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Hammerhead shark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Hammerhead sharks
Temporal range: Middle Miocene to Present[1] Pre O S D C P T J K
Pg

N Q

Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna lewini

Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Chondrichthyes Subclass: Elasmobranchii Order: Carcharhiniformes Sphyrnidae Family:
Gill, 1872

Genus:

Sphyrna
Rafinesque, 1810

The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, so named for the unusual and distinctive structure of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a "cephalofoil". Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna; some authorities place the winghead shark in its own genus, Eusphyra. Many, not necessarily mutually exclusive, functions have been proposed for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, maneuvering, and prey manipulation. Hammerheads are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Unlike most sharks, hammerheads usually swim in schools. Some of these schools can be found near Malpelo Island in Colombia, Cocos Island by Costa Rica and near Molokai Island in Hawai'i.

Contents
[hide]
y y y y y y y y y y y

1 Physical description 2 Hammer Head Shape 3 Taxonomy and evolution 4 Reproduction 5 Diet 6 Species 7 Relationship to humans 8 Hawaiian Culture 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Physical description

The nine known species range from 0.9 to 6 m (3.0 to 20 ft) long and weigh from 500 to 1000 pounds. They are usually light gray and have a greenish tint to them. Their bellies are white which allows them to be close to the bottom of the ocean and blend in to sneak up on their prey.[2] Their heads have lateral projections which give them a hammer-like shape.

A Costa Rican hammerhead shark

It was determined recently that the hammer-like shape of the head evolved to enhance the animal's vision.[3] The positioning of the eyes give the shark good binocular vision, as well as 360-degree vision in the vertical plane, meaning they can see above and below them at all times.[4] The shape of the head was previously thought to help the shark find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability and allowing sharp turning movement without losing stability. However, it was found that the unusual structure of its vertebrae was instrumental in making the turns correctly, more often than the shape of its head, though would also shift and provide lift. From what is known about the Winghead shark, it would appear that the shape of the hammerhead has to do with an evolved sensory function. Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini. By distributing the receptors over a wider area, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively.[5] These sharks have been able to detect an electrical signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer also allows the nostrils to be placed farther apart, increasing its ability to detect chemical gradients and localize the source. Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become solitary hunters. Hammerheads are one of the few animals that acquire a tan from prolonged exposure to sunlight . Tanning occurs when a hammerhead is in shallow waters or close to the surface for long periods.[6]

[edit] Hammer Head Shape

Since the shape of the head causes the nostrils to be positioned wider apart, this aids the fish in determining the direction of a given scent. It is a stereo smell that is based mainly on timing of scent detection, rather than relative intensity [7][8].

[edit] Taxonomy and evolution

Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the carcharhinid sharks that evolved during the mid-Tertiary Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late Eocene, Oligocene or early Miocene. Using mitochondrial DNA, Andrew Martin constructed a phylogenetic tree of the hammerhead sharks that showed the winghead shark as its most basal member. As the winghead shark has proportionately the largest "hammer" of the hammerhead sharks, this suggests that the first ancestral hammerhead sharks also had large hammers.[9]

[edit] Reproduction
Reproduction only occurs once a year for hammerhead sharks and usually occurs with the male shark biting the female shark violently until she agrees to mate with him. [10]The hammerhead

sharks exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction with females giving birth to live young. Like other sharks, fertilization is internal with the male transferring sperm to the female through one of two intromittent organs called claspers. The developing embryos are at first sustained by a yolk sac. When the supply of yolk is exhausted, the depleted yolk sac transforms into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta (called a "yolk sac placenta" or "pseudoplacenta"), through which the mother delivers sustenance until birth. Once the baby sharks are born, they are not taken care of by the parents in any way. There is usually a litter of 12 to 15 pups; except for the Great Hammerhead, there are usually 20 to 40 pups. These baby sharks huddle together and swim toward warmer water and stay together until they are older and bigger to be on their own.
[11]

In 2007, the bonnethead shark was found to be capable of asexual reproduction via automictic parthenogenesis, in which a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male. This was the first shark known to do this.[12]

[edit] Diet
Hammerhead sharks are known to eat a large range of items including fish, squid, octopus, crustaceans, and other hammerhead sharks. Stingrays are a particular favorite. These sharks are found many times swimming along the bottom of the ocean and stalk their prey. Their unique head is used as a weapon when hunting down prey. The hammerhead shark uses its head to pin down stingrays and eats the ray when the ray is weak and in shock.[13] There is a species of the hammerhead shark that is more aggressive and large in size: the Great Hammerhead. These sharks tend to be more aggressive and eat squid, octopus, and other hammerhead sharks. They are also known to eat their own young.[14]

[edit] Species

School of scalloped hammerheads, Wolf Island, Galapagos Islands

y

Genus Eusphyra o Winghead shark, Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817) Genus Sphyrna o Subgenus Sphyrna  Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834)

"Cryptic scalloped hammerhead" - Scalloped hammerheads are two separate species, which have not yet been officially reclassified with separate names.  Great hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran (Rppell, 1837)  Smooth hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) o Subgenus Mesozygaena  Scalloped bonnethead, Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona Springer, 1940 o Subgenus Platysqualus  Scoophead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media Springer, 1940  Bonnethead or shovelhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo (Linnaeus, 1758)  Smalleye hammerhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes (Valenciennes, 1822)


Announcements in June, 2006 reported the discovery of a possible new species of hammerhead off the shores of South Carolina. The possible new species is referred to simply as a cryptic species until it receives an official designation. This is prolonged, in part, because the discovery is really that the "scalloped hammerhead" is possibly two different species, not that a new species has been sighted, in the normal way. The discovery that scalloped hammerheads are possibly two species is purely a result of genetic testing, not identification of physical differences.[15]

[edit] Relationship to humans

A hammerhead shark at Atlantis Paradise Island Of the nine known species of hammerhead, three can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads. The great and the scalloped hammerhead are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable. The status given to these sharks is as a result of over-fishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy. Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston. The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators. Environmental organizations say shark fins are prized as a delicacy, and overfishing is putting many hammerhead sharks at risk of extinction. Fishermen who harvest the animals typically cut off the fins and toss the carcass back into the sea.[16]

[edit] Hawaiian Culture

A solitary hammerhead shark In Native Hawaiian culture, sharks are considered to be gods of the sea, also known as aumakua, protectors of humans, and cleaners of excessive ocean life. Some of these sharks are believed to be family members who passed away and have been reincarnated into shark form. However, there are sharks that are considered man-eaters, also known as niuhi. These sharks include great white sharks, tiger sharks, and bull sharks. The hammerhead shark, also known as mano kihikihi, is not considered a man-eater or niuhi; it is considered to be one of the most respected sharks of the ocean, an aumakua. Many Hawaiian families believe that they have an aumakua watching over them and protecting them from the niuhi. The hammerhead shark is thought to be the birth animal of some children. Hawaiian children who are born with the hammerhead shark as an animal sign are believed to be warriors and are meant to sail the oceans.It is extremely rare for hammerhead sharks to pass through the waters of Maui, but many Maui natives believe that when the hammerhead sharks pass by, it is a sign that the gods are watching over the families, and the oceans are clean and balanced. In Hawaii, if one is caught attempting to fish for or harm a shark, it is considered a felony because it is detrimental to the Hawaiian way of life. [17]

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Hammerhead shark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Hammerhead sharks
Temporal range: Middle Miocene to Present[1] Pre O

S D C P T J K
Pg

N Q

Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna lewini

Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Chondrichthyes Subclass: Elasmobranchii Order: Carcharhiniformes Sphyrnidae Family:
Gill, 1872

Genus:

Sphyrna
Rafinesque, 1810

The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, so named for the unusual and distinctive structure of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a "cephalofoil". Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna; some authorities place the winghead shark in its own genus, Eusphyra. Many, not necessarily mutually exclusive, functions have been proposed for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, maneuvering, and prey manipulation. Hammerheads are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Unlike most sharks, hammerheads usually swim in schools. Some of these schools can be found near Malpelo Island in Colombia, Cocos Island by Costa Rica and near Molokai Island in Hawai'i.

Contents
[hide]
y

1 Physical description

y y y y y y y y y y

2 Hammer Head Shape 3 Taxonomy and evolution 4 Reproduction 5 Diet 6 Species 7 Relationship to humans 8 Hawaiian Culture 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Physical description

The nine known species range from 0.9 to 6 m (3.0 to 20 ft) long and weigh from 500 to 1000 pounds. They are usually light gray and have a greenish tint to them. Their bellies are white which allows them to be close to the bottom of the ocean and blend in to sneak up on their prey.[2] Their heads have lateral projections which give them a hammer-like shape.

A Costa Rican hammerhead shark It was determined recently that the hammer-like shape of the head evolved to enhance the animal's vision.[3] The positioning of the eyes give the shark good binocular vision, as well as 360-degree vision in the vertical plane, meaning they can see above and below them at all times.[4] The shape of the head was previously thought to help the shark find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability and allowing sharp turning movement without losing stability. However, it was found that the unusual structure of its vertebrae was instrumental in making the turns correctly, more often than the shape of its head, though would also shift and provide lift. From what is known about the Winghead shark, it would appear that the shape of the hammerhead has to do with an evolved sensory function. Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini. By distributing the receptors over a wider area, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively.[5] These sharks have been able to detect an electrical signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer also allows the nostrils to be placed farther apart, increasing its ability to detect chemical gradients and localize the source.

Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become solitary hunters. Hammerheads are one of the few animals that acquire a tan from prolonged exposure to sunlight . Tanning occurs when a hammerhead is in shallow waters or close to the surface for long periods.[6]

[edit] Hammer Head Shape

Since the shape of the head causes the nostrils to be positioned wider apart, this aids the fish in determining the direction of a given scent. It is a stereo smell that is based mainly on timing of scent detection, rather than relative intensity [7][8].

[edit] Taxonomy and evolution

Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the carcharhinid sharks that evolved during the mid-Tertiary Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late Eocene, Oligocene or early Miocene. Using mitochondrial DNA, Andrew Martin constructed a phylogenetic tree of the hammerhead sharks that showed the winghead shark as its most basal member. As the winghead shark has proportionately the largest "hammer" of the hammerhead sharks, this suggests that the first ancestral hammerhead sharks also had large hammers.[9]

[edit] Reproduction
Reproduction only occurs once a year for hammerhead sharks and usually occurs with the male shark biting the female shark violently until she agrees to mate with him. [10]The hammerhead sharks exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction with females giving birth to live young. Like other sharks, fertilization is internal with the male transferring sperm to the female through one of two intromittent organs called claspers. The developing embryos are at first sustained by a yolk sac. When the supply of yolk is exhausted, the depleted yolk sac transforms into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta (called a "yolk sac placenta" or "pseudoplacenta"), through which the mother delivers sustenance until birth. Once the baby sharks are born, they are not taken care of by the parents in any way. There is usually a litter of 12 to 15 pups; except for the Great Hammerhead, there are usually 20 to 40 pups. These baby sharks huddle together and swim toward warmer water and stay together until they are older and bigger to be on their own.
[11]

In 2007, the bonnethead shark was found to be capable of asexual reproduction via automictic parthenogenesis, in which a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male. This was the first shark known to do this.[12]

[edit] Diet
Hammerhead sharks are known to eat a large range of items including fish, squid, octopus, crustaceans, and other hammerhead sharks. Stingrays are a particular favorite. These sharks are found many times swimming along the bottom of the ocean and stalk their prey. Their unique head is used as a weapon when hunting down prey. The hammerhead shark uses its head to pin down stingrays and eats the ray when the ray is weak and in shock.[13] There is a species of the hammerhead shark that is more aggressive and large in size: the Great Hammerhead. These sharks tend to be more aggressive and eat squid, octopus, and other hammerhead sharks. They are also known to eat their own young.[14]

[edit] Species

School of scalloped hammerheads, Wolf Island, Galapagos Islands

y

Genus Eusphyra o Winghead shark, Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817) Genus Sphyrna o Subgenus Sphyrna  Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834)  "Cryptic scalloped hammerhead" - Scalloped hammerheads are two separate species, which have not yet been officially reclassified with separate names.  Great hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran (Rppell, 1837)  Smooth hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) o Subgenus Mesozygaena  Scalloped bonnethead, Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona Springer, 1940 o Subgenus Platysqualus  Scoophead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media Springer, 1940  Bonnethead or shovelhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo (Linnaeus, 1758)  Smalleye hammerhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes (Valenciennes, 1822)

Announcements in June, 2006 reported the discovery of a possible new species of hammerhead off the shores of South Carolina. The possible new species is referred to simply as a cryptic species until it receives an official designation. This is prolonged, in part, because the discovery

is really that the "scalloped hammerhead" is possibly two different species, not that a new species has been sighted, in the normal way. The discovery that scalloped hammerheads are possibly two species is purely a result of genetic testing, not identification of physical differences.[15]

[edit] Relationship to humans

A hammerhead shark at Atlantis Paradise Island Of the nine known species of hammerhead, three can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads. The great and the scalloped hammerhead are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable. The status given to these sharks is as a result of over-fishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy. Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston. The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators. Environmental organizations say shark fins are prized as a delicacy, and overfishing is putting many hammerhead sharks at risk of extinction. Fishermen who harvest the animals typically cut off the fins and toss the carcass back into the sea.[16]

[edit] Hawaiian Culture

A solitary hammerhead shark

In Native Hawaiian culture, sharks are considered to be gods of the sea, also known as aumakua, protectors of humans, and cleaners of excessive ocean life. Some of these sharks are believed to be family members who passed away and have been reincarnated into shark form. However, there are sharks that are considered man-eaters, also known as niuhi. These sharks include great white sharks, tiger sharks, and bull sharks. The hammerhead shark, also known as mano kihikihi, is not considered a man-eater or niuhi; it is considered to be one of the most respected sharks of the ocean, an aumakua. Many Hawaiian families believe that they have an aumakua watching over them and protecting them from the niuhi. The hammerhead shark is thought to be the birth animal of some children. Hawaiian children who are born with the hammerhead shark as an animal sign are believed to be warriors and are meant to sail the oceans.It is extremely rare for hammerhead sharks to pass through the waters of Maui, but many Maui natives believe that when the hammerhead sharks pass by, it is a sign that the gods are watching over the families, and the oceans are clean and balanced. In Hawaii, if one is caught attempting to fish for or harm a shark, it is considered a felony because it is detrimental to the Hawaiian way of life. [17]

[
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Rhynchobatus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Rhynchobatus
Temporal range: 560 Ma Pre O S D C P T J K
Pg

N Q

Early Eocene to Present[1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata

Class: Order: Family: Genus:

Chondrichthyes Rajiformes Rhynchobatidae Rhynchobatus

Mller & Henle, 1837

Rhynchobatus is a group of rays commonly known as wedgefishes, and the sole genus in the family Rhynchobatidae. They are found in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific with a single species in the eastern Atlantic. All species in this genus are threatened and rated as vulnerable or endangered by IUCN.

[edit] Species
Until recently, the white-spotted guitarfish and broadnose wedgefish were included in the giant guitarfish.
y y y y y

White-spotted guitarfish (Rhynchobatus australiae) Giant guitarfish (Rhynchobatus djiddensis) Smoothnose wedgefish (Rhynchobatus laevis) African wedgefish (Rhynchobatus luebberti) Roughnose wedgefish (Rhynchobatus sp. nov. A)

Broadnose wedgefish (Rhynchobatus sp. nov. B) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
y y

Hammerhead shark

[The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, so named for the
unusual and distinctive structure of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a "cephalofoil". Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna; some authorities place the winghead shark in its own genus, Eusphyra. Many, not necessarily mutually exclusive, functions have been proposed for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, maneuvering, and prey manipulation. Hammerheads are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Unlike most sharks, hammerheads usually swim in schools. Some of these schools can be found near Malpelo Island in Colombia, Cocos Island by Costa Rica and near Molokai Island in Hawai'i.

Contents
[hide]

y y y y y y y y y y y

1 Physical description 2 Hammer Head Shape 3 Taxonomy and evolution 4 Reproduction 5 Diet 6 Species 7 Relationship to humans 8 Hawaiian Culture 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Physical description

The nine known species range from 0.9 to 6 m (3.0 to 20 ft) long and weigh from 500 to 1000 pounds. They are usually light gray and have a greenish tint to them. Their bellies are white which allows them to be close to the bottom of the ocean and blend in to sneak up on their prey.[2] Their heads have lateral projections which give them a hammer-like shape.

A Costa Rican hammerhead shark It was determined recently that the hammer-like shape of the head evolved to enhance the animal's vision.[3] The positioning of the eyes give the shark good binocular vision, as well as 360-degree vision in the vertical plane, meaning they can see above and below them at all times.[4] The shape of the head was previously thought to help the shark find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability and allowing sharp turning movement without losing stability. However, it was found that the unusual structure of its vertebrae was instrumental in making the turns correctly, more often than the shape of its head, though would also shift and provide lift. From what is known about the Winghead shark, it would appear that the shape of the hammerhead has to do with an evolved sensory function. Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini. By distributing the receptors over a wider area, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively.[5] These sharks have been able to

detect an electrical signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer also allows the nostrils to be placed farther apart, increasing its ability to detect chemical gradients and localize the source. Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become solitary hunters. Hammerheads are one of the few animals that acquire a tan from prolonged exposure to sunlight . Tanning occurs when a hammerhead is in shallow waters or close to the surface for long periods.[6]

[edit] Hammer Head Shape

Since the shape of the head causes the nostrils to be positioned wider apart, this aids the fish in determining the direction of a given scent. It is a stereo smell that is based mainly on timing of scent detection, rather than relative intensity [7][8].

[edit] Taxonomy and evolution

Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the carcharhinid sharks that evolved during the mid-Tertiary Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late Eocene, Oligocene or early Miocene. Using mitochondrial DNA, Andrew Martin constructed a phylogenetic tree of the hammerhead sharks that showed the winghead shark as its most basal member. As the winghead shark has proportionately the largest "hammer" of the hammerhead sharks, this suggests that the first ancestral hammerhead sharks also had large hammers.[9]

[edit] Reproduction
Reproduction only occurs once a year for hammerhead sharks and usually occurs with the male shark biting the female shark violently until she agrees to mate with him. [10]The hammerhead sharks exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction with females giving birth to live young. Like other sharks, fertilization is internal with the male transferring sperm to the female through one of two intromittent organs called claspers. The developing embryos are at first sustained by a yolk sac. When the supply of yolk is exhausted, the depleted yolk sac transforms into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta (called a "yolk sac placenta" or "pseudoplacenta"), through which the mother delivers sustenance until birth. Once the baby sharks are born, they are not taken care of by the parents in any way. There is usually a litter of 12 to 15 pups; except for the Great Hammerhead, there are usually 20 to 40 pups. These baby sharks huddle together and swim toward warmer water and stay together until they are older and bigger to be on their own.
[11]

In 2007, the bonnethead shark was found to be capable of asexual reproduction via automictic parthenogenesis, in which a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male. This was the first shark known to do this.[12]

[edit] Diet
Hammerhead sharks are known to eat a large range of items including fish, squid, octopus, crustaceans, and other hammerhead sharks. Stingrays are a particular favorite. These sharks are found many times swimming along the bottom of the ocean and stalk their prey. Their unique head is used as a weapon when hunting down prey. The hammerhead shark uses its head to pin down stingrays and eats the ray when the ray is weak and in shock.[13] There is a species of the hammerhead shark that is more aggressive and large in size: the Great Hammerhead. These sharks tend to be more aggressive and eat squid, octopus, and other hammerhead sharks. They are also known to eat their own young.[14]

[edit] Species

School of scalloped hammerheads, Wolf Island, Galapagos Islands

y

Genus Eusphyra o Winghead shark, Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817) Genus Sphyrna o Subgenus Sphyrna  Scalloped hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834)  "Cryptic scalloped hammerhead" - Scalloped hammerheads are two separate species, which have not yet been officially reclassified with separate names.  Great hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran (Rppell, 1837)  Smooth hammerhead, Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) o Subgenus Mesozygaena  Scalloped bonnethead, Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona Springer, 1940 o Subgenus Platysqualus  Scoophead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media Springer, 1940  Bonnethead or shovelhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo (Linnaeus, 1758)  Smalleye hammerhead, Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes (Valenciennes, 1822)

Announcements in June, 2006 reported the discovery of a possible new species of hammerhead off the shores of South Carolina. The possible new species is referred to simply as a cryptic species until it receives an official designation. This is prolonged, in part, because the discovery is really that the "scalloped hammerhead" is possibly two different species, not that a new species has been sighted, in the normal way. The discovery that scalloped hammerheads are possibly two species is purely a result of genetic testing, not identification of physical differences.[15]

[edit] Relationship to humans

A hammerhead shark at Atlantis Paradise Island Of the nine known species of hammerhead, three can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads. The great and the scalloped hammerhead are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable. The status given to these sharks is as a result of over-fishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy. Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston. The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators. Environmental organizations say shark fins are prized as a delicacy, and overfishing is putting many hammerhead sharks at risk of extinction. Fishermen who harvest the animals typically cut off the fins and toss the carcass back into the sea.[16]

[edit] Hawaiian Culture

A solitary hammerhead shark

Ichthyophis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In Native Hawaiian culture, sharks are considered to be gods of the sea, also known as aumakua, protectors of humans, and cleaners of excessive ocean life. Some of these sharks are believed to be family members who passed away and have been reincarnated into shark form. However, there are sharks that are considered man-eaters, also known as niuhi. These sharks include great white sharks, tiger sharks, and bull sharks. The hammerhead shark, also known as mano kihikihi, is not considered a man-eater or niuhi; it is considered to be one of the most respected sharks of the ocean, an aumakua. Many Hawaiian families believe that they have an aumakua watching over them and protecting them from the niuhi. The hammerhead shark is thought to be the birth animal of some children. Hawaiian children who are born with the hammerhead shark as an animal sign are believed to be warriors and are meant to sail the oceans.It is extremely rare for hammerhead sharks to pass through the waters of Maui, but many Maui natives believe that when the hammerhead sharks pass by, it is a sign that the gods are watching over the families, and the oceans are clean and balanced. In Hawaii, if one is caught attempting to fish for or harm a shark, it is considered a felony because it is detrimental to the Hawaiian way of life. [17]

Ichthyophis, sometimes called the Asian caecilians are a genus of caecilians (Limbless Amphibians) found in Southeast Asia, southern Philippines, and western Indo-Australian Archipelago. In Sri Lanka, three species occur, and all are found in almost all habitats, preferring moister ones. The most common is Ichthyophis glutinosus, which is found in almost all altitudes; the others are I. orthoplicatus, which is found in similar habitat to I. glutinosus, but is never found in lowlands below 460 metres (1,510 ft); and I. pseudangularis, found in lowlands below 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).

Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Amphibia Subclass: Lissamphibia Order: Gymnophiona Family: Ichthyophiidae Ichthyophis Genus:
Fitzinger, 1826

Species See text. Ichthyophis, sometimes called the Asian caecilians are a genus of caecilians (Limbless Amphibians) found in Southeast Asia, southern Philippines, and western Indo-Australian Archipelago.

Axolotl
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008)

Axolotl

Leucistic specimen

Conservation status

Critically Endangered (IUCN 3.1) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Amphibia Order: Caudata Family: Ambystomatidae Genus: Ambystoma Species: A. mexicanum Binomial name Ambystoma mexicanum
(Shaw, 1789)

The axolotl (pronounced / ks l t l/), Ambystoma mexicanum, is a neotenic mole salamander belonging to the Tiger Salamander complex.[citation needed] Larvae of this species fail to undergo metamorphosis, so the adults remain aquatic and gilled. The species originates from the lake underlying Mexico City and is also called ajolote (which is also the common name for the Mexican Mole Lizard). Axolotls are used extensively in scientific research due to their ability to regenerate most body parts, ease of breeding, and large embryos. They are commonly kept as pets in the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Japan (sold under the name wooper looper ( p R p ?)) and other countries.[citation needed] Axolotls should not be confused with waterdogs, the larval stage of the closely related Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma mavortium), which are widespread in much of North America and also occasionally become neotenic, nor with mudpuppies (Necturus spp.), fully-aquatic salamanders which are not closely related to the axolotl but bear a superficial resemblance.[citation needed] As of 2010, wild axolotls are near extinction[1] due to urbanization in Mexico City and polluted waters. Nonnative fish such as African tilapia and Asian carp have also recently been introduced to the waters. These new fish have been eating the axolotls' young, as well as its primary source of food.[2] The axolotl is currently on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's annual Red List of threatened species.[3]

Contents
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1 Description 2 Habitat and ecology 3 Axolotl's neoteny 4 Use as a model organism 5 Captivity 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Description

Adult axolotl. A sexually mature adult axolotl, at age 1824 months, ranges in length from 1545 cm (618 in), although a size close to 23 cm (9 in) is most common and greater than 30 cm (12 in) is rare. Axolotls possess features typical of salamander larvae, including external gills and a caudal fin extending from behind the head to the vent.[citation needed] Their heads are wide, and their eyes are lidless. Their limbs are underdeveloped and possess long, thin digits. Males are identified by their swollen cloacae lined with papillae, while females are noticeable for their wider bodies full of eggs. Three pairs of external gill stalks (rami) originate behind their heads and are used to move oxygenated water. The external gill rami are lined with filaments (fimbriae) to increase surface area for gas exchange.[citation needed] Four gill slits lined with gill rakers are hidden underneath the external gills. Axolotls have barely visible vestigial teeth, which would have developed during metamorphosis. The primary method of feeding is by suction, during which their rakers interlock to close the gill slits. External gills are used for respiration, although buccal pumping (gulping air from the surface) may also be used in order to provide oxygen to their lungs. Axolotls have four different colours, two naturally occurring colours and two mutants. The two naturally occurring colours are wildtype (varying shades of brown usually with spots) and melanoid (black). The two mutant colours are leucistic (pale pink with black eyes) and albino (golden, tan or pale pink with pink eyes).[citation needed]

[edit] Habitat and ecology

The axolotl is only native to Lake Xochimilco and Lake Chalco in central Mexico. Unfortunately for the axolotl, Lake Chalco no longer exists as it was artificially drained to avoid periodic

flooding, and Lake Xochimilco remains a diminished glimpse of its former self, existing mainly as canals. The water temperature in Xochimilco rarely rises above 20 C (68 F), though it may fall to 6 or 7 C (45 F) in the winter, and perhaps lower. The wild population has been put under heavy pressure by the growth of Mexico City.[3] Axolotls are also sold as food in Mexican markets and were a staple in the Aztec diet.[2] They are currently listed by CITES as an endangered species and by IUCN as critically endangered in the wild, with a decreasing population. Axolotls are members of the Ambystoma tigrinum (Tiger salamander) complex, along with all other Mexican species of Ambystoma. Their habitat is like that of most neotenic speciesa high altitude body of water surrounded by a risky terrestrial environment. These conditions are thought to favor neoteny. However, a terrestrial population of Mexican Tiger Salamanders occupies and breeds in the axolotl's habitat. The axolotl is carnivorous, consuming small prey such as worms, insects, and small fish in the wild. Axolotls locate food by smell, and will "snap" at any potential meal, sucking the food into their stomachs with vacuum force.[citation needed]

[edit] Axolotl's neoteny

Axolotls exhibit a property called neoteny, meaning that they reach sexual maturity without undergoing metamorphosis. Many species within the axolotl's genus are either entirely neotenic or have neotenic populations. In the axolotl, metamorphic failure is caused by a lack of thyroid stimulating hormone, which is used to induce the thyroid to produce thyroxine in transforming salamanders. The genes responsible for neoteny in laboratory animals may have been identified; however, they are not linked in wild populations, suggesting artificial selection is the cause of complete neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls.[citation needed] Unlike some other neotenic salamanders (Sirens and Necturus), axolotls can be induced to metamorphose by an injection of iodine (used in the production of thyroid hormones) or by shots of thyroxine hormone. Another method for inducing transformation, though one that is very rarely successful, involves removing an axolotl in good condition to a shallow tank in a vivarium and slowly reducing the water level so that the axolotl has difficulty submerging.[citation needed] It will then, over a period of weeks, slowly metamorphose into an adult salamander. During transformation, the air in the vivarium must remain moist, and the maturing axolotl sprayed with a fine mist of pure water. The odds of the animal being able to metamorphose via this method are extremely small, and most attempts at inducing metamorphosis lead to death.[citation needed] This is likely due to the strong genetic basis for neoteny in laboratory and pet axolotls, which means that few captive animals have the ability to metamorphose on their own. Artificial metamorphosis also dramatically shortens the axolotl's lifespan if it survives the process. A neotenic axolotl will live an average of 1015 years (though an individual in Paris is credited with achieving 25 years), while a metamorphosed specimen will scarcely live past the age of five. The adult form resembles a terrestrial Mexican Tiger Salamander, but has several differences, such as longer toes, which support its status as a separate species.[citation needed]

[edit] Use as a model organism

See also: Model organism Six adult axolotls (including a leucistic specimen) were shipped from Mexico City to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1863. Unaware of their neoteny, Auguste Dumril was surprised when, instead of the axolotl, he found in the vivarium a new species, similar to the salamander. This discovery was the starting point of research about neoteny. It is not certain that Mexican Tiger Salamanders were not included in the original shipment. Vilem Laufberger of Germany used thyroid hormone injections to induce an axolotl to grow into a terrestrial adult salamander. The experiment was repeated by the Englishman Julian Huxley, who was unaware the experiment had already been done, using ground thyroid hormones. Since then, experiments have been done often with injections of iodine or various thyroid hormones used to induce metamorphosis.[citation needed] Today, the axolotl is still used in research as a model organism, and large numbers are bred in captivity. Axolotls are especially easy to breed compared to other salamanders in their family, which are almost never captive bred due to the demands of terrestrial life. One attractive feature for research is the large and easily manipulated embryo, which allows viewing of the full development of a vertebrate. Axolotls are used in heart defect studies due to the presence of a mutant gene that causes heart failure in embryos. Since the embryos survive almost to hatching with no heart function, the defect is very observable. The presence of several colour morphs has also been extensively studied.[citation needed] The feature of the salamander that attracts most attention is its healing ability: the axolotl does not heal by scarring and is capable of the regeneration of entire lost appendages in a period of months, and, in certain cases, more vital structures. Some have indeed been found restoring the less vital parts of their brains. They can also readily accept transplants from other individuals, including eyes and parts of the brainrestoring these alien organs to full functionality. In some cases, axolotls have been known to repair a damaged limb as well as regenerating an additional one, ending up with an extra appendage that makes them attractive to pet owners as a novelty. In metamorphosed individuals, however, the ability to regenerate is greatly diminished. The axolotl is therefore used as a model for the development of limbs in vertebrates.[citation needed]

[edit] Captivity

An axolotl in captivity Axolotls live at temperatures of 12 C (54 F)-20 C (68 F), preferably 17 C (63 F)-18 C (64 F). As for all poikilothermic organisms, lower temperatures result in slower metabolism; higher temperatures can lead to stress and increased appetite. Chlorine, commonly added to tapwater, is harmful to axolotls. A single typical axolotl typically requires a 40 l (11 US gal) tank with a water depth of at least 15 cm (6 in). Axolotls spend a majority of the time at the bottom of the tank.[citation needed] In laboratory colonies, adult axolotls are often housed three to a one-gallon container, and water changes are performed more regularly. Salts, such as Holtfreter's solution, are usually added to the water to prevent infection.[4] In captivity, axolotls eat a variety of readily available foods, including trout and salmon pellets, frozen or live bloodworms, earthworms, and waxworms. Axolotls can also eat feeder fish, but care should be taken as fish left in the tank may graze on the axolotls' exposed gills.[citation needed] It should also be noted that Axolotls may suffer from impaction related issues if not kept on the correct substrate with fine sand being the preferred option. Impaction can be caused by the digestion of gravel and could be severe enough to cause death, therefore they must never be kept on gravel or stones that are smaller than the axolotls' head. Rana is a genus of frogs. Species include such archetypal pond frogs as the Common Frog of Europe, brown frogs, and the New World true frogs including the various species of leopard frogs and the American Bullfrog. Members of this genus are found through much of Eurasia, North America, Central America, and the northern half of South America. Many other genera were formerly included here[1]; see below for details. These true frogs are usually largish species characterized by their slim waists and wrinkled skin; many have thin ridges running along their backs but they generally lack "warts" like in typical toads. They are excellent jumpers due to their long slender legs. The typical webbing found on their hind feet allows for easy movement through water. Coloration is mostly greens and browns above, with darker and yellowish spots.

[edit] Distribution & Habitat

Many frogs in this genus breed in early spring, although subtropical and tropical species may breed throughout the year. Males of most of the species are known to call, but a few species are thought to be voiceless. Females lay eggs in rafts or large globular clusters and can produce up to 20,000 at one time.

[edit] Diet
The Rana species feed on insects. Their predators are egrets, crocodiles and snakes.

[edit] Systematics
There are now some 90 species placed in this genus; many other species formerly placed in Rana are now placed elsewhere. Rana is now restricted to the New World true frogs and the Eurasian brown and pond frogs of the Common Frog R. temporaria group. [2] The validity and delimitation of the subgenera are somewhat disputed.[3]

Genera recently split from Rana are Babina, Clinotarsus (including Nasirana), Glandirana, Hydrophylax, Hylarana, Odorrana (including Wurana), Pelophylax, Pulchrana, Sanguirana and Sylvirana. Of these, Odorrana is so closely related to Rana proper that it could conceivably be included here once again. The others seem to be far more distant relatives, in particular Pelophylax.[1]

New species are still being described in some numbers.

Rana (genus)

ana Northern Red-legged Frog (Rana aurora) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Amphibia Order: Anura Suborder: Neobatrachia Family: Ranidae Genus: Rana Linnaeus, 1758 Subgenera Lithobates Rana and see text Synonyms Lithobates and see text

Calotes

Calotes is a lizard genus in the draconine clade of the family Agamidae, containing 24 species. Some species are known as forest lizards, others as "bloodsuckers" due to their red heads, and yet others as (namely C. versicolor) as garden lizards. They are geographically restricted to South Asia, Myanmar, regions of Southeast Asia, and an introduced population in Florida. The greatest diversity of the genus is from the Western Ghats and Northeast (India), Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Calotes is distinguished from related genera in having uniform size dorsal scales, and lacking a fold of skin extending between the cheek and shoulder, and in having proportionately stronger limbs than Pseudocalotes. Compared to Bronchocela, Calotes have a proportionately shorter tail and limbs. Calotes as we know it today was classified by Moody (1980) prior to which all of the above mentioned genera were included in this genus.

Female Calotes at Pune, India The genus is still a heterogeneous group that may be divided into the C. versicolor and C. liocephalus groups. The former occurs through most of South Asia and further east. All species in this group have their dorsal and lateral scales directed upward. The latter is restricted to the southern Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. All species in this group have their scales directed back, or up and down, or down only. Whether further splitting is necessary or whether the groups constitute subgenera of a monophyletic Calotes remains to be studied.

[edit] Species
Listed alphabetically.[2]
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Calotes andamanensis Boulenger, 1891 Andaman and Nicobar Forest Lizard, Green Crestless Forest Lizard Calotes aurantolabium Krishnan, 2008 Orange-lipped Forest lizard Calotes bhutanensis Biswas, 1975 Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Green Forest Lizard Calotes ceylonensis (Mller, 1887) Painted-lip Lizard, Ceylon Bloodsucker Calotes chincollium Vindum, 2003 Calotes desilvai Bahir & Maduwage, 2005 Calotes ellioti Gnther, 1864 Elliot's Forest Lizard

Calotes Male, Oriental Garden Lizard, Calotes versicolor Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Lacertilia Family: Agamidae Subfamily: Agaminae Genus:

Calotes
(Daudin, 1802)[1] Species y

24 species, see text

Cobra

This article is about the snake. For other uses, see Cobra (disambiguation).

The Indian Cobra, Naja naja, is regarded by many as the archetypal cobra. Cobra ( pronunciation (helpinfo)) is a venomous snake belonging to the family Elapidae. However, not all snakes commonly referred to as cobras are of the same genus, or even of the same family. The name is short for cobra de capelo or cobra-de-capelo, which is Portuguese for "snake with hood", or "hood-snake".[1] When disturbed, most of these snakes can rear up and spread their neck (or hood) in a characteristic threat display. Cobra may refer to:
y

y y y

any member of the genus Naja, also known as typical cobras (with the characteristic ability to raise the front quarters of their bodies off the ground and flatten their necks in a threatening gesture), a group of venomous elapids found in Africa and Asia spitting cobras, a subset of Naja species with the ability to eject venom from its fangs in self-defense any member of the genus Boulengerina, a.k.a. water cobras, a group of venomous elapids found in Africa any member of the genus Aspidelaps, a.k.a. shield-nose cobras or coral snakes, a group of venomous elapids found in Africa

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any member of the genus Pseudohaje, a.k.a. tree cobras, a group of venomous elapids found in Africa Paranaja multifasciata, a.k.a. the burrowing cobra, a venomous elapid species found in Africa Ophiophagus hannah, a.k.a. the king cobra, a venomous elapid species found in India and southern Asia Hemachatus haemachatus, a.k.a. the ringhals or ring-necked spitting cobra, a venomous elapid species found in Africa Micrurus fulvius, a.k.a. the American cobra or eastern coral snake, a venomous elapid species found in the southeastern United States Hydrodynastes gigas, a.k.a. the false water cobra, a mildly venomous colubrid species found in South America a taxonomic synonym for the genus Bitis, a.k.a. puff adders, a group of venomous vipers found in Africa and in the south of the Arabian Peninsula

References
The Indian Cobra, Naja naja, is regarded by many as the archetypal cobra.
Turtle Turtles
Temporal range: Late Triassic Recent, 215 0 Ma Pre

O S D C P T J K
Pg

N Q

Florida box turtle Terrapene carolina Scientific classification [ e ] Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Superorder: Chelonia Macartney, 1802 Order: Testudines Linnaeus, 1758 [1] Suborders

Cryptodira Pleurodira and see text

Diversity 14 extant families with ca. 300

species black: land turtles

blue: sea turtles,

Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines (the crown group of the superorder Chelonia), characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield. "Turtle" may either refer to the Testudines as a whole, or to particular Testudines which make up a form taxon that is not monophyleticsee also sea turtle, terrapin, tortoise, and the discussion below. The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species. The earliest known turtles date from 215 million years ago,[2] making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the many species alive today, some are highly endangered.[3] Like other reptiles, turtles are ectothermstheir internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment, commonly called cold-blooded. However, leatherback sea turtles have noticeably higher body temperature than surrounding water because of their high metabolic rate.

Like other amniotes (reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals), they breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. The largest turtles are aquatic.

Contents
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1 Anatomy and morphology o 1.1 Neck folding o 1.2 Head o 1.3 Shell o 1.4 Skin and molting o 1.5 Limbs 2 Ecology and life history 3 Systematics and evolution o 3.1 Turtle genera with basal or uncertain phylogenetic position o 3.2 Suborder Proganochelydia o 3.3 Suborder Cryptodira o 3.4 Suborder Pleurodira 4 Turtle, tortoise, or terrapin 5 Distribution 6 Fossil record 7 As pets 8 As food, traditional medicine, and cosmetics 9 Conservation status 10 In culture o 10.1 On coins o 10.2 In heraldry 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links

Anatomy and morphology

Chelonia mydas in Kona, Hawaii

The largest living chelonian is the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), which reaches a shell length of 200 centimetres (6.6 ft) and can reach a weight of over 900 kilograms (2,000 lb). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported up to 200 centimetres (6.6 ft). This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to 80 centimetres (2.6 ft) and a weight of about 60 kilograms (130 lb). Giant tortoises of the genera Geochelone, Meiolania, and others were relatively widely distributed around the world into prehistoric times, and are known to have existed in North and South America, Australia, and Africa. They became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galpagos Islands, and can grow to over 130 centimetres (51 in) in length, and weigh about 300 kilograms (660 lb).[4] The largest ever chelonian was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have been up to 4.6 metres (15 ft) long.[5] The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa. It measures no more than 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in length and weighs about 140 grams (4.9 oz). Two other species of small turtles are the American mud turtles and musk turtles that live in an area that ranges from Canada to South America. The shell length of many species in this group is less than 13 centimetres (5.1 in) in length.

A red-eared slider turtle with eyes closer to the end of the head, keeping only the nostrils and the eyes above the water surface

African spurred tortoise in the zoo of Sharm el-Sheikh

African spurred tortoise at a zoo in the Czech Republic Neck folding

Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells (something the ancestral Proganochelys could not do): the Cryptodira, which can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine; and the Pleurodira, which contract their necks to the side.
Head

Most turtles that spend most of their lives on land have their eyes looking down at objects in front of them. Some aquatic turtles, such as snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles, have eyes closer to the top of the head. These species of turtles can hide from predators in shallow water, where they lie entirely submerged except for their eyes and nostrils. Sea turtles possess glands near their eyes that produce salty tears that rid their body of excess salt taken in from the water they drink. Turtles are thought to have exceptional night vision due to the unusually large number of rod cells in their retinas. Turtles have color vision with a wealth of cone subtypes with sensitivities ranging from the near ultraviolet (UV A) to red. Some land turtles have very poor pursuit

movement abilities, which are normally reserved for predators that hunt quick moving prey, but carnivorous turtles are able to move their heads quickly to snap. Turtles have a rigid beak. Turtles use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knifesharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.
Shell

The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges. The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones that include portions of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of a fibrous protein called keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead. The rigid shell means turtles cannot breathe as other reptiles do, by changing the volume of their chest cavity via expansion and contraction of the ribs. Instead, turtles breathe in two ways. First, they employ buccal pumping, pulling air into their mouth, then pushing it into the lungs via oscillations of the floor of the throat. Secondly, by contracting the abdominal muscles that cover the posterior opening of the shell, the internal volume of the shell increases, drawing air into the lungs, allowing these muscles to function in much the same way as the mammalian diaphragm. The shape of the shell gives helpful clues to how a turtle lives. Most tortoises have a large, dome-shaped shell that makes it difficult for predators to crush the shell between their jaws. One of the few exceptions is the African pancake tortoise, which has a flat, flexible shell that allows it to hide in rock crevices. Most aquatic turtles have flat, streamlined shells which aid in swimming and diving. American snapping turtles and musk turtles have small, cross-shaped plastrons that give them more efficient leg movement for walking along the bottom of ponds and streams. The color of a turtle's shell may vary. Shells are commonly colored brown, black, or olive green. In some species, shells may have red, orange, yellow, or grey markings and these markings are often spots, lines, or irregular blotches. One of the most colorful turtles is the eastern painted turtle which includes a yellow plastron and a black or olive shell with red markings around the rim. Tortoises, being land-based, have rather heavy shells. In contrast, aquatic and soft-shelled turtles have lighter shells that help them avoid sinking in water and swim faster with more agility. These lighter shells have large spaces called fontanelles between the shell bones. The shells of leatherback sea turtles are extremely light because they lack scutes and contain many fontanelles.

Skin and molting

Snapping turtle tail, Blue Hills Reservation, Massachusetts

As mentioned above, the outer layer of the shell is part of the skin; each scute (or plate) on the shell corresponds to a single modified scale. The remainder of the skin is composed of skin with much smaller scales, similar to the skin of other reptiles. Turtles do not molt their skins all at once, as snakes do, but continuously, in small pieces. When kept in aquaria, small sheets of dead skin can be seen in the water (often appearing to be a thin piece of plastic) having been sloughed off when the animal deliberately rubs itself against a piece of wood or stone. Tortoises also shed skin, but a lot of dead skin is allowed to accumulate into thick knobs and plates that provide protection to parts of the body outside the shell. By counting the rings formed by the stack of smaller, older scutes on top of the larger, newer ones, it is possible to estimate the age of a turtle, if one knows how many scutes are produced in a year.[6] This method is not very accurate, partly because growth rate is not constant, but also because some of the scutes eventually fall away from the shell.
Limbs

Terrestrial tortoises have short, sturdy feet. Tortoises are famous for moving slowly, in part because of their heavy, cumbersome shell, which restricts stride length. The amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of tortoises, except the feet are webbed and often have long claws. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way similar to the dog paddle, with the feet on the left and right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim at all, preferring to simply walk along the bottom of the river or lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws, used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating logs, upon which they like to bask. Male turtles tend to have particularly long claws, and these appear to be used to stimulate the female while mating. While most turtles have webbed feet, some, such as the pig-nosed turtle, have true flippers, with the digits being fused into paddles and the claws being relatively small. These species swim in the same way as sea turtles (see below).

Sea turtles are almost entirely aquatic and have flippers instead of feet. Sea turtles fly through the water, using the up-and-down motion of the front flippers to generate thrust; the back feet are not used for propulsion, but may be used as rudders for steering. Compared with freshwater turtles, sea turtles have very limited mobility on land, and apart from the dash from the nest to the sea as hatchlings, male sea turtles normally never leave the sea. Females must come back onto land to lay eggs. They move very slowly and laboriously, dragging themselves forwards with their flippers.

Ecology and life history

Sea turtle swimming

Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is currently being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area of the cloaca. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire. Turtles lay eggs, like other reptiles, which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Their albumen is white and contains a different protein from bird eggs, such that it will not coagulate when cooked. Turtle eggs prepared to eat consist mainly of yolk. In some species, temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. There are no known species in which the mother cares for the young.

Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Immature sea turtles are not cared for by the adults. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually. Researchers have recently discovered a turtles organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.[7]

Systematics and evolution

See also: List of Testudines families

"Chelonia" (Testudines) from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.

The first proto-turtles are believed to have existed in the late Triassic Period of the Mesozoic era, about 220 million years ago, and their shell, which has remained a remarkably stable body plan, is thought to have evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell that offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This is supported by fossils of the freshwater Odontochelys semitestacea or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the late Triassic, which have been found near Guangling in southwest China. Odontochelys displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.[8] Prior to this discovery, the earliest-known fossil turtles were terrestrial and had a complete shell, offering no clue to the evolution of this remarkable anatomical feature. By the late Jurassic, turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.

Their exact ancestry has been disputed. It was believed they are the only surviving branch of the ancient evolutionary grade Anapsida, which includes groups such as procolophonids, millerettids, protorothyrids, and pareiasaurs. All anapsid skulls lack a temporal opening, while all other extant amniotes have temporal openings (although in mammals the hole has become the zygomatic arch). The millerettids, protorothyrids, and pareiasaurs became extinct in the late Permian period, and the procolophonoids during the Triassic.[9] However, it was later suggested the anapsid-like turtle skull may be due to reversion rather than to anapsid descent. More recent morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within diapsids, slightly closer to Squamata than to Archosauria.[10] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids; some place turtles within Archosauria,[11] or, more commonly, as a sister group to extant archosaurs.[12][13][14][15] Reanalysis of prior phylogenies suggests they classified turtles as anapsids both because they assumed this classification (most of them studying what sort of anapsid turtles are) and because they did not sample fossil and extant taxa broadly enough for constructing the cladogram. Testudines were suggested to have diverged from other diapsids between 200 and 279 million years ago, though the debate is far from settled.[10][12][16] The earliest known fully shelled turtle is the late-Triassic Proganochelys. The genus species already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in its ancestry. It did lack the ability to pull its head into its shell (and it had a long neck), and had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, a body form similar to that of ankylosaurs, resulting from convergent evolution.

Turtles are divided into two extant suborders, the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group consists primarily of various freshwater turtles

Lacertidae

Lacertidae is the family of the wall lizards, true lizards, or sometimes simply lacertas, which are native to Europe, Africa, and Asia. The group includes the genus Lacerta, which contains some of the most commonly seen lizard species in Europe. It is a diverse family with hundreds of species in 37 genera.

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1 Habitat 2 Appearance and biology 3 Classification 4 External links 5 References

[edit] Habitat
The European and Mediterranean species live mainly in forest and scrub habitats.[1] Eremias and Ophisops species replace these in the grassland and desert habitats of Asia. African species usually live in rocky, arid areas. Holaspis is one of the few arboreal lacertids, and its single species, Holaspis guentheri, is a glider (although apparently a poor one), using its broad tail and flattened body as an aerofoil.[2]

[edit] Appearance and biology

Lacertids are small or medium-sized lizards. Most species are less than 9 cm long, excluding the tail, although the largest living species, Gallotia stehlini, reaches 46 cm, and some extinct forms were larger still. They are primarily insectivorous.[1] An exception is Meroles anchietae, one of the few wall lizards that regularly eats seeds an appropriate food for a lizard of the harsh Namib Desert. Lacertids are remarkably similar in form, with slender bodies and long tails, but have highly varied patterns and colours, even within the same species. Their scales are large on the head, which often also has osteoderms, small and granular on the back, and rectangular on the

underside. Most species are sexually dimorphic, with the males and females having different patterns.[1] At least eight species are parthenogenetic[citation needed], and three species give birth to live young, including the viviparous lizard, Zootoca vivipara.[1] Lacertidae Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Lacertilia Infraorder: Scincomorpha Lacertidae Family:
Oppel, 1811

Genera Many, see text.

Terminology and scalation of lace

Rat snake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Rat Snake

An Aesculapian Snake, Zamenis longissimus

Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: vertebrata Class: Reptilia Subclass: Diapsida Infraclass: Lepidosauromorpha Superorder: Lepidosauria Order: Squamata Infraorder: Serpentes Family: Colubridae Genus: Various Rat snakes are medium to large constrictors that can be found through a great portion of the northern hemisphere. They feed primarily on rodents and birds and, with some species exceeding 3 m (10 feet), they can occupy top levels of some food chains. Many species make attractive and docile pets and one, the corn snake, is one of the most popular reptile pets in the world. Other species can be very skittish and sometimes aggressive but bites are seldom serious and no species of ratsnake is dangerous to humans. They were long thought to be completely nonvenomous, but recent studies have shown that at least some Old World species do possess small amounts of venom (amounts so small as to be negligible to humans). Previously most rat snakes were assigned to the genus Elaphe but many have been since renamed following mitochondrial DNA analysis performed in 2002. For the purpose of this article names will be harmonized with the TIGR Database. When searching for information on a particular species of rat snake it might be useful to query the old name, Elaphe sp., as well as the new.

Mandarin ratsnake (Elaphe mandarina)

Red-tailed green ratsnake (Gonyosoma oxycephalum)

Rhinoceros Ratsnake (Rhynchophis boulengeri)

Black Rat Snake Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta. The blue eyes indicate that the snake is in a shed cycle.

Yellow rat snake Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata

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