(Heat Transfer)

Thermodynamics I

Lecture No. 08

Dr. Ahmed EL-Seesy/ Dr. Radwan Elzoheiry

Benha Faculty of Engineering -Benha University

Mechanical Engineering Department
 Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics Heat Transfer

Deals with the amount of heat transfer Deals with the RATE and the MODE of
as a system undergoes a process from heat transfer whether it’s in
one EQUILIBRIUM state to another. equilibrium state or not

It does not till us about the TIME It deals with the RATE of heat transfer
TAKEN to transfer heat

It does not till us about the MODE of It deals with the MODE of heat transfer
heat transfer

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 Mode of Heat Transfer

Mechanisms of
Heat Transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

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 Mode of Heat Transfer

➢ Conduction: is the transfer of energy from the more

energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
➢ Convection: is the mode of heat transfer between a surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
➢ Radiation: is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer

➢ Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

➢ In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions

and diffusion of the molecules during their random
motion.

➢ In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the

molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer

➢ The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on

the geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the
material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Consider steady heat conduction through a
large plane wall of thickness Δx = L and
area A, as shown in Figure 8-1.

➢ The rate of heat conduction through a

plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Where the constant of proportionality k is
the thermal conductivity of the material,
which is a measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.

➢ Thus the thermal conductivity of a

material can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat.

➢ Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as

the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material
per unit area per unit temperature difference.

➢ In the limiting case of Δx → 0, the equation above reduces to

the differential form

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat.

➢ Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as

the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material
per unit area per unit temperature difference.

➢ In the limiting case of Δx → 0, the equation above reduces to

the differential form, which is called the Fourier’s law of heat
conduction.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat.

➢ Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as

the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material
per unit area per unit temperature difference.

➢ In the limiting case of Δx → 0, the equation above reduces to

the differential form, which is called the Fourier’s law of heat
conduction.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Here dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which is the slope
of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of change
of T with x), at location x.

➢ Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,

and the temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign in
Eq. 8–2 ensures that heat transfer in the positive x
direction is a positive quantity.

➢ The heat transfer area A is always normal to the direction of

heat transfer.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ For heat loss through a 5-m-long, 3-m-high, and 25-cm-thick
wall, for example, the heat transfer area is A = 15 m2.

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 Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ Table 8-1 The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature
Material k, W/m · °C* Material k, W/m · °C*
Diamond 2300 Water (l) 0.607
Silver 429
Human skin 0.37
Copper 401
Wood (oak) 0.17
Gold 317
Aluminum 237 Helium (g) 0.152
Iron 80.2 Soft rubber 0.13
Mercury (l) 8.54 Glass fiber 0.043
Glass 0.78
Air (g) 0.026
Brick 0.72
Water (l) 0.607 Urethane, rigid foam 0.026

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 Example 8.1

The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick,
and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8 W/m ·
°C . The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are
measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine (a)
the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to
the home owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

Solution

T 4 − 15
Q = −kA = −0.8  6  8  = 1690W = 1.69 kW
x 0.25
Q = Q  t = (1.69kW )  (10h ) = 16.9kWh
COST = 16.9kWh  0.08$ / kWh = $1.35

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 Convection

➢ Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid

surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

➢ The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer.

➢ In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a

solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

➢ The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat

transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also
complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.

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 Convection

➢ Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to

flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or
the wind.

➢ In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if

the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced
by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the
fluid

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 Convection

➢ The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be

proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

➢ Where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C.

➢ As is the surface area through which convection heat transfer
takes place
➢ Ts is the surface temperature.
➢ T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the
surface.

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 Convection

➢ Note that at the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid.

➢ The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of

the fluid.

➢ It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value

depends on all the variables influencing convection such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of
the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.

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 Example 8.2

A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C, Heat

is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface
temperature of the wire is measured to be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the
voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60 V and
1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of
the wire and the air in the room

Solution

Q = E = VI = ( 60V )(1.5 A ) = 90W

As =  DL =  ( 0.003m )( 2m ) = 0.01885 m 2
Qconv = hAs (Ts − T )
Qconv 90W
h= = = 34.9W / m C
As (Ts − T ) ( 0.01885 m2 ) (152 − 15 )

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 Radiation

➢ Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of

electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in
the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

➢ Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by

radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium.

➢ In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of

light).

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 Radiation

➢ In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation,

which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature.

➢ It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as

x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television
waves that are not related to temperature. All bodies at a
temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

➢ Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids,

and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids

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 Radiation

➢ The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a

surface at a thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K or R) is given
by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

➢ where s = 5.670 ×108 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann

constant.

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 Radiation

➢ The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is

called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation

➢ The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the

radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is
expressed as
Qemit =  A T s s
4
(W )
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 Radiation

Qemit =  A T s s
4
(W )
0   1
➢ where ε is the emissivity of the surface.

➢ The property emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface

approximates a blackbody for which ε = 1.

➢ Another important radiation property of a surface is its

absorptivity α, which is the fraction of the radiation energy
incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface. Like
emissivity, its value is in the range 0    1

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 Radiation

➢ A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is,

a blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect
emitter.

➢ In general, both ε and α of a surface depend on the temperature

and the wavelength of the radiation. Kirchhoff’s law of
radiation states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a
surface at a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

➢ The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the

surface and the radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat
transfer.

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 Radiation

➢ In general, the determination of the net rate of heat transfer by

radiation between two surfaces is a complicated matter since it
depends on the properties of the surfaces, their orientation
relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation.

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 Radiation

➢ When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area As at a

thermodynamic temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a
much larger (or black) surface at thermodynamic temperature
Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene
with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between
these two surfaces is given by
Qrad = s As (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) W

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 Example 8.3

It is a common experience to feel “chilly” in winter and “warm” in summer in our homes even when
the thermostat setting is kept the same. This is due to the so called “radiation effect” resulting from
radiation heat exchange between our bodies and the surrounding surfaces of the walls and the ceiling.
Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C at all times. The inner surfaces of the walls,
floors, and the ceiling of the house are observed to be at an average temperature of 10°C in winter and
25°C in summer. Determine the rate of radiation heat transfer between this person and the
surrounding surfaces if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the
person are 1.4 m2 and 30°C, respectively

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