedure The percentage of moisture is determined by completely drying a given amount of green sand (50 g). The sand and the drying container are weighed before and after drying, and the weight loss is doubled to arrive at the percent moisture. Significance The water content affects every property of green sand, with the exception of grain fineness number of the base sand. Excess water produces an oxidizing atmosphere in the mold, excess gas evolution, lower permeability, high dry and hot strength, low mold hardness and poor flow ability. Moisture content of green sand is not an arbitrary figure; it must be maintained within a narrow range. Two factors that affect the moisture requirement are the type and amount of clay and the type and amount of additives in the sand mix.

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5.6 Compactibility Compactibility is directly related to the performance of the sand in the molding operation and reflects the degree of temper of the sand mix. Procedure The test is run by filling a standard specimen tube (4.75 in. high, 2 in. around) with riddled sand through a 0.375-in. screen mounted at a constant height above the tube. The excess sand is struck off the top of the tube, and the sand is rammed three times. The distance from the top of the tube to the surface of the sand is read as percent compactibility. Significance Because the test is independent of the specific gravity of the sand, it is superior to the bulk density test for measuring the water requirement of the sand mix. The presence of water in excess of what is required to establish the minimum density point of the moulding sand results in free water within the sand mass. As the moisture decreases, the water-clay coating thickness decreases, and more sand can be riddled into the specimen tube. Compactibility duplicates how a fixed volume of sand will react to a fixed input of energy and is useful in controlling the clay-to-water ratio. This test, in conjunction with green compression, can be used to determine the working bond or effective clay present in a sand mix.

5.7 Sand UTM The Universal Sand Strength Machine, together with the appropriate accessories, will determine the compression, shear, tensile, transverse and splitting strengths of moulding and core making materials by means of dead weight loading.

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5.7.1 Green Compression Strength (a) Place the compression heads in the position shown on the illustration. (b) Raise the weight arm slightly and insert an AFS standard 2 inch diameter x 2 inch height test specimen between the compression heads so that the face that was uppermost in the ramming operation is facing the right-hand compression head. Care should be taken not to damage the specimen. (c) See that the magnetic rider is resting against the pusher plate and that there is at least inch clearance between the rubber bumper and the lug on the weight arm. If this clearance is not sufficient, it means that the specimen is smaller than the permitted tolerance and should be discarded. (d) Apply a load to the specimen by turning the hand-wheel at a uniform rate (approximately 7.5 psi green compression in 15 seconds)* until the specimen collapses. (e) Record the reading shown on the lower edge of the magnetic rider, reading the scale designated Green Compression Strength. (f) Return the weight to zero by reversing the rotation of the hand-wheel. Remove the sand from the compression heads. * This loading rate applies to all tests on the machine. 5.7.2 Green Shear Strength (a) Place the shear test heads in the lower position in the machine, with the head having the half round holder attached to it in the pusher arm. (b) Raise the weight arm slightly and insert an AFS standard 2 inch diameter x 2 inch height specimen between the heads. (c) Ensure that the magnetic rider is resting against the pusher arm and that there is inch clearance between the rubber bumper and the lug on the weight arm. (d) Apply the load uniformly until the specimen shears. (e) Read the lower edge of the magnetic rider on the scale designated Green Shear. (f) Remove the sheared specimen as under (A) Green Compression Strength, section (f).

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5.7.3 Dry Compression and Dry Shear Strengths (a) Place either the compression heads or the shear heads in the top position of the machine. This position increases the load applied by a factor of 5. (b) Prepare AFS standard 2 inch diameter x 2 inch height test specimens in the usual way and dry in an oven at 110 C for 2 hours. (c) When cool, place in position between test heads and adjust clearance between rubber bumper and lug on weight arm to approximately inch using the adjusting screw in the pusher arm. (d) Apply the load as for Green Compression and Green Shear until the specimen collapses. (e) Read the scale designated Dry Compression or Dry Shear according to the test heads being used. (f) Remove the broken specimen as under (A) Green Compression Strength, section (f).

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High dry strength accessory This accessory for the Universal Sand Strength Machine increases the Dry Compression and the Dry Shear capacities of the machine by a factor of 3.

This unit consists of two specially shaped arms which are hinged at one end by means of a shaft mounted in ball bearings. The aluminium arm bolts onto the pusher arm of the Universal Sand Strength Machine. Compression heads which hold the sand specimen fit between the arms and load is applied to the specimen by means of a ball point in the top lug of the pendulum weight which bears onto a hardened steel pad on the end of the moving arm.

Green Compression Strength This machine is designed to determine compression strength of prepared specimens of green sands and unbaked core sands by applying a progressively increasing spring load to the specimen until it collapses. Test Procedure (a) Prepare a test specimen on an AFS Standard Rammer. For routine purposes this can be made on a green sand test specimen after the permeability has been determined. For research work a fresh specimen should be prepared.
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(b) Carefully transfer the test specimen to the compression machine by means of the sand pan provided and place centrally on the lower compression head.

(c) If the sand is very weak prepare a specimen in a split specimen tube and use a low capacity spring balance, with a more open scale, having a maximum reading of 4.5 psi on an AFS 2 inch diameter x 2 inch height specimen. In this case the specimen should be stripped directly on to the special sample plate provided with the low capacity balance. (d) Rotate the hand-wheel in a clockwise direction until the weight of the specimen is supported by the spring balance. Zero the moving pointer by means of the knurled screw on the top of the balance. Set the slave pointer to zero. (e) Ensure that the compression heads are free to self-align and turn the hand-wheel in a clockwise direction until the load begins to the applied to the specimen. Turn the handle slowly, at the rate of about 30 lb per minute, until the specimen collapses. (This is achieved most easily by using both hands on the rim of the hand-wheel). (f) Record the compression strength as indicated by the slave pointer.

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5.8 Green Compression Green compression has been the most widely used control tool to measure the rate of clay addition to a sand molding system.
Procedure

The green compressive strength of green sand is the maximum compressive stress that a mixture is capable of sustaining when prepared, rammed and broken under standard conditions. The rammed cylindrical specimen (2 in. diameter and 2 in. long) is formed by placing a weighed amount of sand in a tube and ramming the sand three times. The instrument used for breaking the specimen must continuously register the increasing load until the specimen fractures. Significance The degree of mulling, sand-to-metal ratio, clay content, compactibility range and type of additives have a significant effect on green compression. The compression reading should be read at comparable compactibility ranges. Molding sand at higher or lower compactibility will produce varying green strengths. Green compression in conjunction with moisture can be used to determine the available bond.

5.9 Dry Compression Dry compression indicates the resistance of the mold to stresses during pouring and cooling of a casting and the ease of shakeout. Procedure Dry compressive strength is the maximum load a dry specimen can sustain before fracturing. A standard 2 x 2-in. specimen is made and dried in a ventilated oven at 230F (110C) for 2 hr. After cooling, it is broken, and the strength is recorded. Significance When sand exhibits high dry compression, a greater number of large, hard lumps are present at shakeout and more sand carryout will take place. An increase in moisture, the type and amount of clay and the rammed mold density will affect the dry strength. An excessive amount of moisture-absorbing materials will decrease the dry strength.
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5.10 Permeability Permeability is a test of the venting characteristics of rammed sand. Procedure The permeability number, which has no units, is determined by the rate of flow of air, under standard pressure, through a 2 x 2-in. rammed AFS cylindrical specimen.

By means of this instrument a measured volume of air can be passed through a rammed sand specimen and the permeability of the sand determined by recording the time taken for the air at a measured pressure to pass through the specimen.

Significance The distribution type sand percentage tempering factors in and is materials, grain size, shape and of the foundry sand, the quantity rammed of and bonding the the density to which the of moisture used for the sand are important regulating the degree of permeability.
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An

increase in permeability usually indicates a more open structure in the rammed sand, and if the increase continues, it will lead to penetration-type defects and rough castings. A decrease in permeability indicates tighter packing and could lead to blows and pinholes.

5.11 AFS Clay content test AFS Clay indicates the amount of fines and water-absorbing material in the sample. Procedure A known amount of dried molding sand mixed with a pyrophosphate solution is stirred with a high-speed mixer for 5 min. Water is added to the top level line, and the mixture is allowed to settle for 5 min. before the top 5 in. of the water is siphoned off. The procedure is repeated until the water above the sample is clear. The sand then is dried, and the weight loss is recorded as AFS Clay. Significance AFS Clay may contain active clay, dead clay, silt, seacoal, cellulose, cereal, ash, fines and all materials that float in water. Only the active clay gives active bonding capacity to the system.

5.13 Screen Analysis and GFN The fineness of the sand has a bearing on the physical properties that can be developed by the sand system. Procedure A dry sample of sand is screened through a "nest" of sieves (largest opening sieve on top and progressing down the nest). The sample is shaken for 5 min in the screen shakers, and the sand retained on each screen is weighed. The percentage retained in each screen is multiplied by a factor to give a product for each screen, and that sum is totalled to determine the AFS grain fineness number (GFN).

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Significance The fineness influences the bond required and the surface finish of the castings. The test should be run on the washed system sand and the dried system sand. The dried sand should be shaken for only 2.5 min - the time required to break up the lumps but not the agglomerates, which are the basis of the entire system. A comparison of the dried and the washed screen analyses shows how much agglomeration takes place in the sand system. Also, very different sand mixes with different casting properties still may average out to the same GFN.

5.14 Mold Hardness The mold hardness test indicates the resistance of the mold-to-metal damage as the metal contacts the mold surface.
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Procedure Mold hardness is measured by the resistance offered by the mold surface to a springloaded plunger. Both "B" and "C" scale hardness testers are available, but the "C" scale tester is more accurate at the high end of the hardness scale. Significance Proper mold hardness will give castings a better finish, more accurate dimensions and reduced penetration, drops and swells. Excessive hardness, meanwhile, can cause cracks, scabs, blows, pinholes and penetration.

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Chapter-6

MELTING
In BHEL Foundries the melting is mainly carried out in Core less Induction Furnaces. The foundries have 4 furnaces of 5 tons and 3 furnaces of 2.5 tons and 1 furnace of 20 tons for melting and holding purpose of various metals and alloys used in this foundry. 6.1 CORE LESS INDUCTION FURNACE 6.1.1 Principle: The heating of a nominally electrical conducting material by eddy currents is induced by a varying electromagnetic field. The inductor coil can be considered the primary winding of a transformer, with the work piece as a single turn secondary, When an AC flows on the work piece. These induced currents are called eddy currents. The current flowing in the work piece can be considered as the summation of all the eddy currents. High coil currents are used therefore to obtain high heating rates. 6.1.2 Preparation of the furnace: First the bottom bricks are arranged on the center, a hole is prepared for inserting the spider in to the space and then copper coil is kept in the position followed by a mica sheet is placed around the same. Aluminium powder is mixed with the small quantities of water and applied to the coil. Then the asbestos sheet is followed it. Spider is also arranged on the bottom through the prepared hole, with silica ramming mass and boric acid mixer is placed on spider and then positioned. The steel former and asbestos sheet and ram it with the help of ramming device. The size of crucible is 27.5 inches height.

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6.1.3 Furnace details: FACTOR Frequency Current Voltage Lining material Lining thickness 5 TONS FURNACE 500 Hertz 700 Amps 400 volts Silica ramming mass (Acidic) sintered shell) 2.5 TONSFURNACE 500 Hertz 1000 kW 700 Amps 440 volts Silica ramming mass (Acidic) sintered shell)

Power consumption 3000 kW

4" (from the coil to 4" (from the coil to

6.1.4 Lining: The lining is one of the most important factors which affect the productivity of the furnace so the care must be taken in the case of lining used. The lining for these induction furnaces is silica ramming mass which is acidic in nature. The slag which is generated in the melting of ferrous materials is basic in nature but we are using the lining of acidic nature the reason for this is the thermal expansion of the other lining materials i.e. Magnetite and Aluminium thermally expanded as the temperature increases and this causes the formation of cracks on the lining which allow the penetration of liquid metal into the cracks and erode the lining which decreases the lining life.

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When silica is used as the lining material it has the thermal expansion up to 600 C and further it remains constant and there is no chance of penetration of the liquid metal into the cracks, since at 600 C the metal is in the form of solid block and the increase of temperature beyond 600 C makes the lining as sintered one. The lining depends upon the metal in the furnace. The lining life of these induction furnaces is heats. To get good lining life, well preparation of the ramming mass is also important. The preparation of lining material, which is done in BHEL, is explained below.

6.1.5 Preparation of ramming mass: The silica ramming mass used is must be pure and have given good compactness or packing density. The silica ramming mass is transferred to a separate tray for cooling and mixing of binder. The binder used is boric acid powder, which ranges from 1.5 to 1.8 %. Mix the accurately weighed boric acid uniformly with the ramming mass by sprinkling the boric acid powder on the ramming mass and mixing with shovels. 6.1.6 Ramming: The ramming operation is mainly a dealing process. The ramming is done with the sharp pointed spikes shaped tools which can penetrate the ramming mass powder and allow air to escape first bottom and then the side wall is done. After that, sintering will be done. The lower layer is un-sintered and middle part is semi-sintered and the ramming lining is well sintered. 6.2 Melting procedure: In order to make of the maximum speed power available for melting, it is necessary to keep the power factor of the furnace as near unit as possible. Since, the induction furnace meant for melting only (No refining takes place) it is necessary to take the charge as close as possible to the required composition. Generally pig iron is charged first for cold start, because of its low melting point then steel and moisture content. It avoids hot start, which is recommended to charge steel scrap at first. Care should be taken to avoid air; minimum power is utilized so that melting rate will
47

be sluggish. Thus, the heat developed in the skin of metal charge, which is produced by the resistance offered by the charge to the secondary currents reaches inside by conduction and melts the charge. After melting the pig iron hot metal takes maximum power. Thus melting rate of charged steel scrap will accelerate. As soon as a pool of metal is formed, very pronounced stirring action of molten metal takes place (the secondary current associates with it a magnetic field which provides a magnetic stirring action on the molten metal) which speeds up the melting process and mixes up the metal charge uniformly i.e. homogenizing the composition. In this period of melting is quite rapid, so there is a slight loss of oxidizable alloying elements like Chromium, Silicon etc. Basic concept in melting is to add non-oxidizable additions first. After the addition of all alloying elements one sample is sent to lab for immediate chemical analysis. If there are any adjustments are required, chemical composition is corrected by adding required alloying additions. The time of melting of charge is short and is depends upon the weight of charges and the power input. Once melted the metal is deoxidized and poured into ladle by tilting the furnace. Using motor generator produces high frequency current required for the operation of the furnace. 6.3 Charging materials in induction furnace: 1. Pig Iron 2. Sorel metal 3. Mild Steel 4. Foundry returns 5. Petroleum coke 6. Ni-hard returns 7. Rejected roll pieces 8. Ferro alloys like Ni, Cr, Mo, Si, Mn, etc. 6.4 Charging sequence: Usually weighed quantity of the solid charge including pig iron, foundry returns, and mild steel should be charged initially. When mild steel is charged the corresponding amount
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of petroleum coke would be charged before the metal melt down. The Ferro alloys like Fe-Si, Fe-Cr, Fe-Mn, Fe-Mo. and alloying elements like Nickel should be charged top of the solid charge towards the last stage of melt down. After melting, send as a sample to Express Laboratory for analysis. In no case petroleum coke should be charged after melt down in the top of the furnace as it will not mix up homogeneously as the stirring in the top will not be adequate and slag will abstract the P.C. from mixing.

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6.5 Composition of pig iron is used:

Carbon Silicon Manganese

Gr.1 3.5 to 3.8 1.75 to 2.0 0.5 to 0.51

Gr.2 3.5 to 3.8 1.5 to 1.75 0.5

Gr.3 3.5 to 3.8 1.25 to 1.5 0.5

6.6 Composition of pig sorel metal is used: SOREL METAL is also known as low Sulphur pig iron which is imported from Canada. Sulphur content is less than 0.03 % in these three grades. Present Gr.2 is used for charging. Carbon Silicon Manganese Phosphorus Sulphur Gr.1 2.85 0.18 0.009 0.027 0.01 Gr.2 4.30 0.18 0.009 0.027 0.01 Gr.3 4.10 1.15 0.009 0.027 0.01

6.7 Melting of Grey Iron: Melting equipment: Coreless Induction Furnace Charge: Pig iron, Ferroalloys, Petroleum Coke. Melting procedure: 1. Charge graded pig iron and ferroalloys into the furnace as per the instructions of super visor in charge of the furnace 2. During melting add appropriate ingredients in sequence as per instructions 3. After melting down pour a sample and send a sample to express laboratory [First sample]. 4. After obtaining analysis form the laboratory if there is any deviation in composition from the specification add necessary ingredients and send another sample for analysis [second sample].
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5. Furnace temperature should maintain 1450-1500C will be depending up on the type of casting. 6. Before tapping the ladle [direct pouring] should be cleaned and heated to red hot condition with blower. 7. Tap the metal into a red hot ladle over a mixture of ferro-silicide and calcium silicide [0.10-0.30% per ton of metal to be treated]. 8. Pouring a test bar before pouring casting for testing mechanical properties. The test bar mould should be cleaned and heated by producer gas before pouring .The mould should does not have any erosion and cracks on the mould surface 9. For pouring test bar the furnace temperature should be 1500 C and pouring temperature must be 1450C min. Inoculation is added to ladle on pouring .The inoculation must be stirred before pouring test bar. Weight of metal is 300kgs.

Grey Iron castings are for

1. Exhaust hood 2. Mill base 3. Guide wheel 4. Bearing pedestals 5. Guide blade carriers 6. And other gas turbine parts

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Chemical composition: GRADE GI1 GI2 GI3 GI4 C 3.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.1 3.2 Si 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.6 Mn 0.4 1.0 1.6 1 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.7 Cr 0.1 m 0.2 m 0.2 m 0.1 m P 0.25 m 0.15 m 0.25 m 0.06 0.25 S 0.15 M 0.10 m 0.15 m 0.05 0,15 Mo 0.1 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.1 m Ni 0.3 m 0.25 m 0.3 m 0.1 m

Pouring temperature: 13250 c-13 50 0 c Mechanical Properties: Grade GI1 GI2 GI3 Tensile Strength Kg/mm 2 20.5 26.5 30.5
HARDNESS, BHN

160-220 180-220 180-230

6.8 Melting of steel: Melting equipment Coreless induction furnace Charge Materials: Graded MS scrap (in the form of plates), Ferro alloys, and Petroleum coke. Melting procedure:
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1. Charge graded plate steel scrap into the furnace as per the instructions of supervisor incharge of the furnace. 2. During melting add appropriate ingredients in sequence as per instructions. 3. After melting down send a sample to express laboratory [first sample]. 4. After obtaining analysis form the laboratory if there is any deviation in composition from the specification add necessary ingredients and send another sample for analysis [second sample]. 5. If there is any further deviation in composition send subsequent samples [third, fourth]. After applying necessary corrective action till the required furnace melt analysis is obtained. 6. Tapping temperature should maintain 1600-1680C will be depending up on the type of casting. 7. Before tapping the ladle [bottom pouring ladle] should be cleaned and heated to red hot condition with blower. 8. Inoculation should be prepared before tapping .Inoculation must be dry and it stored in airtight place. 9.Tap the metal into a red hot ladle over a mixture of pure Aluminium [at he rate of 300gms/ton]and calcium silicide[at the rate of 500gms/ton of metal to be treated] for deoxidation. 10. Pouring a test bar before pouring casting for testing mechanical properties. The test bar mould should be cleaned and heated before pouring .The mould should does not have any erosion and cracks on the mould surface. 11. For pouring test bar the furnace temperature should be 1600 C and pouring temperature must be 1530C min. Inoculation is added to ladle on pouring .The inoculation must be stirred before pouring test bar. Weight of metal is 300kgs.

Steel castings are for

1. Gas turbine frames 2. Gas turbine housing bearing [lower part] 3. Cap bearing

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Chemical composition: GRADE Steel 1 Steel 2 Steel 3 Steel 4 Pouring temperature: Mechanical Properties: Grade Tensile Strength Steel 1 Steel 2 Steel 3 Kg/mm 2 40 60 45 60 45 60 0.2%Proof Stress Kg/mm 2 21 25 25 Elongation % 24 22 22 Charpy Impact Kg/mm 2 5 3 3 C 0.25 0.18 0.23 0.18 Si 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.3 Mn 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.5 Cr 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 P 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 S 0.045 0.03 0.03 0.03 Mo 0.02 ----0.35 Ni 0.5 ----0.45

1530 0 c-1580 0c.

6.9 Melting of Spheroidal Graphite Iron / Ductile Iron: Melting equipment: Coreless induction furnace Charge materials: 1. Sorel metal 2. S.G.Iron scrap 3. Coke 4. Mild steel 5. Ferro alloys Procedure: 1. Before charging the materials into the furnace, the furnace should be clean and without any unwanted materials. 2. Initially charge the Sorel metal [its look like pig iron] into the furnace and after melting Sorel metal send a sample to express lab. 3. After obtaining sample should add certain alloys within limits.

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4. And then send a sample to express lab [as 2nd sample].if it is good the metal is perfect for casting. 5. Pour a kneel test bar of 1500kgs before pour casting. 6. The test bar metal temperature should maintain 1580c.inoculation must be added in the ladle. Treatment: This treatment is done by Magnesium because it is called Magnesium treatment. 1. In this treatment we should take a tall ladle and tundish cover [these are the equipments for this treatment] 2. put the tundish cover over the tall ladle such that the metal falls into the opposite chamber [over than in which Mg is placed]. 3. Tap a weighed quantity of metal in a hot ladle .temp should be 1580c(min) while tapping the metal from furnace add 0.1 to 0.3% by weight of liquid metal .inoculation to the stream of metal. This is known as pre-treatment inoculation. send a first sample from ladle. 4. Now transfer the above metal into the tall tundish ladle slowly. After transferring approximately 50%of the metal, wait till the reactions subsides and again add 01%to 03. (By weight of liquid metal) inoculant in the tundish .this is known as post treatment inoculation. 5. Remove the tundish, deslag and then check the temperature and pour the casting. Inoculation procedure: The every ladle of metal has to be inoculated with Ca-Si before it is allowed to pouring. Ca-Si granules or other inoculants (commonly Fe-si granules) are added in the following quantities. GRADE 20 & 25 : 0.3 % of the liquid metal quantities.

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Adding inoculation to grey iron or steel in the ladle: 1. Add inoculate just before pouring the casting. 2. Ensure uniform distribution throughout the metal by stirring thoroughly. 3. Remove dross or other impurities from the metal surface before the addition of inoculants .add inoculate to the tapping stream or into a partly filled ladle during tapping. This is smaller quantity of metal. Purpose: 1. To reduce the chilling and to promotes the graphitization. 2. To increase the strength to metal. 3. To reduce the formation of fine graphite and associates ferrite. 4. For deoxidation and promotes more uniform micro structure in various close sections. The disadvantage of the inoculation is if excess amount of inoculation causes to produce unsoundness casting. The main inoculants are Fe-Si, calcium siliside and common inoculate is graphite. The grain size of inoculate is for more then three tonnes 15-25mm. For grey iron casting the inoculation is commonly Fe-Si and calcium silicide of 20mm. and for steel casting the inoculation is calcium silicide and alumina powder. Store inoculants in covered, waterproof containers in a dry, ventilated, and covered area free from dampness. Graphite inoculants absorb moisture and silicon inoculants. Especially finally divided calcium silicide reacts with atmospheric moisture there by reducing their efficiency.

Chemical composition GRADE SGI1 SGI2 SGI3 SGI4 C 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.3 --3.0 m 3.4 3.8 Si 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.8 1.5 2.2 1.3 1.6 Mn 0.05 1.0 0.05 1.0 0.5 1.5 -0.5 Cr 0.1 m 0.2 m 0.1m -0.13
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P 0.25 m 0.15 m 0.06 0.25 -0.05

S 0.02 m 0.03 m 0.05 015 -0.02

Mo 0.1 m 0.3 m 0.1 m 0.1 m

Ni 0.3 m 0.25 m 0.1 m ---

Mechanical Properties: Grade SGI1 SGI2 SGI3 6.10 Melting of Hi-Chrome: Melting equipment: Coreless Induction Furnace Charge: HI- chrome returns, M.S. Scrap, Ferro alloys, Nickel. Melting procedure: 1. Charge graded pig iron and ferroalloys into the furnace as per the instructions of super visor in charge of the furnace 2. During melting add appropriate ingredients in sequence as per instructions 3. After melting down pour a sample and send a sample to express laboratory [First sample]. 4. After obtaining analysis form the laboratory if there is any deviation in composition from the specification add necessary ingredients and send another sample for analysis [second sample]. 5. if there is any further deviations ,send subsequent samples(3rd,4th etc.,)after applying necessary action till the required analysis is obtained. 6. Tap into a hot ladle at 1500 0c-1550 0c. 7. Pouring temperature is above 1450 0c. Tensile Strength Kg/mm 2 41 61.2 38.0
Elongation % Yield Kg/mm2

15 3 7

25.5 37.74 21.5

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Chemical composition:

GRADE HC1

C 3.0 3.3

Si 0.5 1.0

Mn 0.4 1.0

Cr 15.0 17.0

P -0.10

S -0.10

Mo 0.1

Ni 0.3 m

Mechanical Properties:

Grade HC1

HARDNESS, (BHN) 550 Minimum

4.11 Temperature measurement: Temperature is measured by using immersion type Pyro meter. Principle If two dissimilar metallic wires are brought into electrical contact, an emf will develop across that point of contact .the magnitude of the emf developed will be determined by the chemical composition of the wire &the temperature of the junction point.

Thermo couple materials: Generally preferred materials are chromel alumel, iron constantan, copper constantan, platinum, and 10 % rhodium platinum. Generally we use platinum, and 10 % rhodium platinum type of material for thermo couple.

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4.12 Spectro Lab 4.12.1 M5 spectrometer It is a computerized instrument where in the % of different chemical elements (Fe, Al, Cu, and Base) present in a sample are directly displayed on the screen after the sample is sparked. Principle of Working: When the Sample Is Subjected to High Voltage Spark, The Spectrum Emitted by the Excited Sample Is Characteristic of the elements present in the sample .the intensities of spectral line are directly proportional to the concentration of its constituents elements. In this instrument concentration are directly displayed on the screen. Calibration: a. Select a certificate standard sample with respect to the specification of the unknown sample. b. Spark the standard sample one to three times. c. Obtain average values &compare with the certified values. d. If they coincide with in +/-0.05 for alloying elements and +/-0.005for trace elements like p& S of the certified values, proceed with analysis of unknown samples. e. If they do not coincide as said in (d) adjust the intensity ratios of different till the values coincide as in (d). Analysis of unknown samples: When the machine is set as in calibration proceeds for the analysis of unknown sample. 4.12.2 Mode750 vacuum Spectrometer: Principle of working: When the sample is subjected to high voltage spark, the spectrum emitted by the excited sample is characteristic of the elements in the sample .The intensities of spectral lines, are directly proportional to the concentrations of its constituents elements In this instrument, the intensity of each spectral line is converted into milli volts &displayed in the digital volt meter.
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Calibration: a) Spark three certified standard sample s.

b)

Fix the intensity of line between 900-1000 mlli volts by rotating the I.S set knob as in-b

c) Calculate the intensity ratios of each element with respect to the Fe intensity fixed d) Draw the calibration graphs of each element on a log log sheet taking intensity ratios on Y-axis &known concentration on X-axis. Analysis of unknown sample: a) Spark the unknown sample b) Obtained the intensity ratios as explained above with respect to Fe intensity.
c)

Compute the concentration of each element by using the calibrated on graph drawn as in Calibration

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Chapter-7

CASTING DEFECTS
An unwanted deviation from the desired requirements in a cast products results in a defect. Some defects in the cast products are tolerable while others can be rectified by additional process like welding etc. The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings. 7.1 Shape dimension and weight defects a) Misrun b) Shift c) Fin d) Bulge / Swell e) Warping f) Mechanical damage g) Incorrect dimensions h) Incorrect weight 7.2 Surface defects a) Burn on / Sand fusion b) Cold shut c) Rat tails d) Erosion scab e) Flash f) Sweat g) Scale h) Pressing / Damaging i) Metal penetration 7.3 Discontinuity of material a) Hot tears b) Cold cracks c) Unbound

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7.4 Cavities a) Blow holes b) Pin holes c) Shrinkage cavities d) Shrinkage porosity e) Micro shrinkage f) Micro blow holes 7.5 Inclusions a) Slag inclusions b) Sand inclusions c) Non-metallic inclusions d) Cold shot e) Metallic inclusions f) Dross inclusions 7.6 Defects of structure a) Segregation b) Unsuitable fracture c) Hard spots d) Inverse chill e) Incorrect structure 7.7 Defects ascertained by laboratory tests a) Incorrect chemical composition b) Unsuitable mechanical properties c) Unsuitable physical properties 7.8 Misrun: Metal does not completely fill the mould (or) incomplete casting. Causes: 1) Low pouring temperature of metal 2) The metal solidifies before the mould is completely filled
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3) Low pouring temperature 4) Interrupted pouring 5) Low metal fluidity 7.9 Mismatch (or) Mould shift: It produces a casting, which does not match at the parting line. There is mismatch of top and bottom parts of the casting at the mould joint. Causes: 1) Worn or loose dowels in pattern made in halves. 2) Faulty registering of top and bottom halves of pattern mounted on plates. 3) Faulty assembling of mould 7.10 Fins: Extra projection on the casting. Causes: . 1) Gaps between cores and core and mould.

7.11 Bulge or Swell: The casting shows some enlargement in dimensions or is overweight. When this defect occurs, the casting is obviously bulging or over size. Causes:
1)

The sand may be too soft

2) The metallostatic pressure causes the mould cavity to enlarge. 7.12 Warping: Castings warp or deform because of the stresses set up in them internally, due to differential solidification rates experienced by different sections of castings. Causes: 1. Faulty design of the casting. 2. Absence of directional solidification.

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7.13 Burn on (or) Sand fusion: Surface of the casting coated with fused sand (i.e.) Sand particles will firmly adhere to the casting surface. Causes: 1. Low sintering point of sand 2. High pouring temperature 3. Improper wash 4. The moulding sand has low refractoriness. 7.14 Cold shut: Irregular stream on the casting surface. Often accompanied by a smooth shiny surface in the area of the cold shut. Partial solidification of the stream before the mould is properly filled. Causes: 1. Too slow pouring (or) too low pouring temperature 2. High carbonaceous material 3. Hard ramming causing low permeability 4. High moisture causing boiling. 7.15 Rat tail: A streak or slight ridge chiefly on large flat surfaces. It is a sand expansion type defect. Causes: A portion of the mould surface spilling or flaking off because of thermal expansion of the sand. 7.16 Erosion scab: A thin layer of metal above the level of casting, usually in the cope. Often there is a cavity containing sand under the scab; at other times this sand has floated to the cope side. Causes: 1. High expansion and hot strength as too much silica flour 2. High clay content.
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7.17 Metal penetration: A fused mass of metal and sand formed as a result of the metal flowing into and filling up the voids in the sand (or) a spongy mass of sand and metal which adheres tightly to the casting. Causes: 1. Low clay content 2. Low flow ability 3. Soft ramming 4. High permeability 7.18 Hot tears: Cracks in the casting as a result of stresses set up while casting is solidifying and cooling (or) the casting may rupture or tear. Causes: 1. Too high hot strength of the sand mixture 2. More percentage of inorganic binders may also lead to this defect 3. Slow collapsibility. 7.19 Cold cracks: A crack formed due to thermal shocks. Causes: 1. Thermal shocks. 7.20 Blow holes & Gas holes: Smooth round or elliptical shaped slightly discolored depressions on the surface of the casting or below the surface are Blow holes. Round or Oval holes on the surface of the casting or below the surface or through the casting wall with shiny surface are Gas holes. Causes: 1. High moisture 2. Cope too shallow 3. Hard ramming
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4. Wash too heavy or not dried 5. Any combination of hot and cold materials 6. Improperly dried ladles 7. High clay content requiring too much water 8. Wet chills or chaplets 9. Rusty chills and chaplets. 7.21 Pin holes: Numerous small gas cavities at or slightly below the surface. Causes: Gases under pressure or excessive moisture and poor permeability of the mould. 7.22 Shrinkage cavities: Rough and dendrite cavities on surface and subsurface of casting. Saucer shaped depression on a heavy section, usually with rough edges. Causes: 1. Improper rise ring. 2. Too high temperature, too low temperature. 3. Improper feeding of riser. 4. Improper chilling. 5. Too large ingates. 7.23 Slag inclusion: Slag embedded in casting. Causes: 1. When ladle is not cleaned properly. 2. Poor gating system 3. Improper removing of slag from ladle before pouring. 7.24 Cold shots: Globules of solid metals entrapped into the casting.

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Causes: Formed by splashing during pouring, they are not dissolved later by the surrounding liquid metal. 7.25 Rough surface: The surface of the casting will be rough. Causes: 1. Unfinished mould walls 2. Coarse sand 3. Drift in the mould. 7.26 Dirt: Rough surfaces of the casting. Causes: 1. Weak sand, especially of low strength or insufficient moisture 2. Careless moulding may also lead to dirt in the mould. 7.27 Segregation: Different compositions at different portions of the casting. Causes: 1. Different constituents of the alloy possess various degrees of fusibility 2. Some remain in the liquid state after the rest have solidified 3. Slow cooling is generally the cause for segregation 7.28 Buckle: "V" groove on the surface of the casting Causes: 1. High hot strength 2. High moisture content of the mould. 7.29 Veins: Fin shaped protrusions in the cored areas.
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Causes: 1. A crack shaped opening develops in the core as it becomes heated by the liquid metal 2. The crack is filled with the molten metal. 7.30 Cuts and Washes: Rough irregular area of metal which has replaced the sand. Causes: 1. Low dry strength 2. Low moisture or high moisture causing boiling 3. Low hot strength 4. Low permeability 5. Soft ramming

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Chapter-8

FETTLING
After removal of casting from the mould it is no longer used as it has got sprue, risers, etc., attached to it. Besides, it is not completely free of sand particles. This operation of cutting off the unwanted parts, cleaning and finishing of the castings is known as Fettling. 8.1 Different fettling operations: 8.1.1 Knock out: This is also known as shake out. Knocking out of dry sand cores may be removed by rapping or knocking with prone bar. For quick knocking, pneumatic or hydraulic devices may be employed. These devices besides knocking also help in cleaning and smoothing the castings. 8.1.2 De-coring: The main mass of moulding normally removed at the knock out stage the purpose of de-coring is to remove the core sand inside adhering to the castings. The sand is removed with the help pneumatic chippers. While de-coring care is to be taken not to chip away the metal faces of castings with the pneumatic chippers. 8.1.3 Removal of gates and risers: The choice of method for removing gates and risers from the castings depends upon the size and shape of the castings and the type of the metal. The options for such are knocking off or breaking with the hammer, which is particularly suited in case of gray iron casing and other brittle metals. Sawing with a metal cutting saw, which may be band saw, a circular saw or a power hacksaw. Flame cutting with oxyacetylene gas is generally for ferrous metals, especially for large sized castings where the risers and the gates are very heavy. Using a spur cutter for shearing of the gates, employing abrasive cut-off machines, which can work with all metals but are specially designed for hard metals, which are difficult to saw or shear.

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8.1.4 Removal of fins and unwanted projections: The operation of removing unwanted metal, projections etc., from the surface of the castings is called snagging. While snagging, care must be exercised to see that proper casting contour is followed and too much metal is not removed. The methods for snagging include.
a)

Grinding of pedestal, bench, flexible shaft or swing frame or swing frame type

b) Chipping with hand or pneumatic tools c) Gauging and frame cutting d) Removing metal by arc-air equipment e) Filling 8.1.5 Surface cleaning: Surface cleaning operation is done after the removal of gating system. Casting are subjected to general cleaning operation such as wire brushing, grinding and shot blasting etc. Wire brushing: It consists of hardened steel wares bunch from threaded in a wooden frame. It is preferred to the adhered sand, which can be used for GI, Steels, and Non-ferrous castings such as Aluminium and copper. Surface cleaning is to be done well so that grinding operation will be easy. Grinding: The grinding is carried out to remove the excessive metal on the surface of the castings in the form of fins, mismatch etc. Types of grinding tools used Swing frame grinders Pedestals grinders Portable grinders

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Shot blasting: Blast cleaning is done by stream of abrasive particles like Steel Shots / Grits along with compressed air. The machine used for shot blasting is a double chamber type for hurling the abrasive grid towards the casting. The abrasive applied in this case are steel shots. As the shots from the hub of impeller towards the periphery, their velocity get accelerate and then finally leave the impeller at a very high velocity hitting the casting surface with enormous impact. Large cleaning may be equipped with one or more impellers strategically positioned. The casting may also be mounted on rotating table (the table is rotated on the horizontal axis). In some units the castings are tumbled at the same time the abrasive is hurled towards them. The castings are carried by a power conveyor in the machine from one side and come out from other side. Provision is there for extraction, cleaning and re-cycling of abrasive (steel shots) materials used. Technical details are as follows Type of chamber Chamber Dimensions No. Of chambers No. Of tables Dia. Of tables Load capacity of each table Max. Dimension of each table Material of shots Size of the shot and grit 8.2 Upgrading of castings: The defective areas as if shrinkage sand falls bole holes etc., are to be opened by arc/gouging electrode. The defective area is to be ground with small grinders smoothly and the shape is to make as V or U grooves. Then the prepared defect area to be subjected for D.P test for detective any cracks. Then first layer is to be deposited on this layer is to be subjected for D.P.T for crack
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: Rectangular : 7000 mm x 3500 mm x 2500 mm : 2 Nos. : 2 Nos. : 2500 mm : 5000 Kgs : 6000 mm x 2800 mm x 1500 mm : Manganese steel : 3 mm

detection, after that, the remaining defected area is to be filled. If the welding is after heat treatment, the castings are to be subjected for stress-reliving operation. 8.3 Repairing of the castings: Defects such as blowholes, gas holes, cracks etc., may often occur in castings. Some times the casting was broken, bent or deformed during shake-out or because of rough handling. The castings get warped during heat treatment or while it cools down in the mould. Such defective casting cannot be rejected our right for reasons of economy. They are there fore repaired by suitable means and put to use unless the defects are such that they cannot be remedied. The common methods of repairing the castings are: a) Metal arc welding b) Oxy-acetylene welding c) Carbon arc welding d) Inert arc tungsten welding e) Submerged arc welding f) Automatic Hydrogen welding g) Braze welding h) Flow welding i) Soldering j) Metal spraying (covering with Titanium putty). 8.4 Inspections: After the above fettling operations, the inspection of the casting is carried out in the inspection section. Material and size are checked whether the casting is formed according to the drawing. After that the casting is sent for chemical analysis test and for the metallography the required heat treatment operation is carried out to the casting.

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The inspection of the casting is done by the following ways. 8.4.1 Visual inspection: It is the simplest method of inspection of measurement of the casting. In this surface defects like cracks, dirt, shift, blowholes etc., are inspected. 8.4.2 Dimensional inspection: This method involves the principles of measurement of gauging of critical and controlling dimensions: section thickness, location, and their heights. 8.4.3 Metallurgical inspection: This method involves chemical analysis and determination of mechanical properties. Evaluation of castings and soundness and the conduct testing of special properties such as electrical conductivity, resistively, Magnetic properties, corrosion resistance, respond to heat treatment, strength in assembles. Heat treatment operations like annealing is carried out in the fettling shop in a 30 tons annealing furnace. The technical details of the annealing furnace are as follows Capacity Working length Working width Working height Bogie length No. of burners No. of servomotors Maximum temperature : 30 Tons : 8 Mts. : 4 Mts. : 4.25 Mts. : 9.25 Mts. : 20 Nos. : 6 Nos. : 1000C

8.4.4 UT / MP / Radiography tests: Castings are subjected to UT / MP after rough machining in machine shop / at subcontract works. Radiography tests are to be fettled fully and ground smoothly. Therefore, that no surface defects like pits. Under cuts and undulations are present. Then castings are to be subjected to X ray in 05 NDT / 06 NDT before rough machining. Castings like bearing pedestals etc. are subjected to kerosene test for leak proof testing.
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SUMMARY M/s BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD. is contributing a great to the power sector with its excellent capabilities. In its all units of BHEL, Heavy Power equipment Plant Hyderabad is playing a key role by manufacturing turbines. Beneath the success of BHEL turbines, BHEL foundries have an important contribution. BHEL-HPEP, ferrous foundry is having good capabilities to produce wide variety of castings to serve different areas of power plant. This foundry is producing a wide range of castings of different weights from 90 Kg to 25000 Kg. Also producing different alloys like grey iron, ductile iron, steel, nickel hardened alloy and chromium hardened alloy, etc. with excellent mechanical properties required to the specific component. With its existing facilities and the newly adding facilities ferrous foundry is having a good scope for further development of BHEL.

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