Biology Part - 1
Biology Part - 1
Biology Part - 1
BL-1
CELL
All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”.
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms.
Study of structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He described about
this in his book “Micrographic”.
The word cell was derived from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
The term protoplasm was coined by purkinje in 1839.
Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode.
It’s consistency differs under different condition. It exists in sol-gel states.
Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other organic
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
CELL THEORY
Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann” gave the “Cell theory” which was later on
expanded by “Rudolf Virchow ”. Cell theory states that
(i) All plants and animals are composed of cells.
(ii) Cell is the basic unit of life.
(iii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.
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CELL SHAPE
Cells are of variable shapes and sizes. Their shape is according to the function. Generally cells are
spherical but they may be elongated (nerve cell), branched (pigmented), discoidal (RBC), spindle
shaped (muscle cell) etc.
CELL SIZE
Size of cell is variable depending upon the type of organism. Some are microscopic while some are
visible with naked eyes.
Their size may vary from 0.2 µm to18 cm.
Size of a typical cell in a Multicellular organism ranges from 20-30 mn.
The largest cell is ostrich egg(15 cm. in dia with shell & 8 cm. in dia without shell)
The longest cell is nerve cell.(upto 1m. or more)
Smallest cells so far known are PPLOs e.g. mycoplasma (0.1 µm in dia.)
Human egg is 0.1 mm. in dia.
COMPONENTS OF CELL
There is an occurrence of division of labour within a cell as they all got certain specific components
called “Cell organelles” each of them perform a specific function.
The three basic components of all the cells are
(i) 1M (Plasma Membrane) (ii) Nucleus (iii) Cytoplasm
EXERCISE
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9. Who coined term protoplasm?
(A)Leeuwenhoek (B) Purkinje (C) Robert hooke (D) Robert Brown
10. Cell is
(A) Functional unit of life (B) Structural unit of life
(C) Hereditary unit of life (D) all of the above
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FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
BL-2
CELL MEMBRANE
(a) Cell Membrane:
Cell membrane is also called as plasma Membrane or Plasma lemma.
It is the limiting boundary of each cell which separates the cytoplasm from its
surroundings.
It is found in both plant as well as animal cells.
It is the outer most covering of a cell in case of animals and lies below the cell
wall in case of plants.
It is made up of proteins and lipids where proteins are sandwiched between
bilayer of lipids.
Plasma membrane name was given by Nageli.
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature. It allows or permits the
entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell.
Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane
according to him it consists of a protein layer sandwiched between two layers of lipids. It is in
quasifluid state. It is 75A thick.
It is flexible and can be folded, broken and reunited.
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(B) Osmosis: The movement of solvent or water from higher concentration (solvent) to lower concentration
(solvent) through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Or The movement of solvent or
water from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through a semipermeable
membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis can also be called as diffusion of solvents”.
Endosmosis: Movement of solvent into the cell is called as Endosmosis.
Endosmosis: Movement of solvent outside the cell is called as Endosmosis.
(iii) Types of solution on the basis of concentration:
(A)Isotonic solution: When the concent, ation of the solution outside the equal to the
Concentration of cytoplasm of the cell it is called as isotonic solution.
(B) Hypertonic solution: When the of concentration of the solution outside the cell is more
than that inside the cell. Due to this cell looses water and becomes plasmolysed.
(C) Hypotonic solution: When the of concentration of the solution outside the cell is lesser
than that of cytoplasm of cell. Due to this cell swells up and bursts.
(c) Nucleus:
Figure: Nucleus
Nucleus is the most important cell organelle which directs and controls all its cellular activities.
It is called as “Headquarter of the cell”.
It was discovered by “Robert Brown in 1831”.
In eukaryotes a well defined nucleus is present while in prokaryotes a well defined nucleus is absent.
Prokaryotes contain a primitive nucleus.
It has double layered covering called as nuclear membrane.
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Nuclear membrane has pores which regulate the movement of materials of materials in & out of the
cell.
Besides nuclear membrane nucleus also contains nucleolus and chromatin material and the substance
filled inside the nucleus is nucleolus or karyolymph.
Chromosomes or chromatin material consists of DNA which stores and transmits hereditary
information for the cell to function, grow and reproduce.
(i) Function of the nucleus:
(A) It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell and regulates the cell cycle.
(B) It helps in transmission of hereditary characters from parents to off springs
EXERCISE
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SUBJECTIVE QUESTION – 2.2
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FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
BL-3
CYTOPLASM
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Smooth ER Rough ER
-Made of tubules mainly. -Made of clstemae and vesicles.
-Helps in sterold, lipids and. –helps in protein synthesis.
Polysaccharide synthesis. Contains ribosomes on its surface.
-Ribosomes are absent.
-Helps in membrane biogenesis.
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(b) Function of ER:
(i) It is the only organelle which can move within a cell so it serves as a channel for the
transport of materials between various regions of cytoplasm and between cytoplasm and nucleus.
(ii) It also function as a cytoplasmic framework to provide space for some of the
biochemical activities. It forms endoskeleton of cell.
(iii) It helps in synthesis of fats, steroids, cholesterol etc.
(iv) It contains secretory proteins.
(v) SER plays a crucial role in detoxification of drugs and poisonous by-products.
GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane bounded vesicles arranged parallel to each
other in stacks called Cisternae along with some large and spherical vacuoles.
It was discovered by Camilo Golgi.
In plants Golgi membrane bounded.
It is single membrane bounded.
It is absent in prokaryotes, mammalian RBC’s & sieve cells.
(a) Functions:
(i) It helps in formation of lipids
(ii) It helps in formation of middle lamellae
(iii) It is secretary in nature.
(iv) It helps in melanin synthesis
(v) Lipids and proteins synthesized in endoplasmic reticulum are packed at Golgi
complex. They provide the site for assembly of new membrane material.
MITOCHONDRIA
Figure: Mitochondria
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It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except
mammalian RBC’s.
These are also absent in prokaryotes.
It was first seen by Kolliker in insect cells.
Maximum mitochondria are found in metabolically active cells.
It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.
It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins
While inner membrane is folded inside to from chambers called Cristae. ”Cristae” are the
infoldings of inner mitochondrial membrane that possess enzymes for respiratory cycles like Kreb
Cycle. ATP synthesizing units are called Oxysomes or F1 particles.
Space between inner and outer mitochondrial membranes is called as
Perimitochondrial space. The fluid present in mitochondrial is called as matrix.
(a) Functions:
(i) Its main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
(ii) It is the site of Kreb cycle of respiration.
(iii) Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
(iv) Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.
RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
All structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by the nuclear DNA, are synthesized upon
cytoplasmic ribosomes. The DNA codes are transcripted into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in
the chromosomes of the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the cytoplasm and each becomes
attached to several ribosomes which thus from a group called polyribosome or polyribosomes. In this
way each mRNA molecule brings about polymerization of specific protein molecules, with the help of
ribosomes from amino acid molecules found in the Cytosol.
Fig: Ribosome
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EXERCISE
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FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
BL – 4
PLASTID
It is double membranous discoidal structure, fond only in plant cells.
Term plastid was given by Haeckel.
Chloroplast was discount by A.V. Leeuwenhoek and named by Schimper.
Besides being discoidal of rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae they can be
‘U’ shaped , spiral , coiled , ribbon shaped etc.
Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types.
Function: This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. Also helps in protein
synthesis due to presence of ribosomes.
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VACUOLES
These are membrane bounded regions in the cytoplasm containing water and other
substances.
They are bounded by a single membrane called Tonoplast.
In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and numerous while in plant cells a single
large vacuole Is found which occupies about 90% of the volume of cell.
(a) Functions:
It helps in maintaining osmotic pressure in a cell.
It stores toxic metabolic products of plant cell.
It contains various Coloured pigments like anthocyanins.
LYSOSMES
GLYOXYSOMES
A beaver (1961) was the first person to discover these organelles and were described
later by R.W. Briedenbach (1967).
They are about 0.5 to 1 µm in size and are surrounded by a single unit membrane.
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They are found in plant cells, particularly, in germinating fatty seeds e.g.
Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where fat is being converted into carbohydrates by a process
called glyoxylate cycle.
Glyoxysomes contain important enzymes, isocitrate, lyase, maltase and
Synthelast along with several others.
Structure of glyoxysomes is similar to peroxisome.
DIFFERENCES BETWEENA PLANT CELL AND ANANIMAL CELL
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Characters Prokaryotic cells Every tic cells
3.DNA arrangement Single closed loop,(histones absent) Multiple chromosomes,
(histones present in
chromosome)
4. Respirator system In plasma a membrane, In mitochondria
(mitochondria)
5. Photosynthetic apparatus In intemal membranes, In chloroplasts
(chloroplasts absent)
6. Golgi bodies, chloroplast, Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondria, Lysosomes
7. Ribosomes 70 S type 80 S type
8. Cell wall Generally present, complex Present in some types, simple
chemical composition Chemical composition
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o First cell that developed in laboratory by Sydney Fox and A.I. Oparin was called as
Coacervate.
o Smallest cell is Mycoplasma (PPLO)(0.1 µ dia)
o Largest cell is Ostrich egg (15 cm.dia.)
o Longest Animal Cell is Nerve fibre (1m.)
o Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism i.e. they occur in different forms.
o Mitochondria, plastid and centrioles have their own DNA molecules so they are
called as “Semiautonomous Cell Organelles ”.
o Connection through which cells communicate chemically with each other
through their thick walls are called as “Plasmodesmata”.
o Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin instead of cellulose.
o Protoplasm was called as “Physical Basis of Life” by Huxley
o DNA is called as “Chemical Basis of life”.
o Euglena is the connecting link between plants and animals as it lacks cell wall but
has plastids.
o Mesosomes in bacteria are analogous to mitochondria as they both help in
cellular respiration.
o Centre for cellular and molecular biology is situated at Hyderabad.
o In animal cell the ‘Cell Coat’ is present instead of cell wall which provides them
protection. It is made up to glycocalyx.
o ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell i.e. energy in
cell is stored in from of ATP molecules.
EXERCISE
4. Striking difference between a plant cell and an animal cell is due to the presence
(A) mitochondria (B) plasma membrane (C) cell wall (D) ribosome
7. In prokaryotic cell
(A) nucleus is developed
(B) membrane bounded organelles are present
(C) double membrane bounded organelles are absent
(D) none of these
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8. A typical plant cell contains
(A) cell well (B) plastids (C) large vacuole (D) all of the above
ANSWER KEY
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C C A B C B C B B D
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B B A C A C A B A A
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B A C D B A B C C D
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B C C C B B C D A A
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TISSUE
BL-5
INTRODUCTION
In unicellular organisms a single cell performs all the vital activities for
example, digestion, respiration, excretion etc.
In case of Multicellular organisms specialized functions are performed by a
different groups of cells. As blood flows for transportation of O 2, CO2, food hormones & waste
material, muscle cells are involved in movement etc.
In plants vascular tissue conduct food & water from one plant to another par
to the plant Thus Multicellular organisms possess well-developed division of provide highest
possible efficiency or particular function.
A tissue is defined as a group of cells with similar structure, organized to do a
common function.
Term tissue was coined by Bichat.
As plants are fixed or stationary, most of their tissues are of supportive type.
Animals move around in search of food, mate & shelter so they consume more energy as
compared to plants.
Plants have some localized regions with special tissue but there is no such
distinct regions in animals. Growth in animals remains uniform. Branch of biology deals with the
study of tissue is called Histology.
PLANT TISSUE
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(A). Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).
(B). Intercellular spaces are absent (Compact tissue)
(C). Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & prominent nuclei arepresent.
(D). Large number of cell organelles are present.
(E). Active metabolic state, stored food is absent.
(F). Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions of plants e.g. root & shoo
tips
(ii) Classification on the basis of origin :
(A). primary (Promeristem):
Derived directly from the Meristems of embryo.
They consist of cells derived from primary meristem.
They add to primary growth of plants.
(B). Secondary :
Formed by permanent tissues.
These are having cells derived from primary permanent tissue.
They usually add to the diameter of plants.
Permanent tissue Dedifferentiation Secondary meristem
(iii) Classification on the basis of location :
(A) Apical meristem: It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots.
Cell
division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stem & root thus it is involved in primary growth of the
plant.
(B) Intercalary meristem: It is present behind the apex. It is the part of
apical
meristem which is left behind during growth period. These are present at the base of leaf & internode
region. These lead to the increase in the length of leaf (Primary) e.g. in grass stem, bamboo stem, mint
stem etc..
(C) Lateral meristem: It is also called as secondary meristem. It occurs
along the
sides of longitudinal axis of the plant. It gives rise to the vascular tissues. Causes growth in girth of
stem & root. They are responsible for secondary growth.
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 5.1
1. A group of cells having common origin and performing similar function is called
(A) tissue (B) organ (C) organ system (D) cell aggregate
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(A) Meristematic cells (B) permanent cells (C) xylem (D) phloem
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6. Special feature of dividing cells is
(A) large lacuna (B) thick cell walls
(C) dense cytoplasm devoid of lacuna (D) large intercellular spaces
7. Totipotency is present in
(A) meristem (B) cambium (C) phloem (D) cork
8. Which of the following is a feature of Meristematic tissues ?
(A) Thin cell wall
(B) Compact tissue
(C) Large no. of cell organelles are present in the cells of tissues.
(D) All of the above
9. Which of the following plant tissue is formed by permanent tissue ?
(A) primary tissue (B) Secondary tissue (C) Both of above (D) None of above
10. Which of the following plant tissues causes growth in girth of stem and root ?
(A) Apical meristem (B) Intercalary meristem
(C) Lateral meristem (D) None of the above
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TISSUE
BL -6
PERMANENT TISSUE
The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their
capability to divide. They have definite shape, size and thickness. The permanent tissue may be
dead or living.
The division & differentiation of the cells of Meristematic tissues give rise to
permanent tissues. In cell differentiation, developing tissue and organs change from simple to
more complex forms to become specialized for specific functions. The cells of permanent tissue
loose the capacity to divide and attain a permanent shape, size and function.
(i) Simple permanent tissues : Theses are made up of same type of cells
which are similar structurally and functionally. They include two types of tissue :
(A) Protective Tissues : these tissue are primarily protective in
function. They
consist of :
Epidermis : Epidermis forms one cell thick outermost layer of various body
organs of plants such as leaves, flowers, stems and roots. Epidermis is covered
outside by cuticle. Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance called as cutin which is
secreted by the epidermal cells. Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes. Cells of epidermis of leaves
are not continuous at some places due to the presence of small pores called as stomata. Each
stomata is guarded by a pair of bean shaped cells called as guard cells. These are the only
epidermal cells which possess chloplasts, the rest being colorless.
Functions :
(i) The main function of epidermis is to protect
the plant from desiccation and
infection.
(ii) Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of
transpiration and evaporation of water
and prevents wilting.
(iii) Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous
exchange to occur during
photosynthesis respiration.
(iv) Stomata also helps in transpiration.
Cork or phellem : in older roots and stems, tissues at the periphery become
cork cells or phellem cells. Cork is made up to dead cells with thick walls and do not have any
intercellular spaces. The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin. The cells of
cork become impermeable to water and gasses due to the deposition of suberin. The cork cells are
without any protoplasm but are filled with resins or tannins.
Functions :
(i) Cork is protective in
function. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and
mechanical injury.
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(ii) Imperviousness, lightness,
toughness, compressibility and elasticity make the
cork commercially valuable.
(iii) Cork is used for insulation,
as shock absorber in linoleum.
(iv) Cork is used in the making
of a variety of sport goods such as cricket balls,
table tennis, shuttle cocks, wooden paddles etc.
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(B) Supporting tissue : These are supportive in function and of
three types
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Cells of Sclerenchyma are of two types :
Sclereids: These are also called grit cells or stone cells. Theses are small
cells, where lumen is so small due to higher thickening of cell wall, as present in drup fruit
(Mango, coconut walnut) in legume seeds (Macrosclereid)
Fibers : They are very long, narrow, thick, lignified cells. Lumen is large as
compared to sclereids. Generally 1-3 mm. long. In the thick walls of both the fibres and sclereids
are present thin areas called as pits.
Sclerenchyma fibres are used in the manufacture of ropes, mats & certain
textile fibres.
Jute & coir are obtained from the thick bundles of fibres.
(ii) Complex permanent tissue : it consists of more than one type of cells
which work together as a unit.
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(A) conduction of food (B) synthesis of food (C) exchange of gases (D) mechanical support
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TISSUE
BL – 7
ANIMAL TISSUE
Outline classification of Animal tissue :
Animal Tissue
(1) Eplthellal Tissue (2) Connective Tissue (3) Muscular (4) Nervous
(I) Squamous Epithellum Tissue
(II) Columnar Epithelium Tissue
(III) Cuboldal Epithelium
(IV) Clliated Epithelium
(A) Striated (B) Non Striated (C) Cardiac
Muscles Muscles Muscles
The study of microscopic structure of tissues is called as Histology. Cells of a tissue are often held
together by cell junctions.
(a) Epithelial Tissue :
[Epi means above & thelial means to grow)
Always grows on some other types of tissue.
Cells of epithelium are set very close to each other and the tissue rests on a non- cellular basement
membrane.
Consists of single layer of cells.
Blood vessels are absent & non nervous in nature.
It covers all the organs & lines the cavities of hollow organs like stomach.
It is primarily protective in function.
Epithelial tissues are classified as :
(i) Squamous epithelium: Also called pavement epithelium.
Cells arranged end to end like tiles on a floor.
Cells are polygonal in surface view.
It forms the delicate lining of cavities (mouth, oesophagus, nose, pericardium, alveoli etc.) blood
vessels and covering of the tongue and skin.
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Epithelial cells are arranged in many layers (stratum) to prevent wear and tear in skin. This
pattern is stratified squalors epithelium.
(ii) Cubical epithelium : They are cube like cells that fit closely, cells look like squares in
section, but free surface appears hexagonal.
It is found in kidney tubules, thyroid vesicles & in glands (salivary glands, sweat glands).
It forms germinal epithelium of gonads (testes & ovaries)
It involves in absorption, excretion & secretion. It also provides mechanical support.
(iii) Columnar epithelium : Columnar means “pillar-like” epithelium. It forms lining of
stomach, Small intestine & colon, forming mucous membranes. Border of microvilli is present at
the free surface end of each cell which increases absorption efficiency in small intestine.
(iv) Ciliated epithelium :
Cells may be cubical or columnar.
On it’s free surface are present protoplasmic outgrowths called cilia.
It helps in the movement of ova in the fallopian tube.
(b) Connective Tissue :
The cells of the connective tissue are widely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
The mature of matrix decides the function of tissue.
White & yellow fibres are present in the matrix.
Their basic function is to provide support to different organs & keeping them in place.
(i) Fluid or vascular tissue :
(A) Blood & lymph : Blood is a connective tissue, fluid matrix of blood is plasma having
wandering or floating cells, called corpuscles, blood helps in the transportation of various
materials such as nutritive substances, gases, excretory products, hormones etc.
Plasma : form 55% part of blood.
Constitution
90-91% : water
7% : protein (Albumin, fibrinogen, globulin)
0.9% : inorganic salt etc.
Corpuscles: Forms 45% part of blood.
RBC’s they are also called as erythrocytes, containing red Coloured respiratory pigment called
hemoglobin that helps in transportation of oxygen.
WBC’s (Leucocytes: They are also celled as” Soldiers of the body”. They are irregular, amoeboid,
phagocytic cells that protect our body by engulfing bacterial & other foreign particles. They are of
five types: Monocytes, Lymphocytes, Basophiles, Neutrophiles, Eosinophils.
Blood platelets or thrombocytes: They are spindle shaped cells which are involved in clotting of
blood.
(ii) Skeletal tissue : It is hard connective tissue that forms supportive frame work of the body. It
is of two types :
(A) Bone :Matrix of bone is very hard because of salts such as calcium phosphate, CaCO3 (60-
70%) etc. and a protein ossein. Bone cells (osteoblasts) are embedded in this hard matrix. Matrix is
deposited in the form of concentric layers of lamellae formed round a central canal (Haversian
canal), the done cells occupy small spaces between the concentric layers of matrix. The long bones
are usually hollow containing cavity called as marrow cavity. It is full bone marrow.
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(B) Cartilage : This tissue is elastic, less harder as compared to bone. Elasticity is
due the presence of chondrin (protein). Cells are called as chondroblast, which are widely spaced
and matrix is reinforced by fibres. It occurs at joint of bones, in the nose, ear, trachea & larynx. It
provides flexibility and great tensile strength.
(C) Connective tissue proper : it is the most abundant type of connective tissue.
It is future divided into following types:
(D) Areolar tissue : It is the most distributed connective tissue in the body. This
tissue fills spaces inside organs & is found between the skin & muscles, around blood vessels,
nerves & in the bone marrow.
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP - 7.1
1. The entire body surface and cavities inside the body are lined by
(A) muscle tissue (B) epithelial tissue (C)connective tissue (D) nervous tissue
2. Which one of the following is a fluid connective tissue ?
(A)Areolar tissue (B) cartilage (C) Blood (D) Ligaments
3. The tissue that attaches muscles to the bones is
(A) cartilage (B) tendon (C) ligament (D) blood
4. The tissue that joins one bone to the other is
(A) ligament (B) tendon (C) blood (D) ) cartilage
5. Areolar tissue is a
(A) nervous tissue (B) muscular tissue (C) connective tissue (D) epithelial tissue
6. Tendon is a structure which connects
(A) a bone with another bone (B) a muscle with a bone
(C) a never with a muscle (D) a muscle with a muscle
7. Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is
(A) plasma (B) lymph (C) serum (D) vaccine
8. Which of the following structures joins skeletal muscle to bone ?
(A)Ligament (B)Tendon (C)Blood (D) Bone
9. Yellow muscle fibers are also called as
(A) bone (B) muscle (C) ligament (D) none of these
10. Ligament joins
(A) bone the muscle (B) muscle to muscle (C) bone to bone (D) none of these
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SUBJECTIVE DPP – 7.2
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TISSUE
BL-8
MUSCULAR TISSUE
Movements are brought about in our body with the help of muscular tissues.
(a) Features :
They are long fibre-like cells called muscle fibres.
They are capable of contraction or relaxation
(b) Types :
It is of three types :
(i) striated muscles : They are also called
as voluntary muscles because these are
under the control of one’s will. Muscle fibres
or cells are multinucleated and unbranched.
Each fibra enclosed by thin membrane which
Is called as sarcolemma.
Cytoplasm is called as sarcoplasm. These
Muscles get tired & need rest.
(ii) Non striated muscles: They are involuntary muscles also called as smooth
muscles. These muscle fibres are uninucleated & spindle shaped. They are not enclosed by membrane
but many fibres are joined together in bundles. Such muscles are found in the walls of stomach,
intestine, urinary bladder, bronchi, iris of eye etc. peristaltic movements in alimentary canal are brought
about by smooth muscles.
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(iii) cardiac muscle fibres : They are also involuntary
muscles. Only found in the walls of heart. Their
structure is in between the striated & non-striated
muscles. They are uninucleated & branched.
Branches are united by intercalated disc. In these
muscles rhythmic contraction & relaxation occurs
Thought the life.
NERVOUS TISSUE
They are highly specialized tissue due to which the animals are table to perceive and respond to the
stimuli.
Their functional unit is called as never cell or neuron.
Cell body is cyton covered by plasma membrane.
Short, hair like extensions siring from cyton are dendron which are future subdivide into dendrites.
Axon is long, tail like cylindrical process with fine branches at the end. Axon is covered by a sheath.
Axon one neuron is very closely placed to the dendrons of another neuron to carry impulses from one
to another neuron in the from of electrochemical waves. This close proximity is called as synapse
(a) Types :
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EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 8 .1
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 8 . 2
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Pre-foundationCareer CareProgrammes (PCCP) Division
ANSWER KEY
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A D A A B C A D B C
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A B D B B D A C A B
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. B C B A C B A B C C
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C B C A B C C B D A
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DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMA
BL – 9
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(d) System of Classification :
(i) Artificial system: It was based on some superficial similarities. i.e. only one or few
characters
were taken .e.g. on the basis of habital and ability to fly.
(ii) Natural system: It was based on natural affinity i.e. more than one natural characters
were
used.
(iii) Phylogenetic system: It was based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic
relationship
amongst the organisms.
Classification of Organisms :
(iv) Two kingdom system: It was given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. organisms were
divided into
plant kingdom and animal kingdom. Fungi, Bacteria and Euglena could not find an appropriate
position.
(v) Three kingdom system: It was given by Earnst Haeckel. In this kingdom protista was
also
included along with plant kingdom and animal kingdom.
(vi) Four kingdom system: It was given by Copeland. Kingdom Monera was also included in
this
system of classification.
(vii) Five kingdom system: It was given by Robert Whittaker. According to him organisms
were
divided into five kingdoms.
(A) Kingdom Monera : Unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic, most ancient, can
live in deep
oceans, hot spring, deserts, high salt concentration etc. they include bacteria, filamentous and
photosynthetic blue green algae etc.
(B) Kingdom Protista: Unicellular, colonial, eukaryotic. They include
photosynthetic algae,
decomposers (slime moulds) and protozoa (predators) etc.
(C) Kingdom Fungl: Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms, they are
heterotrophic,
parasitic or saprotrophic.
(D) Kingdom Plantae: They are multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic
(photosynthetic), some are
heterotrophic and parasitic. They include photosynthetic algae, green plants etc.
(E) Kingdome Animal: Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Complexity of structure
Mode of nutrition
Level of organization
Plant kingdom was divided in two sub kingdoms by Eichler
Plant Kingdom
Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
(Plants without seeds) (Seed bearing plants)
R esonance
Algae Fungi 40
Mnocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
Pre-foundationCareer CareProgrammes (PCCP) Division
(b). Sub kingdom Cryptogamae : (Cryptos = hidden gamous = marriage) :
These are also called as lower plants, flowerless or seedless plants.
Their reproductive organs are hidden till they reproduce.
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(i) Division Thallophyta :
Thallus : Undifferentiated plant body i.e. absence of root, stem & leaves.
There is no vascular system.
Reproductive organ are single-celled and there is no embroyo formation after fertilization.
Dominant gametophyte.
Three classes of thallophyta are :
(A) Class Algae :
Characters :
These are aquatic or terrestrial, fresh water or marine. Autotrophic, photosynthetic containing
various pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls etc.
Unicellular, colonial, filamentous.
Cell wall of cellulose, e.g. blue green algae (Nostoc) , Green algae (Ulothrix, Spirogyra) Brown
algae, red algae etc.
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(C) Lichen :
Characters:
It is symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi.
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They have well developed vascular system but xylem lacks vessels and phloem lack
companion cells.
They occupy an intermediate position between the pteridophytes and the angiosperms.
Plants are commonly tall trees or shrubs.
The flowers are represented by unisexual cones, often both being present on the same
plant. E.g. Cycas, pinus (commonly known as pine)
(ii) Division : Angiospermae :
Characters:
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 9 .1
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5. Five kingdom Whittaker was proposed by
(A) Linnaeus (B) ) Whittaker (C) john Ray (D) Lamarck
6. Thallophyta includes
(A) fungi and bacteria (B) algae, fungi, animals and lichens
(C) Algae, fungi and lichens (D) algae and fungi
7. Flowering plants are included under
(A) cryptogams (B) phanerogams (C) bryophytes (D) pteridophytes
8. Which of the following has an embryo but lacks vascular tissue ?
(A) Bryophyta (B) Pteridophyta
(C) Gymnosperms (D) angiosperms
9. Algae are characterized by (or) algae differ from bryophytes in
(A) aquatic habit (B) Thalloid plant body
(C) Pyrenoids (D) unicelled sex organs
10. The most primitive vascular plants are –
(A) bryophytes (B) pteridophytes
(C) Gymnosperms (D) angiosperms
SUBJECTIVE DPP – 9 . 2
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DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
BL-10
ANIMAL KINGDOM
(a) Basis of Classification :
Organization and differentiation of cells to form tissues and organs.
Body symmetry.
Formation to body cavities and blood vascular system.
Features of embryonic development.
ON THE ABOVE BASIS ANIMAL KINGDOM IS DIVIDED INTO 11 PHYLA
(a) Phylum Protozoa :
Characters:
They are unicellular, eukaryotes
These are the simplest & the most primitive animals.
their body organization is
of “Protoplasmic Level”.
They are of different shapes i.g. irregular elongated or rounded.
They have different types of locomotory organs like cilia, flagella,
pseudopodia (false feet)etc.
Nutrition is of different types like holozoic, holophytic,
mixotrophic.
Digestion is intracellular & it : takes place in food
vacuole.
Excretion & respiration occurs through general body
Surface by the process of simple diffusion.
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.
Alternation of generation is found. E.g., Amoeba,
Entamoeba, plasmodium, Euglena, Paramecium.
(b) Phylum Porifera :
Characters:
These are pore bearing organisms i.e. with porous body.
Also called as sponges.
Aquatic, mostly marine.
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These are sessile and sedentary (attached to substratum).
Occur in different shapes i.e. vase-like, rounded, sac like etc.
Body perforated by numerous pores called ostia which open into a canal system
having canals and chambers lined with coenocytes (flagellated) and have a large size water outlet called
oscula.
Their cavity is called spongocoel.
Endoskeleton is made of needle like spicules made of calcium carbonate and silica or
spongocoel.
Hermaphrodite, Asexual reproduction by budding. E.g., Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectella.
(c) Phylum – Coelenterata or Chidaria :
Characters:
These are sac like structures. They have a body
Cavity called gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron.
It has single opening for ingestion and egestion both.
Aquatic, mostly marine
Multicellular, diploblastic, radially symmetrical.
They have special organs called tentacles, chidoblast.
Or nematocyst cells. They are specialized for stinging.
They paralyse the prey by releasing poison.
These are polymorphic i.e. they occur in two forms.
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(liver fluke)
Characters:
Their body is triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, soft, elongated, vermiform,
cylindrical and dorsoventrally flattened.
Body is metamerically segmented. Head is formed by joining of some anterior body
segments.
Exoskeleton is absent, body is covered by thin cuticle.
Eucoelomata i.e. They have true body cavity which first appeared in this phylum.
Well developed alimentary canal is present.
They have closed circulatory system.
Locomotion is with the help of chitinous projections
Called chastae (setae).
Excretion by nephridia.
Nervous system has dorsal brain.
Most are aquatic, marine or fresh water, some are
terrestrial.
They reproduce sexually e.g. Earthworm, Leech.
(h) Phylum – Arthropoda (Arthros jointed , poda = legs)
Characters:
These are the organisms with jointed appendages.
This is the largest phylum in animal kingdom.
body triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and
metamerically segmented.
They have an exoskeleton made up of protein and
Chitin (Moulting Periodic shedding off of the
exoskeleton to induce the growth).
They have a complete alimentary canal with mouth & anus.
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Respiration occurs through general body surface, gills, trachea and book lungs.
They have open circulatory system with dorsal heart & arteries.
Body cavity is called haemocoel.
Excretion by coelomducts, malphigian tubules, green glands, coxal glands.
Sexes are separate .
Each segment has paired lateral and jointed appendages. E.g. Palaemon (prawn) ,
Cancer (crab) ,Periplanata (cockroach) , Anopheles (mosquito) & Aranea (spider) etc.
(i) Phylum Mollusca :
Characters:
It is second largest group of animals, body soft,
Unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical and without
Appendages.
Body divided into a head, foot and visceral mass. A
Thin skin covering the body is called as mantle, which
Secretes a calcareous shell.
Body cavity is haemocoel.
Respiration by gills (Ctenidial) in aquatic forms but in terrestrial forms space between mantle
and body wall called as mantle cavity act as lungs.
For ingestion they have tongue like structure “radual”
They also possess a digestive glandcalled
hepatopancreas
Open circulatory system.
Excretion by metanephridia present near heart.
Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate.
E.g. Chiton (8 Calcareous pieces) , Pila, Melix (torsion univalve) , Dentalium (tusk like shell) , Unio,
Mytilus (Bivalve) , Octopus.
(j) Phylum Echinodermata :
Characters:
These are marine animals, their body is triploblastic,
Eucoelomata, unsegmented.
Their body has spines arising from exoskeleton of
Calcium.
Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are
Bilaterally symmetrical.
Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have five
Radial ambulacra.
Excretory organs are absent.
A complex system of water containing tubes and
Bladders passing though pores of skin called water
Vascular system is present. From this tube like structure
Arise, these tubes look like feet and are called as tube
Feet that helps in locomotion
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Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration. E.g. Asterias (star fish) , echinus (sea
urchin) , Holothuria (sea cucumber) , Antedon (feather star).
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EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 10 .1
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DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
BL-11
PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
Characters:
They are placed in
Characters:
This is
the most advanced group of animals.
Notoch
ord is present at some stages of life, supported by a tubular hollow dorsal nerve cord.
In
higher chordates i. E. Vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
A set
of gill slits is also present at certain stage of life, also called as pharyngeal gill clefts.
Tail is
also present behind the anal aperture that is post anal tail.
They
also possess a proper circulatory system.
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CHORDATA IS FURTHER DIVIDED AS FOLLOWS
Protochordata Vertebrata
[These are called as lower Chordates] [These are called as lower Chordates]
Agnatha Gnathostomata
Urochordata Cephalochordat
e
Cyclostomata
Reptilia
(a) Protochordata :
Characters:
They
are termed as lower chordates.
They
do not possess brain, cranium, vertebral column, jaw and paired appendages.
Notoch
ord is present atleast in some stages along with other diagnostic chordate
characters (dorsal hollow never cord, gill slits, post and tail).
They
are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, enterocoelomic, organ system level
organization.
They
are marine animals.
Protoc
hordata are further divided into two groups :
(i) subphylum : Urochordata
Characters:
They are exclusively marine animals where pharynx
possess several gill slits.
They
are commonly known as tunicates.
The
notochord is present in the tail of the larva and
disappears in the adult.
The
dorsal hollow never cord is present in the larva
only. it is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in the adult.
The
pharynx has gill slits.
The
larva (tadpole) undergoes retrogressive
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metamorphosis, i.e., changes from a better developed
larva to a less developed adult. e.g. Herdmania (sea
squirt), Doliolum, Pyrosomea.
(ii) subphylum : Urochordata
Characters:
Animal
s are fish like without a head.
Animal
s possess all the characters of chordates i.e.,
A
notochord which extends upto the entire length of
the body and persists throughout the life.
A
nerve cord (without a distinct brain).
Numer
ous well developed gill sli
A post
anal tail throughout life. e.g. branchiostoma (Amphioxus; Lancelet)
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Adults
are radially symmetrical while larvae are
bilaterally symmetrical.
Head
is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have five
radial ambulacra.
Excreto
ry organs are absent.
A
complex system of water containing tubes and
bladders passing through pores of skin called water
vascular system is present. from this tube like structure
arise, these tubes look like feet and are called as tube
feet that helps in locomotion
Reprod
uction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration. e.g. Asterias (star fish), Echinus (sea urchin),
Holothuria (sea cucumber), Antedon (feather star),
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 11 .1
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(A) Protozoa (B) Porifera (C) Mollusca (D) Echinodermata
10. Cnidaria is characterised by
(A) nematoblasts (B) coelenteron
(C) tissue level of organisation (D) all of the above
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SUBJECTIVE DPP - 11 .2
VERY SHORT ANSVER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Who is the father of taxonomy?
2. What is taxonomy ?
3. Given one point of difference between bilateral and radial symmetry.
4. Give an example of hemichordata.
5. Herdmania is classified in which subphylum.
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DIVERSITY OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
BL-12
Majority of
chordates are included in this phylum.
Characters:
They are advanced
animals, having a cranium (brain box) around the brain. Nervous system is well developed.
Notochord is
replaced by a vertebral column (backbone) in the adults. Endoskeleton is highly developed.
There are two pairs
of limbs or appendages.
Head is well
differentiated.
The heart is
situated ventrally. The circulatory system is closed consisting of bold vascular system and lymphatic
system. Red Coloured pigment hemoglobin is present in red blood corpuscles.
Respiratory organs
may be gills (in aquatic animals), skin, buccopharyngeal cavity (in amphibians) or lungs (in land
animals).
Excretion occurs
through kidneys.
Sexes are separate.
Agnatha Gnathostomata
(Jawless vertebrates) (Vertebrates with well developed jaws)
1. Cyclostomata
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Animal
s are jawless and possess a circular mouth.
They
are ectoparasites on fish and use mouth to
stick to fish ; the mouth is therefore suctorial.
Notoch
ord is present in the form of a cylindricalrod.
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Head
and brain are poorly developed.
Cartila
ginous endoskeleton is present.
Respir
ation occurs through gills contained in pouches.
Heart
is two-chambered consisting of one auricle and one ventricle.
Gonad
is single and fertilization is external. e.g. petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag fish).
(b) Class Chondrichthyes :
(Gr. Chondros = cartilage; ichthys = fish, the cartillagenous fish).
Characters:
Skeleto
n is cartilaginous, hence the name Chondrichthyes is given.
The
body is either laterally compressed and spindle shaped, or dorso ventrally flattened and disc shaped.
Mouth
is ventral in position on the head.
Jaws
are well-developed.
Respir
ation occurs through gills.
The
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(d) Class Amphibia :
(Gr. amphi = both, bios = life, the vertebrates leading two lives/ dual life)
The
amphibians are the first land vertebrates, Amphibious party terrestrial and partly aquatic.
Characters:
They
are amphibious in nature ; found in fresh water and moist places.
Skin is
smooth or rough, rich in glands which keep it moist ; skin with pigmented cells, i.e., chromatophores.
Body is
without scales.
Endosk
eleton is mostly bony, notochord does not persist in adults.
Head
and trunk are distinct ; neck and tall may or may not be present.
Limbs
tetrapods(four-limbed), pentadactyi type (five-fingered).
Respir
ation occurs by lungs, skin or buccal lining, are present at least during Laval stage for reapiration.
Heart
three chambered with two auricles and a ventricle, red blood corpuscles are large, biconvex, oval and
nucleated.
Brain
is not much developed, cranial nerves are 10 pairs.
Sexes
are separate, i.e., dioecious, male without copulatory organ.
Eggs
with gelatinous covering, usually laid in water.
Fertiliz
ation is external.
Develo
pment is indirect with a tadpole larva which undergoes metamorphosis to become adult.
E.g. Salamanders, newts, frogs and toads. Salamandra (salamander ) , ecturous (mud puppy), Triturus
(newt), Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).
(e) Class Reptilia :
(L. reptare = to creep ; creeping vertebrates).
These
are first truly terrestrial animals living in warmer regions.
Characters:
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Body is
divisible into head, neck and trunk. tail is well developed in some, while it is reduced in others.
Two
pairs of pentadactyl limbs are present ; but in snakes limbs are reduced or absent.
Body is
covered with epidermal horny scales.
Skin is
dry, impermeable and devoid of glands.
Respir
ation takes place by lungs only. gills are absent.
Heart
is incompletely four- chambered, having two auricles and incompletely divided ventricle. in crocodile,
heart is completely four chambered.
Sexes
are separate.
Fertiliz
ation is internal(characteristics of land animals).
The
embryo always lies in a fluid filled sac called amnion.
They is
no larval stage in development. e.g. Testudo(tortoise), Chelone(turtle) Draco (flying lizard), Chameleon,
Hemidactylus (wall lizard), Naja (cobra) etc.
(f) Class Aves :
(L. Aves = birds).
The
birds are described as ‘feathered reptiles’ that have developed the power of flight.
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Characters:
The
body is covered with soft feathers (feathery exoskeleton).
The
body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.
There
are two pairs of limbs. the fore limbs are modified to form wings (in flying birds) or are reduced (as in
non-flying birds). Hind limbs are strongly developed for perching, walking.
Endosk
eleton is light. the bones have got air cavities. this makes the bird light.
Jaws
are modified to form a strong beak.
Teeth
are absent.
Respir
ation is by lungs only. Lungs have additional bag like membranous extensions called asair sacs.
Heart
is completely four chambered.
Sexes
are separate.
Birds
are oviparous, i.e. egg laying.
Fertiliz
ation is internal. Fertilized eggs are laid with a yolk (stored food) and with a hard calcareous shell.
Like
reptiles and mammals, they have the embryonic membranes namely the amnion, chorion, yolksac and
allantois.
High
degree of parental care is exhibited.
There
is no larval stage in development. e.g. Columba (pigeon), Pavo(peacock), Corvus (crow), Passer
(sparrow), Struthio (ostrich), Kiwi and penguin are flightless birds.
(g) Class Mammalla :
(L. mamma = breast; the mammals)
Mamm
alia is the most evolved group of organisms and are found in diverse habitats ranging from deserts,
polar ice caps, oceans, mountains, forests and grasslands.
They
are named mammals as all of them possess mammary glands (milk producing glands) . Mammals are
the only animals which feed their young ones with milk.
Characters:
Skin is
covered with an exoskeleton of hair. Hair are provided with sweat glands which help in the regulation
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of body temperature. in aquatic mammals, hair being negligible, the subcutaneous layer of fats provides
insulation.
Mamm
als have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
The
body cavity is unequally divided into two parts by a muscular partition called as diaphragm.
Eyes
are provided with movable lids.
Ears
have fleshy external ears or pinnae.
Teeth
are embedded in sockets (thecodont). Two sets of teeth develop in the life time of a mammals Milk teeth
and permanent teeth (diphyodont).
Teeth
are of different types (heterodont).
Respir
ation occurs by lungs.
Heart
is our chambered. R.B.Cs are non nucleated and usually circular.
Sexes
are separate. Gonads are paired. Testes lie commonly in the scrotal sacs outside the abdomen.
Fertiliz
ation is internal. Eggs are small, microscopic without shells and are retained in uterus of female for
development.
Embry
onic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois) present.
They
give birth to living young ones and are called as viviparous. The young ones are fed on milk from
mammary glands.
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(h) Important Groups of Mammals :
Mammals are divided into three main groups,
(i) Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) : These mammals show characters of
both reptiles and mammals. They jay hard shelled eggs (oviparous) e.g. spiny ant eater, Duck – billed
platypus
(ii) Marsupial mammals (pouched mammals) : Pouched or marsupial mammals
(Latin marsupium = pouch) They are viviparous. The young ones, when born, are only three cm. long.
Hence they are cared in pouch called marsupium present on the mother’s abdomen. in the pouch, they
feed on the mother milk e.g. Kangaroo(Macropus), Kola bear,
(iii) Placental mammals (true mammals) : These mammals with true placenta.
The embryo is retained in the uterus. These are the very successful group of land animals, occurring in
diverse climatic condition. e.g. Mole, bat, lion, tiger, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, humans
etc.
EXERCISE
OBJECTIVE DPP – 12 .1
1. Mesoglea is characteristic of
(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Aschelminthes (C) Cnidaria (D) Mollusca
2. True jelly fish (e.g., Aurelia) belongs to class
(A) Hydrozoa (B) Anthozoa (C) Scyphozoa (D) Both B and C
3. Polymorphism is exhibited by
(A) Hydra (B) Physalia (C) ) Octopus (D) Crab
4. Comb jellies belong to
(A) Scyphozoa (B) Hydrozoa (C) Ctenophora (D) Both A and B
5. Platyhelminthes are called
(A) round worms (B) flat worms (C) blind worms (D) none of the above
6. In Platyhelminthes, the excertory organs are.
(A) nephridia (B) malpighian tubules
(C) flame cells (solenocytes) (D) green glands
7. Platyhelminthes are
(A) coelomates (B) pseudiocoelomates (C) ) haemocoelomates (D) Acoelomates
8. The common name for Ascaris is
(A) shipworm (B) pinworm (C) tapeworm (D) round worm
9. Metamerism is characteristic feature of
(A) Chordata (B) Annelida (C) Mollusca (D) Nematoda
10. The excretory organs of Annelida are
(A) nephridia (B) statocysts (C) archeocytes (D) none of the above
1. What is Notochord ?
2. Give the classes of vertebrata.
3. Which is largest phylum of kingdom Animalia ?
4. Give an example of urochordata.
5. Give the difference between notochord and nerve cord.
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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. Mention two points of difference between fish and frog.
7. Describe the general characters of class mammalia.
8. What are the differences between animals belonging to the aves and mammalia
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
9. What is classification? Explain its importance.
ANSWER KEY
(Objective DPP # 9 .1 )
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A D A B B C B A D B
(Objective DPP # 10 .1 )
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C B D B A B D D D A
(Objective DPP # 11 .1 )
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. D D B B B D D B B D
(Objective DPP # 12 .1 )
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. C C B C B C D D B A
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