M.A.

PSYCHOLOGY
FIRST YEAR
PRACTICAL FILE
MPCL-007
NAME : RANI ARUNABHA BISWAS

ENROLLMENT NO : 2106753061

PROGRAMME TITLE : M.A. PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE TITLE : PRACTICAL JOURNAL

COURSE CODE : MPCL 007

REGIONAL CENTRE CODE : RC MUMBAI(049)

STUDY CENTRE & CODE : SEVASADAN

COLLEGE,
ULHASNAGAR (49050)

PHONE NO : 8709614886
EMAIL ID : ranibiwas.biswas@gmail.com
Screenshot of Facebook Live Practical Session conducted on 22 July,2022
Screenshot of Facebook Live Practical Session conducted on 23 July,2022
Screenshot of Facebook Live Practical Session conducted on 24 July,2022
 INDEX

Serial No Particulars Page No

1 Bobo Doll Experiment by Bandura 1-13

2 Covid-19 Intelligence Test 14-19

3 Interview with old person 20-27

4 Locus of control 28-36

5 Cattell’s 16 PF Test 37-41

6 Halo Effect 42-47

 PRACTICAL-1
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT BY BANDURA

Aim: To read about Social Learning theory and Social Cognitive theory and the famous
Bobo Doll experiment by Bandura and answer the given questions.

Introduction:
“Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behaviour due to
experience.” Richard E. Mayer.
Learning is a lifelong acquisition of new, or modification of existing skills, knowledge,
values, behaviour, preferences and experiences to enrich one’s growth and development. The
learning brings about changes in the way we behave, think and feel that is noticeable in
ourselves and other people around us.
Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors.
Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour due to
experience. This definition has three components: 1) the duration of the change is long-term
rather than short-term; 2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in
memory or the behaviour of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience
in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention.
A number of different learning theories emerged to explain how and why people behave the
way that they do. The learning theories of development are centered on the environmental
influences on the learning process. Such environmental influences include associations,
reinforcements, punishments, and observations.
The learning theory takes its roots from behaviourism theory which is based on the
philosophy of tabula rasa which is a latin term and theory that describes human minds as a
blank slate. This “slate” becomes filled with each new experience and learning takes place
through environment by a paradigm called stimulus-response theory. Through all of these
experiences, we form thoughts and personality traits. Our decisions and behaviours stem
solely from our experiences.

Types of Behavioural Learning

Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired
through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.

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Some important names that approached behaviorism are Pavlov (1849-1936), Watson (1878-
1958), and Skinner (1904-1990).
The behavioural psychology described three types of learning: Classical Conditioning,
Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning.
1. Classical Conditioning: In case of Classical Conditioning, the process of learning is
described as a Stimulus-Response connection or association.
Classical Conditioning theory has been explained with the help of Pavlov’s Classic
Experiment, in which the food was used as the natural stimulus which was paired with the
previously neutral stimuli that’s a bell in this case. By establishing an association between the
natural stimulus (food) and the neutral stimuli (sound of the bell), the desired response can be
elicited. This theory will be discussed in detail in the next few articles.
2. Operant Conditioning: Propounded by scholars like Edward Thorndike firstly and
later by B.F. Skinner, this theory stresses on the fact that the consequences of actions
shape the behaviour.
The theory explains that the intensity of a response is either increased or decreased as a result
of punishment or reinforcement. Skinner explained how with the help of reinforcement one
can strengthen behaviour and with punishment reduce or curb behaviour. It was also analyzed
that the behavioural change strongly depends on the schedules of reinforcement with focus on
timing and rate of reinforcement.
3. Observational Learning: The Observational Learning process was propounded by
Albert Bandura in his Social Learning Theory, which focused on learning by imitation
or observing people’s behaviour. For observational learning to take place effectively,
four important elements will be essential: Motivation, Attention, Memory and Motor
Skills.
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory which suggests that observation and
modelling play a primary role in this process. Bandura’s theory moves beyond behavioural
theories, which suggest that all behaviours are learned through conditioning and cognitive
theories, which take into account psychological influences such as attention and memory.
Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing,
modelling, and imitating the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social
learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence
human learning and behavior. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs
through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious
reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist;
conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The
theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by
reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in
the learning individual.
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories
of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

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 1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational
learning.
Over time, Bandura’s theory of social learning moved away from the behavioral end of the
spectrum and closer toward the cognitive end. He published a significant revision to his
theory in 1977, which included the concept of self-efficacy at the core of its theoretical
framework.Bandura was the first person to make this connection, and the main pillars of
social learning theory were revised to make the following arguments:
 Learning is both behavioral and cognitive. It also occurs in a social context.
 Learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement–observing a behavior and its
consequences (which have social ramifications).
 Learning involves observation, drawing conclusions from observations, and making
subsequent decisions (that do not necessarily result in an observable change in
behavior).
 While reinforcement is critical to learning, it is not the sole cause of learning (latent
learning).
 Through the concept of reciprocal determinism, cognition, environment, and behavior
all influence each other and the learner
Components of observational learning:
 Attention: An observer pays attention to particular social behaviours. Their ability to
pay attention depends on their accessibility to what is being observed, the relevance of
the behaviours, the complexity of the behaviours, the perceived value of the
behaviours, and the observer’s own cognitive abilities and preconceptions.
 Retention: An observer retains the sequence of behaviours and consequences, which
they can retrieve for future imitations of the behaviours.
 Production: An observer repeats the behavior in a different social context and
receives feedback from other observers, which they can use to adjust how they
perform the behaviours in future contexts.
 Motivation: An observer is motivated to repeat the behaviours based on the social
responses and consequences they receive when they imitate a behavior.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social
context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior.
The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external
and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals
acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which
individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences,
which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences

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reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will
engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.
Social cognitive theory is proposed in an agentic perspective, which suggests that, instead of
being just shaped by environments or inner forces, individuals are self-developing, self-
regulating, self-reflecting and proactive. Specifically, human agency operates within three
modes:
 Individual Agency: A person’s own influence on the environment;
 Proxy Agency: Another person’s effort on securing the individual’s interests;
 Collective Agency: A group of people work together to achieve the common benefits.
Human agency has four core properties:
 Intentionality: Individuals’ active decision on engaging in certain activities;
 Forethought: Individuals’ ability to anticipate the outcome of certain actions;
 Self-reactiveness: Individuals’ ability to construct and regulate appropriate behaviors;
 Self-reflectiveness: Individuals’ ability to reflect and evaluate the soundness of their
cognitions and behaviors.

The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and
reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first
five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added
when the theory evolved into SCT.
1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned
experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to
stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior
through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a
person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of
their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior
conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through
"modeling" of behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior,
they can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's
behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.
Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be
positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the
reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.

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 5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.
Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate
the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these
anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior.
Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While expectancies also
derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the
outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to
successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other
theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned
Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other
individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).
Description of the Test (BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT):
During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments on observational
learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments which was groundbreaking study
on aggression that demonstrated that children are able to learn through the observation of
adult behaviour. The experiment was executed via a team of researchers who physically and
verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to
later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.

Aim:
Bandura conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviors (i.e.,
aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation
Sample
Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University
Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old.
The researchers pre-tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the
children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behavior on four 5-point rating scales.
It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of
aggression in their everyday behavior. The experiment is, therefore, an example of a matched
pairs design.
To test the inter-rater reliability of the observers, 51 of the children were rated by two
observers independently and their ratings compared. These ratings showed a very high
reliability correlation (r = 0.89), which suggested that the observers had a good agreement
about the behavior of the children.
Method
A lab experiment was used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was
manipulated in three conditions:
 Aggressive model is shown to 24 children

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  Non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children
 No model shown (control condition) - 24 children

Stage 1: Modeling
In the experimental conditions children were individually shown into a room containing toys
and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either:
1. 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving
aggressively towards a toy called a 'Bobo doll'. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a
distinctive manner - they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in
the air and shouted "Pow, Boom."
2. Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model
who played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy
set and ignoring the bobo-doll).
3. The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not
exposed to any model at all.
Stage 2: Aggression Arousal
All the children (including the control group) were subjected to 'mild aggression arousal.'
Each child was (separately) taken to a room with relatively attractive toys.
As soon as the child started to play with the toys, the experimenter told the child that these
were the experimenter's very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other
children.
Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation• The next room contained some aggressive toys and
some non-aggressive toys. The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons, three bears

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and plastic farm animals. The aggressive toys included a mallet and peg board, dart guns, and
a 3 foot Bobo doll.
• The child was in the room for 20 minutes, and their behavior was observed and rated though
a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second intervals, therefore, giving 240
response units for each child.
• Other behaviors that didn’t imitate that of the model were also recorded e.g., punching the
Bobo doll on the nose.

Results
• Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses
than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
• There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had
observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small.
• The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses
if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female.
However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they
punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
• Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls
imitating same-sex models is not strong.
• Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the
verbal aggression between boys and girls.

Conclusion
Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as
aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of
another person. The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory.

Answer the following questions:

a) Difference between Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory:

Social Learning Theory is a learning theory that proposes that learning occurs in the social
context via observing and imitating the behaviour of a model along with the consequences of
that behaviour.
It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur
purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or

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direct reinforcement. Learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and
punishments.
The theory expands on traditional behaviour theories, in which behaviour is governed solely
by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes
in the learning individual.
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that
people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an
essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has
been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
The concepts can be explained as:
People Can Learn Through Observation One of the best-known experiments in the history
of psychology involved a doll named Bobo. Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies
observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. 5 When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions
they had previously observed. As you can see, observational learning does not even
necessarily require watching another person to engage in an activity. Hearing verbal
instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can lead to learning. We can also learn by reading,
hearing, or watching the actions of characters in books and films.It is this type of
observational learning that has become a lightning rod for controversy as parents and
psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids. Many worry that kids can
learn bad behaviors such as aggression from violent video games, movies, television
programs, and online videos.
Mental States Are Important to Learning Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. And he realized that
reinforcement does not always come from outside sources. Your own mental state and
motivation play an important role in determining whether a behavior is learned or not. He
described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as pride, satisfaction,
and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps
connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place
social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a
'social cognitive theory.'
Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change So how do we determine when something
has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen immediately when the new behavior is
displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly determine if learning has
occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted. But sometimes we are able to
learn things even though that learning might not be immediately obvious. While behaviorists
believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

Social Cognitive Theory is the expanded form of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory,
used in psychology, education and communication holds that portions of an individual’s

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knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social
interactions, experiences and outside media influences.
The theory states that when people observe a model performing behaviour and the
consequences of that behaviour, they remember the sequences of events and use this
information to guide subsequent behaviours. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer
to engage in behaviour they already learned.
It also means that, people do not learn new behaviours solely by trying them and either
succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication
of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their
behaviour and the outcome of the behaviour, the observer may choose to replicate behaviour
modeled.

The core concepts of social cognitive theory are: behavior, personal factors, and
environmental factors interact with each other, and changing one changes them all. They can
be explained as:
Self-efficacy: one’s own estimation of one’s personal ability to do something; meaning,
people will only do what they believe they can do.
Observational learning: learning by watching others; meaning, the strength of observational
learning depends on how much attention is given to the person who is modeling the behavior.
Expectations: The likely outcomes of a behavior; meaning, the people behave in certain
ways because of the results they expect as well as avoiding the behavior due to the
expectations.
Expectancies: the value placed on the outcome of the behavior; meaning, the certain
behavior is more likely to occur when the expectancy, or value placed on its outcome,
maximizes a positive result and minimizes a negative one.
Emotional arousal: the emotional reaction to a situation and its resulting behavior; meaning,
that in certain situations people become fearful and, when this happens, their behavior
becomes defensive in an effort to reduce the fear.
Behavioral capability: the knowledge and skills needed to engage in a particular behavior;
meaning, before doing something, you have to know what it is you’re going to do and how to
do it.
Reinforcement: the rewards or punishments for doing something; meaning, the behavior
occurs because people either want the reward or want to avoid the punishment.
Focus of control: one’s belief regarding one’s personal power over life events; meaning, that
this belief in the extent of personal control (internal to external) has an impact on health
decisions, and thus on health behaviors.

Social Learning Theory Social Cognitive Theory

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Definition The Social Learning Theory is given Social cognitive theory (Bandura)
by Albert Bandura, who believed that postulates that human functioning
individual learns behavior by is determined by
observing the others. Simply, by a) personal factors in the form of
observing the other person’s behavior, cognition, affect, and biological
attitude, and the outcome of that events,
behavior, an individual learns how to b) behavior, and
behave in a given situation, depending c) environmental influences.
on the consequences observed.
Core concept There are three core concepts at the The key concepts of SCT can be
heart of social learning theory. grouped into five major categories:
1. People can learn through 1. psychological determinants of
observation. behavior (outcome
expectations, self efficacy,
2. Internal mental states are an
and collective efficacy),
essential part of this process.
2. observational learning,
3. This theory recognizes that just
because something has been 3. environmental determinants
learned, it does not mean that it of behavior (incentive
will result in a change in motivation, facilitation),
behavior.
4. self-regulation, and
5. moral disengagement.
Role of Less important Important in acquisition and
cognitive production behaviour
factors
Scope Limited to the learning process in the Broader scope; includes a
social context. conceptualization of human
agency

b) Applications of Social Learning Theory:

Application of social learning theory in social work
Two areas included are research and intervention. Researchers can use the theory to
understand how aggressiveness and violence can be transferred through observational
learning. The theory can further be used to investigate how positive role models can foster
desirable behaviors and promote social change.
As an intervention tool, a social worker can implement social learning theory to influence
positive new behaviors by altering the reinforcement whether positive or negative, associated
with the source of the issue.
Social Learning in Organizations:

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Social learning in organizations is being applied extensively and is on the rise. In fact, it is
becoming more common than formal learning, where the education is based on a rigid
curriculum. The various forms of new learning methods that are taking the place of formal
learning are online learning, mentorships, and social learning. All of these methods are
non traditional, but there are also more open, accessible, efficient and relevant for employees
while giving them far more control and flexibility over how they learn than traditional
learning methods. Social learning, in particular, is highly cost-effective because of its organic
nature. This means it can happen anywhere and at any time.
Criminology
Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant
behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated
the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin
Sutherland's differential association theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal
behavior. Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in both social and
nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement,
explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain
behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms.
Developmental psychology
In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H. Miller lists both moral
development and gender-role development as important areas of research within social
learning theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding the
acquisition of these two skills. For gender-role development, the same-sex parent provides
only one of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social learning
theory also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social
circumstances of each decision.
Management[
Social learning theory proposes that rewards aren't the sole force behind creating motivation.
Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other ways in which
we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Modeling, or
the scenario in which we see someone's behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the
learning process as well as mental states and the cognitive process.
Creating social change with Media against Media violence
Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of media
violence.Many research studies and meta-analyses have discovered significant correlations
between viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as
playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors. The role of observational learning has
also been cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video
games.
Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help viewers learn
socially desired behaviors in a positive way from models portrayed in these programs. The
telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate elements that can bring a desired
response. These elements may include music, actors, melodrama, props or costumes.

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Applications for Social Change
Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and
behaving. With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity toward
people, places and objects. They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models
care about. Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality. For example,
through positive modelling issues like global warming are being tackled.
Psychotherapy
Social learning theory has been applied to change problem behaviors in psychotherapy such
as behavior modification of maladaptive behaviors and deconditioning of fear. For example,
therapists act out and demonstrate new skills in session (i.e., modeling) to teach new
behaviors. Another important application of social learning theory has been in the treatment
and conceptualization of anxiety disorders. Social learning theory helped salvage learning
approaches to anxiety disorders by providing additional mechanisms beyond classical
conditioning that could account for the acquisition of fear.
School psychology
Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to enhance
students' knowledge acquisition and retention. Using the technique of guided participation
and reciprocal learning, aid in better learning and retention.
Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of students by modelling appropriate
behavior and visibly rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher's role
as model and encouraging the students to adopt the position of observer, the teacher can make
knowledge and practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcome.

c) Based on this theory and its application, do you think violence is contagious?
Yes, I think violence is contagious. Just like altruism and kindness can benefit the giver and
the receiver, violence is harmful for everyone, the one doing it and the one at the receiving
end. Violence once started spreads like fire too. Violence is similar to goodness, if children
can emulate the goodness and kind actions of others, it will not take much time to learn one’s
violent actions. For e.g.- If a man beats up his wife repeatedly at home, and the child
witnesses all this, he will think it’s justified to be violent and may do similar acts at school or
with peers. 8 Violence can cause a lot of destruction to the society and community too. It may
start on a small level but may go on forever if not resolved properly. Hence, if there are fights
they should be resolved immediately to avoid further fights and violence.

Conclusion:
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had
important implications in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize
how important it is to model appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as
encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory. As

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Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience.
Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring new knowledge and skills. By understanding
how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater appreciation for the powerful role
that observation plays in shaping the things we know and the things we do.

Reference:
McLeod, S. A. (2014). Bobo Doll Experiment. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html
https://www.onlinemswprograms.com/social-work/theories/social-learning-theory/
https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/

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 PRACTICAL-2
COVID-19 INTELLIGENCE TEST

Aim: To understand the different theories of intelligence, Sternberg’s article on

‘COVID-19 has truly taught us what intelligence is’ and write my own interpretation
about what true intelligence is.

Introduction:
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning,
mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional
knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for
adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context (1997)
Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems and to adapt to
new situations.
Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviours as it involves
mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-solving and planning which are all
positively correlated.
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age.
Intelligence is the ability to:
Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important
component of intelligence.
Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible
problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a
useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.

Theories of Intelligence:
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100
years.
Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as
general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to
examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were

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remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well
on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and
numerically expressed.
He concluded that human beings possess a generalized form of intelligence, known as a g-
factor, which can lead to other specialized forms of intelligence, measured by the s-factor.
G-factor is a sum of s-factor scores that measure a person’s abilities in one particular area.
Generally excepted s-factors of intelligence include memory, attention, verbal
comprehension, spatial skills, and abstract reasoning.
The g-factor and the s-factor are two parts of Spearman’s Two-factor theory of intelligence.

Thorndike’s multifactor theory :

Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental activity requires
an aggregate of different set of abilities.
He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence :
Level: refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.
Range: refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.
Area: means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to
respond.
Speed: is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items

Thurstone’s Theory of Primary Mental Abilities:

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.
Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall
Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
Reasoning: The ability to find rules
Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly
The Sternberg’s Triarchic Approach to Intelligence

15
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's
life."
Although he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as
individual talents. Sternberg proposed the concept of "successful intelligence," which
involves three factors:5
 Analytical intelligence: The ability to evaluate information and solve problems
 Creative intelligence: The ability to come up with new ideas
 Practical intelligence: The ability to adapt to a changing environment

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully
and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences
based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle
objects skillfully
Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others
Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings,
values, beliefs, and thinking processes
Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other
objects in nature
Linguistic intelligence
People with linguistic intelligence are skilled wordsmiths. They’re able to use words to
convey different feelings, ideas, and theories with ease. They also have a predisposition for
visual learning, so they can quickly master new languages.
Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings, and rhythms of words
Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly.

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Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Theory
Psychologist Raymond Cattell first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized
intelligence which suggests that intelligence is composed of different abilities that interact
and work together to produce overall individual intelligence.
The fluid aspect of this theory says that intelligence is a basic capacity due to genetic
potentiality. While this is affected by the past and new experiences, the crystallized theory is
a capacity resultant of experiences, learning and environment.
Fluid Intelligence:
Cattell defined fluid intelligence as "the ability to perceive relationships independent of
previous specific practice or instruction concerning those relationships."4
Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This
ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education.
Fluid intelligence tend to decline during late adulthood.
Crystallized Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past
experiences. Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension
and vocabulary exams.
Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and
accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger.
This type of intelligence tends to increase with age. The more learning and experience you
have, the more you build up your crystallized intelligence.

Background of Intelligence Testing:

During the early 1900s, the French government asked Binet to help decide which students
were most likely to experience difficulty in school. The government had passed laws
requiring that all French children attend school, so it was important to find a way to identify
children who would need specialized assistance.
Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began developing questions that focused on areas
not explicitly taught in schools, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. Using
these questions, Binet determined which ones served as the best predictors of school success.
He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more advanced questions that
older children were generally able to answer, and vice versa. Based on 11 this observation,
Binet suggested the concept of mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average
abilities of children of a certain age group.
First IQ Test:
This first intelligence test, referred to today as the Binet-Simon Scale, became the basis for
the intelligence tests still in use today. However, Binet himself did not believe that his

17
psychometric instruments could be used to measure a single, permanent, and inborn level of
intelligence.
Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too broad a concept
to quantify with a single number. Instead, he insisted that intelligence is influenced by many
factors, that it changes over time, and that it can only be compared in children with similar
backgrounds.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test:

When the Binet-Simon Scale was brought to the United States, it generated considerable
interest. Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original test and
standardized it using a sample of American participants. This adapted test, first published in
1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard
intelligence test used in the U.S.
The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient
(or IQ), to represent an individual's score on the test. The Stanford-Binet remains a popular
assessment tool today, despite going through a number of revisions over the years since its
inception.
The IQ score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by his or her
chronological age and then multiplying this number by 100. For example, a child with a
mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 10 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 x 100).

Wechsler Intelligence Scales:

Building on the Stanford-Binet test, American psychologist David Wechsler created a new
measurement instrument. Much like Binet, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved
different mental abilities. Dissatisfied with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet, he published
his new intelligence test, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), in 1955.
Wechsler also developed two different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of 12
Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the test has been revised since its original
publication and is now known as the WAIS-IV.

Interpretation of Intelligence on Robert Sternberg’s article:

According to Sternberg Intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment. He felt that IQ
tests are not indicators to assess the type of intelligence.
He mentions that COVID-19 has taught us a lot about intelligence, he says that intelligence
tests, problem solving and tests used for testing a person’s abilities doesn’t really determine
how intelligent a person is, according to him a person should be able to solve the daily
problems he encounters and how effectively he is able to do it. This will be able to show how
truly intelligent a person is.

18
Hence, Sternberg has given an example of fighting with COVID-19. Real life problems
cannot be compared to the lab and standardized tests. Real life problems and situations are
much tougher and challenging. The lab tests are just MCQ based, real life answers/solutions
can be long and a proper solution cannot be given for it.
You really need to use your intelligence while resolving real-life problems, whereas for
standardized tests you are using your intelligence, maybe something from the subconscious
mind, but you don’t need to put in extra effort to find a solution.
Sternberg talks about adaptive intelligence and states that it is necessary for people to solve
more realistic problems related to water and air pollution, global warming, discrimination, etc
and other serious problems, rather than solving artificial verbal and math problem. Thus,
Sternberg’s views are very practical and simple that can be applied by all.

Conclusion:
Researchers generally agree that intelligence involves abilities to learn and adapt to changing
environment. Studies and researches have concluded that intelligence involves mental
abilities such as logic, reasoning, problem solving and planning. And all these abilities are
positively correlated. Sternberg’s article also tells us about the importance of intelligence
while solving real-life problems.
Sternberg has written in his COVID-19 article that if the schools and colleges teach practical
skills to the student rather than just focusing on academics, they can make better citizens who
can work for their and country’s development. As predicted by Gardner and Sternberg,
facilitating the development of all types of intelligences or aspects of intelligence will likely
result in improved academic skills, better problem solving, and more effective social skills.

References:
https://www.multipleintelligencesoasis.org/blog/2020/9/1/67pmqk1mg1u
https://www2.winthrop.edu/rex/old_site/core_curriculum/EDUC200/intel
www.verywellmind.com

www.simplypsychology.org

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 PRACTICAL-3
INTERVIEW WITH AN OLDER ADULT

Aim: To understand the process of ageing through interview of an old

person.

Introduction:
As human beings grow older, they go through different phases or stages of life. It is helpful to
understand aging in the context of these phases. A life course is the period from birth to death,
including a sequence of predictable life events such as physical maturation. As soon as an
individual is born, their body begins to age.
Ageing is not simply about old age. It is the lifelong process by which we define the social,
mental, and biological stages in our lives. The process of aging is inevitable and there are
many signs of ageing occurring both within and outside the human body.
The term "aging" refers to the physical and psychological changes that occur with maturation.
While this term technically refers to the changes that occur at any stage of life, it is most
commonly used to refer to the changes that occur in midlife and into old age. These include
the physical and mental decline that normally occurs as a part of growing old': intellectual
decline, loss of physical strength and dexterity, and health problems that are associated with
aging
Ageing in humans is a complex biochemical process and involves multidimensional changes
on physical, psychological, cultural and social levels, which may, at times cause age-related
problems and disorders

Concept of old age

Old age, also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Old
age comprises "the later part of life; the period of life after youth and middle age, usually
with reference to deterioration". It starts mostly after 55 for most of the countries.
Age and aging have four dimensions. The dimension most of us think of is chronological age,
defined as the number of years since someone was born.
A second dimension is biological aging, which refers to the physical changes that “slow us
down” as we get into our middle and older years. For example, our arteries might clog up, or
problems with our lungs might make it more difficult for us to breathe.
A third dimension, psychological aging, refers to the psychological changes, including those
involving mental functioning and personality, that occur as we age. Elderly people often have
limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, injuries and

20
sickness than younger adults. The elderly also face other social issues around retirement,
loneliness, and ageism. Gerontologists emphasize that chronological age is not always the
same thing as biological or psychological age. Some people who are 65, for example, can
look and act much younger than some who are 50. Old age is not a definite biological stage,
as the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.
The fourth dimension of aging is social. Social aging refers to changes in a person’s roles and
relationships, both within their networks of relatives and friends and in formal organizations
such as the workplace and houses of worship.
The World Health Organization (WHO) set 55 as the beginning of old age. It recognized that
the developing world often defines old age, not by years, but by new roles, loss of previous
roles, or inability to make active contributions to society.

Old age issues:

The distinguishing characteristics of old age are both physical and mental.
Physical marks of old age include the following:
Bone and joint: Old bones are marked by thinning and shrinkage. This might result in a loss
of height (about two inches (5 cm) by age 80), a stooping posture in many people, and a
greater susceptibility to bone and joint diseases such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.
Chronic diseases: Some older persons have at least one chronic condition and many have
multiple conditions e.g., uncontrolled hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease.
Dental problems: May have less saliva and less ability for oral hygiene in old age which
increases the chance of tooth decay and infection.
Digestive system: About 40% of the time, old age is marked by digestive disorders such as
difficulty in swallowing, inability to eat enough and to absorb nutrition, constipation and
bleeding.
Essential tremor (ET) is an uncontrollable shaking in a part of the upper body. It is more
common in the elderly and symptoms worsen with age.
Eyesight: Presbyopia can occur by age 50 and it hinders reading especially of small print in
low lighting.
Falls: Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a younger person.
Gait change: Some aspects of gait normally change with old age. Gait velocity slows after
age 70.
Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. Many men are affected by
balding, and women enter menopause.
Hearing: By age 75 and older, encounter impairments in hearing.
Mobility impairment or loss: Impairment in mobility affects those between 65 and 74 ➢
Skin loses elasticity, becomes drier, and more lined and wrinkled.

21
Voice: In old age, vocal cords weaken and vibrate more slowly. This results in a weakened,
breathy voice that is sometimes called an "old person's voice".

Mental marks of old age include the following:

Old age dependence induces feelings of incompetence and worthlessness in a minority.
Depressed mood: When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become old
themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression.
Increasing fear of health loss
Reduced mental and cognitive ability may afflict old age.
Memory loss is common in old age due to the decrease in speed of information being
encoded, stored, and retrieved. It takes more time to learn the same amount of new
information.
Dementia and Alzheimer’s is a common disorder among old age.
geriatric syndromes: They are often the consequence of multiple underlying factors and
include frailty, urinary incontinence, falls, delirium and pressure ulcers

Factors related to old age

Certain factors like family, social environment and health affect the process of ageing.
Although some of the variations in older people’s health are genetic, much is due to people’s
physical and social environments – including their homes, neighborhoods, and communities,
as well as their personal characteristics – such as their sex, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.
These factors start to influence the ageing process at an early stage. The environments that
people live in as children – or even as developing fetuses – combined with their personal
characteristics, have long-term effects on how they age.
Behaviours also remain important in older age. Strength training to maintain muscle mass and
good nutrition can both help to preserve cognitive function, delay care dependency, and
reverse frailty.
Supportive environments enable people to do what is important to them, despite losses in
capacity. The availability of safe and accessible public buildings and transport, and
environments that are easy to walk around are examples of supportive environments.
The diversity seen in older age is not random. A large part arises from people’s physical and
social environments and the impact of these environments on their opportunities and health
behavior. The relationship we have with our environments is skewed by personal
characteristics such as the family we were born into, our sex and our ethnicity, leading to
inequalities in health.
Older people are often assumed to be frail or dependent, and a burden to society.

22
Preparation for the interview
1. A warm cozy and comfortable environment with comfortable seating was provided to the
subject.
2. A glass of water and a cup of tea was offered.
3. The subject was told about the interview and what it is about, permission was taken to
record the interview.
4. After taking consent from the subject interview was taken, in order to better understand the
ageing process.

Subject’s Profile:
Name of the Subject- Mamta Agar
Age- 58
Gender-Female
Educational Qualification- BA
Occupation: Homemaker, part-time business

Interview Transcript:

Interviewer: Namaste Mam. Please introduce yourself.

Interviewee: My name is Mamta Agar. I am 58 years old. I have always been a homemaker
and have a small business from home. I sell tupperware products locally to
friends and family.

Interviewer: How have you been Mam? I hope you are comfortable.
Interviewee: I am good beta. Yes, I am comfortable. Thanks for the tea.

Interviewer: May I know about your family?

Interviewee: Yes ofcourse. I am a widow. My husband died 10 years ago. I have two kids.
My son is a defence personnel and my daughter is a software engineer. She
recently got married. My son is engaged to be married. We have a dog who I
spent most of my time with.

23
Interviewer: Congratulations Mam. That’s great news. How do you feel right now
about your life?
Interviewee: I am extremely happy and proud of my children. Life right now is good. I
am enjoying myself. After very long I have started to feel like my old self.
Earlier I was too busy with the kids but now I have time for myself.

Interviewer: How was your life before marriage. Tell me about your childhood.
Interviewee: I come from a big family, multiple siblings, joint family. I grew up in the
village so was always attached to nature and outdoor things. I was an obedient
child, listened to parents not too troublesome. School meant studies and I,
quite frankly was not much interested in that. I was more into cooking,
stitching and all. I was married to a businessman and that’s were I learnt about
business. He was a nice man, we had a happy marriage and loving home
environment. I was happy with and my kids and one day the unfortunate
incident happened and that void could not be ever filled.

Interviewer: How would you describe yourself as a parent.

Interviewee: I have always been a lenient parent, protective of my children. I was
quite devoted to them. But as time went by I became more like their
friends. And today we share a cordial bond. I am their safe place and they
can share anything and everything to me.

Interviewer: That’s wonderful Mam. What are the biggest changes you have seen in your
life.
Interviewee: I would say after getting married I was more happy and relaxed in a way I was
independent in my thought, and small decisions like what to wear what to
cook and eat, smaller things meant big that time.
Another major change I experienced was when I lost my husband just few
days before my son was getting commissioned from the Military Academy.
And life after that has not been the same. There have been many challenges
and struggles of being a widow and a single mother. Esp. in our society it is
very difficult to raise kids without a father.

Interviewer: Ofcourse Mam. I totally understand that. And hats off to you for raising them
so beautifully while looking after the house as well. How you would you say
the struggles and challenges have changed now.
Interviewee: Being a mother and single parent of two kids is challenging in itself and the
only source of earnings at one point of time I have seen some bad days. But
my kids are understanding, they don’t worry me much. But once my younger

24
 girl started working, I started to feel lonely. And with age I can’t keep up in
touch with many friends and relatives.

Interviewer: When did you first feel that you have started ageing.
Interviewee: Once both my kids started working, being busy in their own lives, I had very
little to do with them. Then I realised I am ageing now. Also, I don’t feel
energetic and enthusiastic as I was in my adulthood. Health wise also I have
more health problems now.

Interviewer: Would you please share if any health issues troubled you.
Interviewee: I have gastric issues and I feel low on energy most days. I tested positive for
covid as well. And later I was diagnosed with diabetes.

Interviewer: Do you feel stressed as you are growing old?

Interviewee: Ageing is part of life. No, I don’t feel stressed at all. Infact I am ageing
gracefully. I have enjoyed all phases of my life. Now I look forward to
meeting my grandchildren soon and can’t wait for the day to play with them.
But yes, somedays I feel old in front of my kids when they talk about new age
things, their food preferences, the way they dress u., their thoughts and
outlook of life, maybe it’s the generation gap. Also, now I miss my husband
more, I miss a companion for my old age.

Interviewer: You seem quite positive and zealous for life, a thing a must learn from you.
How much time your children spent with you?
Interviewee: Since my son is in the Army, he hardly gets any time though I stay with him,
we have our meals together we talk, when he gets back home, we watch tv
together. As for my daughter, she lives in another city. We are in touch
through calls and video calls. Before getting married my daughter got me a
dog to keep me company which I thought was sweet of her to do so. Now
Shifu, my dog, we get along very well and we go for walk every day.

Interviewer: Pets always add happiness to our lives. What would you say is your biggest
fear?
Interviewee: At times I feel people are there to take care of me, but sometimes, I think that
people are occupied in their lives and won’t have time to take care of me when
I get sick or if something happens to me, these thoughts bother me a lot.

25
Interviewee: How do you take care of your health. What you do to feed your soul.
Interviewee: I eat healthy balanced meal; I walk every day with a group of my friends. My
dog keeps me company. I love watching movies, listening to songs,
celebrating festivals with loved ones makes me happy. Also, my part-time
work gives me a sense of satisfaction and I feel confident. It has also increased
my network of people

Interviewer: Any stereotype related to your age you faced, Mam?

Interviewee: I feel today’s generation don’t respect the old people as much as we used to.
Also, they think our productivity has decreased that we not able to do things
according to their liking. Nobody is interested in a conversation just because
we are old and we bore them. So, I feel with old age loneliness comes
automatically.

Interviewer: If you were to tell one thing you learnt from life.
Interviewee: Life is too unpredictable. It is about living, enjoying every moment, each
phase of life has its own charm. Faith goes a long way, do good and be good
rest all follows. So, for me I would say I have lived my life happily and look
forward to happier days ahead.

Interviewer: How did you feel about the interview?

Interviewee: It felt nice to open up to someone. Thank you for doing this.

Interviewer: Thank you Mam for your time and valuable inputs. I hope you have a good
health and much more happier times with your loved ones in future. Any last
words?
Interviewer: You’re welcome. Just an advice, encourage more people to look after old
people around them. All we need is a smile and some laugh to get through the
day. God bless beta!

Thematic Analysis:
After interviewing the subject, I can interpret that the subject is has enjoys all phases of her
life and she is ageing gracefully. She is very well aware of the challenges of old age and has
accepted them with open arms. She has a zeal to live life to the fullest. The subject still works
part-time at this age which gives a sense of confidence and satisfaction.

26
As I have studied Erikson’s theory about ageing-old age people may have physical as well as
psychological challenges, my subject also has certain health issues because of the ageing. She
is having gastric issues; diabetes and she feels low on energy.
She believes in selfcare and likes to walk with friends and her dog, eats balanced meal to take
care of her health.
She has been feeling lonely in the old age and sometimes miss company and people around to
talk to. To keep her motivated and happy she watches movies and listens to songs. Also, she
is involved in part-time business which keeps her busy and motivated.
Also, after losing her husband, the subject has been a single mother and that had its own
challenges which she overcame bravely. Today she is a proud mother of two wonderful
young people.
The things that bother her due to her old age is that people might not be there to look after her
when she falls sick as everybody is occupied in their lives. Also, she would like the young
generation to give respect and love to the older ones.

Conclusion:
Old age is just a number to many. After meeting this person, we can understand that if we
have to live happily and with good health in the old age, we should make our foundation,
base strong.
We should work on our health and relationships in our younger and middle adulthood age.
Youngsters must respect elders, they do respect but the care, respect and concern has reduced
over the years.
The Elderly just need our time, talk a little and spend time with them.
The subject was happy with the interview and wanted others to know about the problems
faced during ageing.

Reference :
www.verywellmind.com
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-socialproblems/chapter/6-1-the-concept-and-
experience-of-aging/
https://www.iedunote.com/interview

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 PRACTICAL-4
LOCUS OF CONTROL

Aim: To measure the locus of control of the subject, i.e, to operationally measure the
tendency of the subject to believe that
1. Control resides internally within him OR
2. Externally with others/situations

Introduction:
Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of personality. It is a psychological
concept that refers to how strongly people believe they have control over the situations and
experiences that affect their lives.
The concept was developed originally Julian Rotter in the 1950s (Rotter, 1966). Locus of
Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of events in
his/her life.
A person's "locus" (Latin for "place" or "location") is conceptualized as internal (a belief that
one can control one's own life) or external (a belief that life is controlled by outside factors
which the person cannot influence, or that chance or fate controls their lives).

Rotter and Social Learning Theory Model

Locus of Control is a theory created by Julian Rotter as a part of his Social Learning Theory.
Social Learning Theory is a response to Freud's psychoanalysis and Skinner's behaviorism.
According to Rotter individuals have much more control than psychoanalysis
and behaviorism gives them credit for.
The main idea in Julian Rotter's social learning theory is that personality represents an
interaction of the individual with his or her environment. One cannot speak of a personality,
internal to the individual, that is independent of the environment. Neither can one focus on
behavior as being an automatic response to an objective set of environmental stimuli. Rather,
to understand behavior, one must take both the individual (i.e., his or her life history of
learning and experiences) and the environment (i.e., those stimuli that the person is aware of
and responding to) into account. Rotter describes personality as a relatively stable set of
potentials for responding to situations in a particular way.
Rotter sees personality, and therefore behavior, as always changeable. Change the way the
person thinks, or change the environment the person is responding to, and behavior will
change. He does not believe there is a critical period after which personality is set. But, the
more life experience one has building up certain sets of beliefs, the more effort and

28
intervention required for change to occur. Rotter conceives of people in an optimistic way.
He sees them as being drawn forward by their goals, seeking to maximize their reinforcement,
rather than just avoiding punishment.

Components of Rotter’s Social Learning Theory Model:

Behaviour Potential:
Behaviour potential refers to the likelihood of a certain behaviour occurring in the context of
specific potential reinforcement. In other words, what is the probability that the person will
exhibit a particular behaviour in a situation?
Expectancy:
Expectancy is defined as the probability held by the individual that reinforcement will follow
one’s chosen behaviour. Expectancy is the subjective probability that a given behaviour will
lead to a particular outcome, or reinforcer. Having high or strong expectancies means the
individual is confident the behaviour will result in the outcome. Having low expectancies
means the individual believes it is unlikely that his or her behaviour will result in
reinforcement.
Reinforcement Value.:
Reinforcement is another name for the outcomes of our behaviour. Reinforcement value
refers to the desirability of these outcomes. Things we want to happen, that we are attracted
to, have a high reinforcement value.
The least amount of reinforcement that still has a positive value is known as the minimal
goal
Psychological Situation:
The psychological situation represents Rotter's idea that each individual's experience of the
environment is unique.
Rotter believes it is always important to keep in mind that different people interpret the same
situation differently. Different people will have different expectancies and reinforcement
values in the same situation. Thus, it is people's subjective interpretation of the environment,
rather than an objective array of stimuli, that is meaningful to them and that determines how
they behave

What Is Locus of Control?

"A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are
contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal
control (external control orientation)," explained psychologist Philip Zimbardo in his 1985
book Psychology and Life. In 1954, psychologist Julian Rotter suggested that our behaviour

29
was controlled by rewards and punishments and that it was these consequences for our
actions that determined our beliefs about the underlying causes of these actions.

Internal vs. External Locus of Control:

It is important to note that locus of control is a continuum. No one has a 100 percent external
or internal locus of control. Instead, most people lie somewhere on the continuum between
the two extremes. These are characteristics of people with dominant internal or external locus
of control.
Rotter (1966) stated that where we place that locus will either reinforce or punish our actions.
An internal locus of control will lead to a reinforcement of that behaviour, and the behaviour
will continue. An external locus of control will cause the behaviour to extinguish – why
would we continue to try if the outcome is outside of our control?

Internal Locus of Control:

People with a strong internal locus of control believe that the responsibility for whether or not
they get reinforced ultimately lies with themselves. Internals believe that success or failure is
due to their own efforts
Are more likely to take responsibility for their actions
Tend to be less influenced by the opinions of other people
Often do better at tasks when they are allowed to work at their own pace
Usually, have a strong sense of self-efficacy
Tend to work hard to achieve the things they want
Feel confident in the face of challenges Tend to be physically healthier
Report being happier and more independent Often achieve greater success in the workplace

External Locus of Control:

externals believe that the reinforcers in life are controlled by luck, chance, or powerful others.
Therefore, they see little impact of their own efforts on the amount of reinforcement they
receive.
Blame outside forces for their circumstances
Often credit luck or chance for any successes
Don't believe that they can change their situation through their own efforts Frequently feel
hopeless or powerless in the face of difficult situations
Are more prone to experiencing learned helplessness.

30
Factors responsible for locus of control (Both external and internal)
1. Childhood Experience: Locus of control is often viewed as an inborn personality
component. It is shaped by childhood experiences—including children’s interactions with
their parents. Children who were raised by parents who encouraged their independence and
helped them to learn the connection between actions and their consequences tended to have a
more well-developed internal locus of control.
2. Unfortunate Incidents: Unfortunate incidents and extremely disrupting events in life
increase externality. Some persons with strong self- confidence and faith on competency and
sincerity may shift to faith, luck and uncontrollable factors when they meet failures and
frustrations in life events which are totally beyond their control like sudden death of near and
dear ones, divorce, separation, health problems, constant failure in examinations, inability to
get a job inspite of repeated attempts and many other similar factors. Ultimately such people
loose hope in themselves and leave everything to fate.
3. Old age: People in old age tend to become internal or external depending on their
experience in life. E.g., if a person is successful and living a content life in his old age tends
to be internal whereas a person who has lost his health wealth becomes external
4. Sometimes externality is necessary, particularly when one feels very helpless and has to
give himself solace and by viewing that he is not personally responsible for such mistakes.
By this the ego of the person is able to reduce and resolve a lot of anxiety.

Description of the Test:

The Locus of Control is a 29 items questionnaire developed by Rotter (1966). It measures
generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
The LCS is a forced choice questionnaire in that respondents must select a response choice
that provides a specific answer to each item. For each item, the respondent much selects the
statement they agree with the most from an 'a' or 'b' option. Scores range from 0 to 13, with
lower scores indicating internal control and higher scores indicating external control. People
with an internal locus of control believe that their own actions determine the rewards that
they obtain, while those with an external locus of control believe that their own behaviour
doesn't matter much and that rewards in life are generally outside of their control.

Objective: To find level of locus of control both external and internal of the subject.

Materials Required:
Rotter’s questionnaire, pen, writing pad and a glass of water.
Subject’s Profile:
Name of the Subject : Havinder Kumar

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Age : 32
Gender : Male
Educational Qualification : Mtech in Mech Eng
Occupation : Defence services

Procedure and Administration:

Preparation- Rotter’s questionnaire, pen, writing pad and a glass of water.
Rapport:
After establishing rapport and making the subject feel comfortable, the test was conducted.
Instructions:
The test was explained to the subject and any doubts he had were cleared immediately.
Proper clear instructions were read out to the subject.
After confirming that the subject has understood the instructions and taking his consent for
the test, the subject was told to solve the test.
It was told that there was no time limit to complete the test but try to complete as fast as
possible, ideally in 10 mins.
After the test the subject was asked about his feelings about the test, whether the subject
found it hard or easy.
Scoring was done.
The subject was debriefed about the score and the meaning of score was explained.
End the interaction on a positive note.

Precautions :
1. Do not show test to the subject before the test.
2. Consent of the subject regarding the administration of the test is a must.
3. Ensure the subject has understood the instructions. Answer the subject if any queries.
4. Check if the subject has omitted any item of the test.
5. Establish rapport with the subject before taking the test.

Introspective Report:
Subject did not face any problems while solving the test; he was calm, relaxed and excited
about the test and completed the test in 10 mins.

32
Any questions he had were cleared immediately. The subject answered all questions and was
patient while taking the test.
The subject was eager to know the result and interpretation of it.

Scoring and Interpretation:

The scoring and the interpretation of the test conducted online are as follows:

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34
Score: 7
Result: Internal Locus of Control
The subject scored 7 on the test, which means he has moderate Internal Locus of Control.
This clearly shows that the subject has better control of his behaviour and believes that the
outcomes of his actions are results of his own abilities; his hard work would lead him to
obtain positive outcomes.
As the subject is having Internal Locus of Control, it is evident that he has a great deal of
personal control and is more inclined to take personal responsibility for his behavior. The
subject is more likely to take full control of the events in his life and is self-motivated and
focused on achieving the goals he has set for himself.
Having a moderate Internal Locus of Control may make the subject more able to accept
situations that he cant influence, and to manage them effectively when they arise.

Discussion:
This means that internal locus control is when the person attributes his success to his/her own

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abilities and external control is when he blames the surroundings. According to me one must
take charge and responsibility of their own actions.

Conclusion:
Thus, locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they, as opposed to external
forces, have control over the outcome of events in their lives.

References :
www.verywellmind.com
www.mindtools.com
http://www.miller-templeton.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Rotter_LoC.pdf

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 PRACTICAL-5
16 PF TEST

Aim: To find out the personality of the subject by using 16 PF Test.

Introduction:
People have long struggled to understand personality, and numerous theories have been
developed to explain how personality develops and how it influences behavior. One such
theory was proposed by psychologist Raymond Cattell. He created a taxonomy of 16
different personality traits that could be used to describe and explain individual differences
between people's personalities.
Cattell's personality factors are included in the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16PF) that is widely used today for career counseling in education. In business, it is used in
personnel selection, especially for choosing managers. It is also used in clinical diagnosis and
to plan therapy by assessing anxiety, adjustment, and behavioral problems.

The 16 Personality Factors: history & background

The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is a comprehensive measure of normal-
range personality found to be effective in a variety of settings where an in-depth assessment
of the whole person is needed. Due to its scientific origins, the 16PF Questionnaire has a long
history of empirical research and is embedded in a well-established theory of individual
differences.
Raymond Cattell analyzed Allport's list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics, mostly by
eliminating terms that were redundant or uncommon. He then used a statistical technique
known as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one another. With this method, he
was able to whittle his list to 16 key personality factors.
According to Cattell there is a continuum of personality traits, which means that each person
contains all of these 16 traits to a certain degree, but they maybe high in some traits and low
in some traits. The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms
used for each of the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattel
They are:
Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical
Apprehension: Worried versus confident
Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung

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Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
Privateness: Discreet versus open
Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded
Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

Description of the test:

This personality test consists of 164 statements about yourself, for each indicate how accurate
it is on the scale of (1) disagree (2) slightly disagree (3) neither agree nor disagree (4) slightly
agree (5) agree. It will take most people around ten minutes to complete. The test helps to
find out about the 16 factors present in a person.
Objective: To test the personality of the subject using Cattell’s 16 PF Test based on 16
traits.

Materials Required:
A phone or laptop and a good internet connection, link to 16 PF Test.

Subject’s Profile:
Name of the Subject : Havinder Kumar
Age : 32
Gender : Male
Educational Qualification : Mtech in Mech Eng
Occupation : Defence services

Procedure and Administration:

Preparation- The online test link was provided to the subject before the conduction of the test.

38
A laptop with good internet connection, cozy seating, comfortable environment, a glass of
water.
After establishing rapport and making the subject comfortable the test was conducted.

Instructions :
The test was explained to the subject and any doubts he had were cleared immediately.
Proper clear instructions were read out to the subject .
After confirming that the subject has understood the instructions and taking his consent for
the test, the subject was told to take the test.
It was told that there was no time limit to complete the test but try to complete as fast as
possible, ideally in 15-20 mins.
After the test the subject was asked about his feelings about the test, whether the subject
found it hard or easy.
Scoring was done.
The subject was debriefed about the score and the meaning of score was explained .
End the interaction on a positive note.

Precautions :
1. Do not show test to the subject before the test.
2. Consent of the subject regarding the administration of the test is a must.
3. Ensure the subject has understood the instructions. Answer the subject if any queries.
4. Check if the subject has omitted any item of the test.
5. Establish rapport with the subject before taking the test.

Introspective Report:
Subject did not face any problems will solving the test; he was calm, relaxed and interested in
the test.
Any questions he had were cleared immediately. The subject answered all questions and was
patient while taking the test.
The subject was eager to know the result and interpretation of it.

Scoring and Interpretation:The scoring and the interpretation of the test conducted online
(for each of the 16 traits) are as follows:

39
Discussion:
There is no right or wrong answer to the statement. According to the interpretation of the
above personality test it clearly shows that the subject is high in some traits and low in others.
The subject’s highest score is in dominance i.e. 3.4 and lowest score is 0.8 i.e. tension and
apprehension.
After performing the test on the subject, it can be inferred that the subject is warm,
emotionally stable, dominant and assertive in nature, conforming and rule bound, socially
bold, sensitive and sentimental.
The subject is genuine, true to himself, self assured, self reliant, flexible and experimental,
organized, relaxed and at peace with himself and life. He doesn’t become impatient in tension
or stressed situation.
The outcome of my experiment is similar to the personality of the subject.

Conclusion:
After reading the personality theories and conducting the test, it can be concluded that the 16
PF Test provide information relevant to the clinical and counselling process. It can be used
as career evaluation tool, for couples counseling and personality assessment. Also, 16PF can

40
help in identifying problems such as anxiety, behavioral adjustment, academic, emotional,
and social.

References:
www.verywellmind.com
https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/16PF.php

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 PRACTICAL-6
HALO EFFECT

Aim: To determine from this experiment that people generalize from one outstanding
trait to form a favourable view of a person's whole personality.

Introduction:
“What is beautiful is good…”
Coined by psychologist Edward Thorndike, the Halo Effect describes people’s tendency to let
one positive trait guide their total opinion of a person, product, or experience. It is also
something referred to as the "physical attractiveness stereotype" and the "what is beautiful is
also good" principle.
The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person
influences how we feel and think about their character. Essentially, our overall impression of
a person impacts your evaluations of that person's specific traits. Perceptions of a single trait
can carry over to how people perceive other aspects of that person.s.
The halo effect is a cognitive attribution bias as it involves the unfounded application of
general judgment to a specific trait (Bethel, 2010; Ries, 2006).
The term itself uses the analogy of a halo to describe how it can affect perceptions. In
religious art, a halo is often portrayed over a saint's head, bathing the individual in a heavenly
light to show that that person is good.
A single positive quality of a person may induce a positive predisposition toward every
aspect of that person while one negative attribute of that person may induce an overall
negative impression of that person.

What Is the Halo Effect?

The halo effect is also something referred to as the "physical attractiveness stereotype" and
the "what is beautiful is also good" principle.
Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered
attractive tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well. However, this effect doesn't
just affect our perceptions of people based on their attractiveness. It can also encompass other
traits as well. People who are sociable or kind, for example, may also be seen as more likable
and intelligent. The halo effect makes it so that perceptions of one quality lead to biased
judgments of other qualities.
The word ‘halo’ stems from a religious concept. It refers to a circle of light which is placed
above or around the head of a holy person or saint in order to honor his or her sanctity.

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The term itself uses the analogy of a halo to describe how it can affect perceptions. When you
see someone through the lens of the halo effect, you are seeing them cast in a similar light.
That "halo" created by your perception of one characteristic covers them in the same way.
Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered
attractive tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well.

The History of the Halo Effect

The American psychologist Frederick L. Wells (1907) first identified the halo effect in a
study of ratings of the literary merit of authors.
However, it was Edward Thorndike who first recognized it with empirical evidence.
Thorndike was an early behaviorist who delved into the psychology of learning. He officially
introduced the term ‘the halo error’ in 1920 in his article, “A Constant Error in Psychological
Ratings”.
Thorndike described the halo effect as the cognitive bias whereby one aspect of a person
shapes one’s opinions of the other dimensions and features of that person. Although
Thorndike initially employed the term only to refer to people, subsequently, its use has been
expanded even to the spheres of marketing.
In A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings, Thorndike (1920) sought to pin down this
cognitive bias via replication. In the experiment for the study, he would ask two commanding
officers in the military to assess their soldiers based on their intellect, physical qualities (such
as voice, physique, energy, neatness and bearing), leadership skills, and personal qualities
(such as loyalty, selflessness, cooperation and dependability).
The bias which he thought characterized the ratings was confirmed. Thorndike discovered
that a person’s attractiveness significantly influenced how that person’s other attributes were
assessed. His study demonstrated notable correlations; the correlation for physique with
character was .28, for physique with intelligence was .31, and for physique with leadership
was .39.
The ratings were seemingly impacted by a marked tendency to view a person in general as
either good or bad, and then to jump to conclusions concerning other qualities of that person.
These conclusions were based on the initial impression of, or the general feeling concerning
the relevant individuals.

The Halo Effect Theory:

The overall basis of Thorndike’s theory is that people tend to create an overall impression of
someone’s personality or characteristics based on one unrelated trait.
This can result in either positive or negative perceptions. In either case, such subjective
judgment can have negative consequences on your ability to think critically about the
person’s other traits.

43
Thorndike’s work was elaborated on by another psychologist, Solomon Asch. He theorized
that the way people form opinions, or adjectives, about others are highly reliant on first
impression. So, a positive first impression of someone could mean that you make positive
assumptions about their skills and abilities. A negative first impression could mean you
incorrectly assume that a person has negative qualities, such as laziness or apathy.

The halo effect in daily life:

While the halo effect may be a new term to you, it’s present in just about every aspect of your
daily life. These include situations involving:
a) People you find attractive
b) Your workplace
c) School
d) How you respond to marketing campaigns
e) Medicine and healthcare

Nisbett and Wilson' Experiment

In this experiment, college students as participants were asked to evaluate a psychology
instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The instructor would be evaluated on
several different dimensions.
The students were divided into two groups, and each were shown one of two different
interviews with the same instructor who is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke
English with a fairly noticeable accent.
In one video, the instructor presented himself as someone likeable, respectful of his students'
intelligence and motives, flexible in his approach to teaching and enthusiastic about his
subject matter. In the other interview, he presented himself in an entirely different way, in an
unlikeable way to be specific. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite
rigid in his teaching style.

Result:
From the results, the subjects were obviously unaware of the halo effect and the nature of the
influence of global evaluation on their ratings. The results also indicate that global
evaluations alter evaluations of attributes about which the individual has information fully
sufficient to allow for an independent assessment.
The subjects were convinced that they made their judgment about the lecturer's physical
appearance, mannerisms and accent without considering how likeable he was.

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Answer the following:
1. The key takeaways from the main experiment.
Nisbett and Wilson have argued that people have little awareness of the nature or even
existence of the cognitive processes that mediate judgements, inferences and the production
of complex social behaviour.
Through this experiment we learn that :
Halo effect exists and it influences the decisions of persons. Even the learning of students
differs if the teacher is attractive or unattractive. Many a times people give their judgements
or opinions without even knowing that they are influenced by the halo effect.
Halo effect helps us to convey our messages effectively to others.
It has a positive impression on others.

2. How is halo effect being used to one’s advantage?

The halo effect is when our impression of someone is skewed by one positive trait, leading
us to make generalizations about them as a whole.
The halo effect is one of the big reasons why first impressions really matter. It is necessary
to manage our reputation like it’s a full-time job. We must always keep ourselves well-
groomed, speak clearly and positively. We must hang out with people of high value. It is
necessary to show passion in things you do or say.

3. Find the application and common uses of halo effect.

The halo effect can impact organizations, locations, products and delivery/communications
channels, as well as our judgments of other people.
Personality of a person
People's first impressions of others influence their later decision to either approach or avoid
those individuals. When people first encounter someone, the information present about that
individual is limited; therefore, people will use the information available to assume other
characteristics about that person; for instance, observable behaviors such as eye contact,
leaning forward, smiling and positive hand gestures are linked to positive emotions, while
avoiding eye contact, leaning back, avoiding touch, and defensive hand gestures (ex. hands
in pockets) or no gestures at all are linked to feelings of detachment.
People tend to assume that physically attractive individuals are more likely to be more
healthy, successful, courteous, containing higher moral standards, and greater social
competence than other people.
Diagnosing health problems
Clear example of the halo effect is in the field of medicine. Physicians may sometimes judge
patients based on their appearance without conducting tests first. Additionally, in terms of

45
mental health, the halo effect can also impact our judgment. We might associate someone
with a ‘healthy glow’ or a happy cheerful face as someone who is healthy. And one with a
sad face and gloomy vibe may be seen as someone not healthy.
Marketing
The term halo effect is used in marketing to explain customer bias toward certain products
because of favorable experience with other products made by the same company. It is used
in the part of brand marketing called "line extensions".
Assessment in school
Research has found that the halo effect may play a role in educational settings. Teachers may
interact with students differently based on perceptions of attractiveness.
Workplace
There are a number of ways that the halo effect can influence perceptions of others in work
settings. For example, experts suggest that the halo effect is one of the most common biases
affecting performance appraisals and reviews.
Supervisors may rate subordinates based on the perception of a single characteristic rather
than the whole of their performance and contribution. For example, a worker's enthusiasm or
positive attitude may overshadow their lack of knowledge or skill, causing co-workers to
rate them more highly than their actual performance justifies.
Political Effects
Researchers have shown that perceived physical and vocal attractiveness (or their opposite)
lead to bias in judgment. A 2010 study found that attractiveness and familiarity are strong
predictors of decisions regarding who is put in a position of leadership.

4. Is there any relationship between learned behaviour and halo effect?

This tendency is a learned behavior that everyone experiences from the time they are children.
In fairytales such as, Cinderella, those who are good are often presented as beautiful
princesses and handsome princes, while the ‘evil doers' are often referred to as ‘ugly step
sisters' or ‘beasts'. The attractive characters are often portrayed as honest and trustworthy,
while unattractive ones are crooks and villains.
It is apparent that one's first impressions of another affect their successive interactions and
that one's expectations influence another's behavior . But can a pupil's attractiveness also
influence a teacher's judgment on that student's IQ, social status with peers, parental attitude
toward school, and future educational accomplishments? Yes, studies show that teachers did
perceive attractive children to have a greater potential for education than those who were
unattractive.
Another place in society where the halo effect appears is within the work environment.
Though this is tackled in human resource training it is said to be an unconscious judgment
and even if we were told that our judgments are affected by the halo effect, we may still have
no clue when it influences us.

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Discussion:
The halo effect occurs because human social perception is a constructive process. When we
form impressions of others, we do not rely solely on objective information; instead, we
actively construct an image that fits in with what we already know.
Having an awareness of the halo effect can help us understand how it affects our lives.
Though being aware of the halo effect does not eliminate the bias from our lives, it can
certainly help to improve our objective decision-making abilities.
In consumerism/ school/ workplace etc, the Halo Effect, when achieved, can be one of the
most powerful asset.

Conclusion:
In terms of the cognitive bias, the halo represents the positive light that we place upon people
or things because of certain external characteristics. Because of their apparent halo-like
qualities, we may be subject to overestimating the worth of people or things.Thus, to
conclude we can say that we cannot judge a person/brand/services on the basis of physical
attractiveness/aesthetics or any one positive aspect, everything needs to be taken into
consideration.

References:
Thorndike, E.L.A constant error in psychological ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology,
1920, 4, 25-29.
www.verywellmind.com
www.simplypsychology.org
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/92158/TheHaloEffect.pdf

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