Untitled

POST GRADUATE COURSE IN PIPING ENGINEERING – PROGRAM PLAN
Module No. Module Description

1 Introduction to Piping
2 Piping Components
3 Piping Materials
4 Piping Codes and Standards
5 Fabrication and Installation of Piping
6 Valves & Flanges
7 Piping Layout
8 Piping Design Base
9 Stress Analysis of Piping
10 Pipe Supports
11 Heat tracing and Thermal Insulation
12 Flow of Fluids
13 Corrosion resistance and Protection
14 Pressure and Leak Testing of Piping systems
15 Marine and Offshore Piping Systems

a. Offshore Production Platforms
b. Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
c. Floating Production Storage and Offloading systems

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO PIPING
Piping System in an Industrial Plant is similar to the Arteries & Veins of Human Body.
Piping is used for marine, transportation, civil engineering and for commercial purposes.
Process piping is used to transport fluids between storage tanks and processing units.
Service piping is used to convey steam, air, water etc for processing. Liquids, Vapors,
Slurries, Solids etc. flow through a Piping System under Various Conditions (Pressure,
Temperature etc.) depending on the Industry/ Service. The piping System are an essential
and integral part of our modern civilization as arteries and veins are essential to the
human body.
1.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION OF PIPING SYSTEM

• To convey oil, gas and other thuds in refineries, petrochemical plant, oil
producing offshore platforms etc.
• To carry liquids, chemicals, gases, vapors etc from one location to another in
chemical plants, paper mills food processing plants and other similar industrial
establishments.
• To convey high pressure high temperature steam in a thermal power plant.
• To transport water from sources of water supply to points of distributor
TYPICAL SERVICE CONDITIONS
Piping Network is subjected to various server conditions such as:-

High Temperature
Cryogenic (Sub- Zero) Temperature
High pressure
Low pressure (Vacuum)
High Flow velocity
Erosion
Corrosion
Hazardous Toxic Substances
Combination of Above Conditions
Depending on the Criticality of the Service Conditions, Piping System has to be designed
to with stand the process conditions.
DIFFRENCE BETWEEN PIPING & PIPLINES
Piping System
It carries Fluids from & to various equipment within a plant boundary.
• Fluids like oil, gas etc flows between various equipments
within a refinery
• Piping Network within a chemical plant, Petrochemical
plant, power plant etc.
Pipelines
Transport Fluids from one Facility to another facility
• Crude oil from an offshore platform is Transported to an onshore refinery
through a Sub-Sea pipelines
• By products from a refinery is transported to a petrochemical plant through
Pipeline
• Crude oil from one country or state can be transported to another country or
State through Pipeline
WHAT A PIPING ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW ABOUT?
Piping Engineer needs a wide Engineering knowledge, not necessarily in depth but
certainly in understanding
He must also have an understanding of
Engineering Economic + Cost
Metallurgy
Methods of Pipe fabrication & Erection
Sufficient knowledge of Structural Engineering Since the Piping Systems
has to be properly designed & supported so as to avoid any overstresses,
forces and movements On the connected equipment like pumps,
compressors, vessels etc on the supporting Structures or on the Piping
System itself.
Good knowledge of safety codes & Practices
Conversant with Drafting procedures & practices
1.2 IMPACT OF PIPING ON PLANT INVESTMENT
(TYPICAL FOR REFINERY, PETROCHEMICALS,

AND CHEMICAL PLANT ETC.)
MATERIAL COST
It can be seen that excluding the major equipment cost, piping is the largest plant cost
component
DESIGN OFFICE MAN HOURS
Typically, 45% of the total design office man hours will be for Engineering design and
50% of the engineering man hours will be consumed by piping department.
FIELD LABOUR COST
It can be seen that 47% of the field Labor cost (Fabrication & Erection) is attributed to
Piping.
1.3 RESPONSIBILITY OF A PIPING ENGINEER
Piping Engineer is responsible for substantial part of total project cost.

Completion of Piping activities on time is critical to completion of the project in
time.
A piping Engineer should pay specific attention to the following aspects.
ADEQUACY
Piping design must be adequate to meet the process specification & Physical conditions
in which the plant is to operate.
ECONOMY:-
Adequate design must be achieved at an Economic cost with in the project budget.
Design Should be optimized to minimize the overall project cost as well as operations &
Maintenance costs of the facility
CLARITY & ACCURACY
Piping Engineer has to Interact with various other departments like process, Mechanical,
civil Structural, instrumentation, electrical .Piping Engineer will require data from many
or all of the above departments to carry out his design similarly Piping design data will be
used by various departments to finalize their design. Hence clarity &accuracy of piping
design works is very important to avoid mistakes and rectifications at a later stage which
many prove to be very costly and can delay the project completion
CHAPTER I I
PIPING COMPONENTS
To connect the various process and utility equipment contained within a process plant, it
is necessary to use an assortment of piping components that, when used collectively, are
called a piping system. It conveys fluid between locations.
Piping system includes:
• Pipe
• Fittings (e.g. elbows, reducers, branch connections, etc.)
• Flanges, gaskets, bolting
• Valves
• Pipe supports
2.1. PIPE
It is a tubular item made of metal, plastic, glass etc meant for conveying liquids, gas or any
thing that flow. Pipe is the main artery that connects the various pieces of process and utility
equipment within a process plant. Although it can be considered to be the least complex
component within a piping system it is not without its peculiarities. Pipe used within a
process plant designed to one of the ASME B31 codes generally is of a metallic construction
such as carbon steel, stainless steel, duplex, copper, or to a lesser degree, one of the more
exotic metals like Monel or titanium. Nonmetallic pipe such as one of the plastics, like PVC,
glass epoxy, or glass-reinforced plastic, are not prohibited, and each has its own set of
characteristics. Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is a plastic reinforced by fine fibers of glass.
The plastic most commonly used is polyester or vinyl ester, but other plastics, such as epoxy,
can be used to make glass-reinforced epoxy (GRE). As metallic pipe is by far the most
commonly used material used in a piping system Circular in shape, pipe is identified in the
various industry codes, standards, and specifications as a nominal pipe size (NPS), in U.S.
customary units, or in diameter nominal (DN) metric units, with a wall thickness.
Cast pipe
Cast-Iron Pipe. There are four basic types of cast iron: white iron, gray iron, ductile iron and
malleable iron. is used primarily in gravity flow applications such as storm and sanitary
sewers, and waste and vent piping installations. Residential, commercial, and industrial
facilities routinely are built with some form of gravity flow systems. The corrosion resistance
properties of cast iron pipe make it the ideal product for permanent belowground gravity flow
installations. Cast-iron pipe is extensively used for underlying water, sewage, and gas
distribution Systems because of its long life expectancy.
Plastic pipes
Now plastic pipes are developed, instead of metallic pipes in certain applications. For
piping systems, two categories are most effective: fluoroplastics and thermoplastics.
Fluoroplastics are found in materials like PTFE, PVDF, ECTFE, CTFE, PFA, and FEP. As a
group, fluoroplastics perform extremely well in aggressive chemical services at temperatures
from –328 F° to +500 F°. Thermoplastics are those that require melting during the
manufacturing process. These plastics can be welded or injection molded into shapes for
machining into piping system components.
Manufacturing methods
Carbon steel pipe can be manufactured using several different techniques, each of which
produces a pipe with certain characteristics. These characteristics include strength, wall
thickness, corrosion resistance, and temperature and pressure limitations. For example,
pipes having the same wall thickness but manufactured by different methods may vary in
strength and pressure limits.
The manufacturing methods are given below
• Seamless
• Butt-welded
• Spiral-welded pipe.
Seamless pipe
It is formed by piercing a solid, near-molten, steel rod, called a billet, with a mandrel to
produce a pipe that has no seams or joints.
Seamless pipe
Butt-welded pipe
Longitudinally welded pipe is created by feeding hot steel plate through shapers that roll
the plate into a hollow circular section. The two edges of the pipe are squeezed together
and welded. Welding can be two types
Electric Resistance Welding: The edges of the pipe are heated to the welding temperature
by their resistance to the flow of electric current. At the appropriate welding temperature,
roller forces the edges together. ERW is not strong as EFW. It is cheaper compared to the
other. This type of welding is used in water service pipe. Quality factor E is 0.85 for
ERW.
Electric Fusion Welding: Welding of CS and low alloy steel is accomplished by
submerged arc welding, an automatic electric arc process is used with the filler metal
coming from the electrode supplying the electric arc. This welding is more strong
compared to ERW. Quality factor E is 1 for EFW if 100% RT is done
I
Butt-welded pipe
Spiral-welded pipe
Spiral-welded pipe is formed by twisting strips of metal into a spiral shape, similar to a
barber’s pole, then welding where the edges join one another to form a seam. This type of
pipe is restricted to piping systems using low pressures due to its thin walls.
Spiral-welded pipe
Carbon steel pipe

SIZING OF PIPE
Pipe is identified by three different size categories: Nominal Pipe Size (NPS), outside
diameter (OD), and inside diameter (ID).
Nominal pipe size (NPS) is a dimensionless designator of pipe size. It indicates standard
pipe size when followed by the specific size designation number without an inch symbol.
ASME Standards for Pipe Dimension
● ASME B36.10M Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
● ASME B36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe
Diameter nominal (DN) is also a dimensionless designator of pipe size in the metric unit
system, developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). It indicates
standard pipe size when followed by the specific size designation number without a
millimeter symbol.
Pipe Wall Thickness
Pipe Wall Thickness is designated by Schedule is expressed in numbers (5, 5S, 10, 10S,
20, 20S, 30, 40, 40S, 60, 80, 80S, 100, 120, 140, 160).
2.2. WAYS OF JOINING CABON STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL
1. WELD CONNECTION
(a) BUTT WELD CONNECTION: A butt-weld joint is made by welding the beveled
ends of pipe together. Beveled ends (BE) indicate that the ends of the pipe are not cut
square, but rather are cut or ground to have a tapered edge. In preparation for the welding
process, a welder will separate two pieces of pipe by a 1/16” space, known as a root gap.
During the welding process, the two ends are drawn together and the 1/16” gap
disappears. In small pipes butt weld causes problems for flow.
(b) SOCKET WELD CONNECTION: When assembling pipe with socket-weld fittings,
the pipe is inserted into the fitting before welding, unlike a butt-weld connection that has
the pipe and fitting placed end-to-end. Inside the socket-weld fitting is a collar that
prevents the pipe from being inserted too deeply into the fitting.
2. SCREWED OR THREADED CONNECTION

Typically used on pipe 3” and smaller, threaded connections are generally referred to as
screwed pipe. With tapered grooves cut into the ends of a run of pipe, screwed pipe and
screwed fittings can easily be assembled without welding or other permanent means of
attachment. Screwed pipe and its mating fittings will have threads that are either male or
female. Male threads are cut into the outside of a pipe or fitting, while female threads are
cut into the inside of the fitting.
3. FLANGED CONNECTION
Flanged joints are a mechanical, nonpermanent method of joining two flanged piping
components and one of the most commonly used methods of joining together pipe to
pipe, pipe to fitting, and pipe to valve. It is a mechanical joint that, if assembled correctly,
using the correct components and the right bolting procedure, results in a leak free
connection that can be dismantled and reassembled, if necessary. A flange is an integral
fitting with two distinct areas; the flange blade with the bolt holes and the sealing face.
The flange hub with the pipe connection ends.
2.3. JOINING OF CAST IRON PIPES:
1. COMPRESSION JOINT
The compression joint uses a one-piece rubber gasket to create a leak-proof seal. As
shown in Figure, when the spigot end of the pipe is placed into the hub containing a
gasket, the joint is sealed by displacing and compressing the rubber gasket. Unlike
welded pipe, this joint can absorb vibration and can be deflected up to 5° without leakage
or failure.
2. LEAD AND OAKUM JOINT
The lead and oakum joint is made with oakum fiber and molten lead to create a strong,
yet flexible, leak-proof and root-proof joint. When the molten lead is poured over the
waterproof oakum fiber, which is a loose, oil laden, hemp-like packing material, the joint
becomes completely sealed. Water will not leak out and, when used underground, roots
cannot grow through the joints.
3. HUBLESS PIPE COUPLING

This method of joining these pipe and fittings uses a hubless coupling that slips over the
plain ends of the pipe and fittings and is tightened to seal the ends. Hubless cast iron pipe
is made in only one wall thickness and ranges in diameter from 1½ “to 10”.
2.4. JOINING OF PLASTIC PIPES
Plastic pipes can be joined one of the following methods
1. Threading
2. Solvent cement method
3. Fusion
Threading plastic pipe is not a viable option because it is expensive. Heavy wall
thicknesses are required, and leaks from high pressures and expansion and contraction are
difficult to control. Joints made with solvent cement have proven more reliable. Though,
once hardened, cemented joints cannot be disassembled. They offer good resistance to
abrasive chemical and high-pressure commodities and are available in a large selection of
fittings without the need of threads. Heat fusion must be performed on some plastic
compounds that are resistant to chemical solvents. Pipe can either be butt joined or
socket-joined. Heat fusion can be used with thinner wall thicknesses and are pressure
resistant beyond the burst pressure of the pipe. Socket fittings provide large surface
contact between pipe and fittings and are resistant to separation. For this reason they
cannot be disassembled.
2.5 PIPE NOTATION

Pipe can be represented on drawings as either single line or double line. Pipe 12” and
smaller is typically drawn single line and pipe 14” and larger is drawn double line.
Single-line drawings are used to identify the centerline of the pipe. Double lines are used
to represent the pipe’s nominal size diameter.
2.6. PIPE ENDS

Pipe ends can be supplied in several variations; these are the most commonly specified
within ASME B3 1.3 are
1. Plain end (PE), usually pipe 2" and below.
2. Threaded end (TE), usually pipe 2" and below.
3. Butt weld (BW) or weld end.
Plain end pipe is simply a cut 900 perpendiculars to the outside diameter of the pipe that
passes through the centerline of the pipe to the opposite side. It is also called a square cut,
because of the 900 angle. Plain end pipe can be re prepared to form either threaded or
butt-weld ends. A threaded end joint also has a specific geometry, depending on the wall
thickness of the pipe. A butt-weld (or weld-end) joint also has specific geometry
depending on the wall thickness of pipe; and this is specified in ASME B16.25
2.7. PIPE FITTINGS
Pipe fitting components complement straight pipe, and within a piping system, both must
be chemically and mechanically compatible. Pipe fitting components are used for one or
more functions:
• Produce change in geometry
• Modify flow direction
• Bring pipes together
• Alter pipe diameter
• Terminate pipe
Fittings
1. ELBOW
a. 900 ELBOW
b. 450 ELBOW
c. 900 ROLED AT 450
d. MITERED ELBOWS
e. REDUCING ELBOWS
2. TEE
a. STRAGHT TEE
b. REDUCING TEE
c. CROSSE TEE
3. THE STUB-IN CONNECTINS
4. COUPLING
5. REDUCER
a. CONCENTRIC REDUCER
b. ECCENTRIC REDUCER
6. WELD CAP
7. SCREWED AND SOCKET-WELD FITTINGS

a. UNIONS
b. PLUGS
c. COUPLING
8. PIPE NIPPLES
9. SWAGE
1. ELBOW
Simply put, the elbow, or ell, is used when a pipe changes direction. Elbows can turn up,
turn down, turwen left, right, or any angle in between.
a. 900 elbow
b. 450 elbow
c. 900 rolled at 450
a. 900 ELBOW
Ninety degree ells can be classified as follows
• long-radius ell
• short-radius ell
• mitered ell
• reducing ell
Long-radius elbow
Nominal pipe size × 1½ = fitting’s length.
Manufacturers issue dimensioning charts containing lengths for a particular fitting.
Center-to-end dimension of the long radius elbow

900 Long-radius elbow drafting symbol
SHORT-RADIUS ELBOW
The 90° short-radius ell makes a much sharper turn than does the long-radius ell.
Nominal pipe size × 1 = fitting’s length
Center-to-end dimension of the short radius elbow
900Short-radius elbow drafting symbol

Long-radius and short radius elbows
Mitered Elbows
The mitered elbow is not an actual fitting, but instead is a manufactured turn in the piping
system. This elbow is made by making angular cuts in a straight run of pipe and then
welding the cuts together after they have been rolled to a different angle. The mitered ell
may be classified as one, two, three, or four weld miters. The number of welds used
depends on the smoothness of flow required through the turn. A two weld miter will
create more turbulence within the pipe than will a four-weld miter.
Mitered elbows
Miter elbow drafting symbols
Reducing elbow
Normally reducing elbows are not used the pressure drop due to reducing elbows are large. it
is not efficient one.
Reducing Elbow
There are two reasons for pressure drop, one is the size reduction and the other one is it also
changes the direction. Reducing elbows are highly expensive. it used only in the un avoidable
situation.
450 elbow
This elbow is also used to make changes in direction within the piping system. The
obvious difference between the 90° and 45° elbows is the angle formed by the turn. It is
logical, therefore, to assume a design using two 45° ells to make a directional change
instead of two 90° elbows would result in considerable savings. These savings are not
only related to the cost of the fittings but also to savings in the physical space needed to
route the pipe. Unlike the 90° ell, there is not a formula that can be applied to establish
the center-to-end dimension of the 45° ell. Simply dividing the length of the 90° elbow
by two will not work.
450elbow
450elbow drafting symbols
90° Elbow Rolled at 45°
Many times to avoid using two 90° elbows in succession, designers will use one 90° ell
and a 45° ell welded together. In some orthographic views, these elbows will appear at an
angle to our line of sight. In those views where the open end of the elbow appears at an
angle to our line of sight, ellipses must be used to represent the end of the fittings.
900 elbow rolled at 450 symbols

Orthographic view of 900 rolled at a 450 angle.
Welded Fittings-Flanges Chart
3. TEE
It is a three-way fitting used to make perpendicular connections to a pipe. Lines that

connect to the main run of pipe are known as branches. The main run of pipe is often
called the header.
Header and branch connections
It classified as given below:
2.1 Straight Tee
In this all three outlets are the same pipe size.
2.2 Reducing Tee
In this all branch outlet is a smaller pipe size.
2.3 Crosse Tee
Header and branch connections

Weld Tee symbols
4. The Stub –in
Another method of making a branch connection is called a stub-in. The stub-in is most
commonly used as an alternative to the reducing tee. The stub-in is not an actual fitting
but rather a description of how the branch connection is created. A hole is bored into the
header pipe, either the size of the OD or ID of the branch, and the branch is then stubbed
into it. The two pipes are fitted together and then welded. Although the branch
connection can be the same pipe size or smaller as the header, it cannot be larger.
How close stub-ins are made is an important consideration. A general rule is to allow a
minimum of 3” between welds. This means a minimum of 3” should be allowed between
the outsides of branches made from a common header, and a header should be attached
no closer than 3” to a fitting.
Stub-in connections
Stub-in symbols
Stub-in Reinforcements
Its chief advantage over the tee is cost. Not only can the cost of purchasing a fitting be
avoided, but the stub-in requires only one weld; whereas, the tee requires three. When
internal conditions such as pressure or temperature of the commodity or external forces
such as vibrations or pulsations are placed on a stub-in, special reinforcement may be
necessary to prevent the branch from separating from the header.
Three reinforcing alternatives are listed below.
Reinforcing pad- Resembling a metal washer that has been bent to conform to the
curvature of the pipe, the reinforcing pad is a ring cut from steel plate that has a hole in
the center equal to the diameter of the branch connection. It is slipped onto the branch
pipe then welded to both branch and header.
Welding saddle-A purchased reinforcing pad, the welding saddle has a short neck
designed to give additional support to the branch.
Reinforcing pad Reinforcing pads and saddles
O-lets- Purchased fittings, o-lets have one end shaped to the contour of the header and the
other end manufactured to accept the type of end connections being used on the branch.
Weldolets are manufactured for butt-weld fittings. Sockolets are made for socket-weld
fittings. And threadolets are available for screwed fittings. Other o-lets are manufactured
to be used to make connections
at angles other than 90°.
The different types of O-lets are given below:
• Weld O-let
• Socket O-let
• Thread O-let
• Elbow O-let
• Sweep O-let
• Lateral O-let
O-lets
Welding minimums for stub-ins
5. COUPLING
Used primarily for connecting small-bore screwed and socket-weld pipe to large-bore
pipe headers, the coupling is also used extensively where instrument connections are
required. There are two common methods used to make branch connections with
couplings:
1. The coupling rests on the external surface of the pipe header and is welded from the
outside.
2. A hole is bored into the pipe header large enough to accept the OD of the coupling.
The coupling is inserted into the hole and is then welded.
Coupling
6. REDUCER
When the piping designer wants to reduce the diameter of a straight run of pipe, a
reducing fitting must be used. It classified as two types given below:
6.1 Concentric Reducer
It has a common centerline. The concentric reducer maintains the same centerline at both
the large and small ends of the fitting. Using a concentric reducer in a piperack would not
permit the small diameter end of the pipe run to rest on a pipe support.
6.2 Eccentric Reducer

It has offset centerlines. The eccentric reducer has offset centerlines that will maintain a
flat side on the top or the bottom of the fitting, depending on how the fitting is rolled
prior to welding.
The eccentric reducer is used in pipe racks to maintain a constant bottom of pipe (BOP).
Because pipe supports within a piperack are of the same elevation, a pipe must have a
consistent bottom of pipe elevation so it can rest on each support throughout its entire
length. Using a concentric reducer in a piperack would not permit the small diameter end
of the pipe run to rest on a pipe support. Eccentric reducers are also used on pump suction
nozzles to keep entrained air from entering the pump. By keeping a flat on top (FOT)
surface, vapor pockets can be eliminated. Shows the centerlines of the eccentric reducer
in its FOT and FOB orientations.
Eccentric and concentric reducer

Eccentric Reducers
Concentric and eccentric drawing symbols

7. WELD CAP
It is used to seal an open end of pipe. When dimensioning the positional location of a
weld cap on a drawing, indicate only the length of the run of pipe. The cap will be welded
to the end and need not be included in the length dimension of the run of pipe. The weld
cap is another fitting that is drawn as a double- line symbol for all sizes of pipe. When
representing the cap on a drawing, use an ellipse to construct the round end of the fitting.
Weld Cap Weld Cap drawing symbols

8. SCREWED AND SOCKET- WELD FITTINGS
Screwed and socket-weld fittings perform the same basic functions as butt-weld fittings.
Screwed and socket-weld fittings are normally reserved for installations using fittings 3”
and smaller. Screwed and socket weld fittings are also available in cast iron, malleable
iron, or forged steel. Cast iron and malleable iron fittings are typically used on low
pressure and temperature lines such as air, water, or condensate. Lines containing high
pressure and temperature commodities, which are subject to movement and vibration,
require fittings made of forged steel. Forged steel screwed and socket-weld fittings are
manufactured in two pressure classes—3000# and 6000#. Screwed and socket-weld
fittings differ in size and shape, but they achieve the same purpose as the butt weld
fittings. Screwed and socket-weld fittings are drawn with square corners using short hash
marks to represent the ends of the fitting.
Screwed fittings dimensioning chart

Socket-weld fitting dimensioning chart
8.1 Unions
The union is a fitting placed within a piping configuration that will allow the assembly to
be disassembled for inspection, repair, or replacement. Unions should be positioned in
locations that will facilitate the easy removal of critical pieces of equipment.
8.2 Plug
The plug, like a cap, is designed to close off the end of a run of pipe. Plugs are
manufactured for screwed fittings with male threads and are screwed into the end of a
pipe to create a seal.
8.3 Coupling
Although this fitting is used in butt-welding applications as a branch connection, its
primary use is to connect lengths of screwed and socket-weld pipe together.
Unions Plug Coupling
9. PIPE NIPPLES
By design, screwed and socket-weld fittings cannot be assembled by placing one fitting
directly in contact with another fitting. Screwed fittings are manufactured with threads on
the inside of the fitting, and socket-weld fittings have an internal socket that prevents
fitting makeup assembly. To facilitate the assembly of screwed and socket-weld fittings,
small lengths of pipe called pipe nipples are used between fittings. Pipe nipples can vary
in length depending upon the distance required to fabricate the pipe configuration. A
close nipple is one that provides the minimum length of pipe between fittings.
Remember, screwed and socket-weld fittings have a certain amount of lost pipe due to
thread engagement and socket depth. Therefore, each size pipe has a different minimum
length for the dimension of a close nipple. Many companies will use 3” as the standard
minimum for pipe nipples. This length will accommodate the amount of pipe lost inside
the fitting on each end as well as provide sufficient wrench clearance during assembly for
the larger screwed and socket-weld pipe sizes.
Pipe Nipples
10. SWAGE
One exception to the standard 3” minimum rule is the swage nipple. Swages are
functionally similar to reducers, but are specifically designed for screwed and socketweld
pipe. Screwed swages have male (external) threads and can be connected to other
screwed fittings without the
use of a pipe nipple. They are used to make reductions in the line size on a straight run of
pipe. Swages, like reducers, are available in either a concentric or eccentric shape.
Swage
USE OF FITTINGS
Depending on the given situation, fittings will either be welded to each other or separated
by lengths of pipe. Welding one fitting directly to another is called fitting makeup. Most
situations involving the erection of the piping system require the designer to use pipe of
various lengths between the fittings. In these cases, pipe is cut to the required length and
the ends are beveled in preparation for welding to the fittings. When fittings are not
assembled as fitting make-up and are separated by a piece of pipe, most companies
stipulate the pipe must be at least one pipe diameter (nominal size) in length with a 3”
minimum spacing for pipe 6” and smaller. By maintaining this minimum spacing
between welds, a pipe can conveniently be cut, beveled, and welded without
interference.The 3” minimum spacing is a standard used throughout the piping industry.
Fitting Make-up and minimum pipe lengths
Internal and external threads

Socket-weld fittings
CHAPTER III
PIPING MATERIALS
Carbon steel is the workhorse of industry, and coupled with an adequate corrosion
allowance, this material can cover most eventualities. Low-temperature carbon steel is
used for subzero temperatures and low-alloy carbon steel is used at elevated
temperatures. After carbon steel, stainless steel is the next most used metal, followed by
the duplexes and more exotic metals. The construction material for process piping still is
dominated by the use of carbon steel, low-alloy carbon steel, low-temperature carbon
steel, and supported by the numerous stainless steels grades. The selection of material to
be used within a piping system is the responsibility of the metallurgist, corrosion
engineer, who creates a material selection report that identifies what base material must
be used in both process and utility systems. This MSR forms the basis from which the
piping material classes are created to cover the numerous fluids at various pressures and
temperatures within the process plant. Piping engineers do not necessarily have to know
the fine details of this specialist field; however, they should be aware why the
metallurgist came to his or her conclusion.
The most common used Piping Material is API 5L Gr.B and ASTM 106 Gr.B
3.1 .PIPING MATERIAL SELECTION
The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires consideration
of material characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material selected must be
suitable for the flow medium and the given operating conditions of temperature and
pressure safely during the intended design life of the product. Mechanical strength must
be appropriate for long-term service, and resist operational variables such as thermal or
mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature can raise issues with material
capabilities ranging from brittle fracture toughness at low temperatures to adequacy of
creep strength and oxidation resistance at the other end of the temperature spectrum.
In addition, the operating environment surrounding the pipe or piping component must be
considered. Degradation of material properties or loss of effective load-carrying cross
section can occur through corrosion, erosion, or a combination of the two. The nature of
the substances that are contained by the piping is also an important factor. The
fabricability characteristics of the materials being considered must also be taken into
account. The ability to be bent or formed, suitability for welding or other methods of
joining, ease of heat treatment, and uniformity and stability of the resultant
microstructure and properties all of a given piping material contribute toward or detract
from its attractiveness and economy. The selection process should lead to the most
economical material that meets the requirements of the service conditions and codes and
standards that apply. Applicable design and construction codes such as the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code and the ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code identify acceptable
materials for piping systems within their jurisdiction. These codes specify the design
rules, allowable design stresses, and other properties required to accomplish the design
task. However, the information supplied is generally only adequate and intended to assure
safe operation under the thermal and mechanical conditions expected under steady-state
and sometimes (as in nuclear construction) cyclic operation. These codes do not directly
and explicitly address the many other environmental and material degradation issues that
should be considered by design and materials engineers in arriving at a piping system that
is not only safe to operate but will offer long-term, reliable service and function. Thus,
simply designing to ‘‘the Code’’ when selecting materials can sometimes lead to
premature end-of-life of piping system components.
WHAT IS A PIPING MATERIAL ENGINEER?
The role of the piping engineer, who is responsible for the quality of piping material,
fabrication, testing, and inspection in a project and the major activities such engineers are
expected to perform. This individual can be employed by either the EPC (engineering,
procurement, and construction) contractor or the operator/ end user.
1. Job Title
The piping engineer, the individual responsible for creating the project piping classes and
the numerous piping specifications necessary to fabricate, test, insulate, and paint the
piping systems, is titled either the piping material engineer or the piping spec writer.
2. Job Scope
Whatever the title, the piping material engineer (PME) is a very important person within
the Piping Design Group and should be dedicated to a project from the bid stage until the
design phase has been completed. He or she should also be available during construction
and through to mechanical completion. The lead piping material engineer, the individual
responsible for all piping engineering functions, usually reports directly to the project
lead piping engineer, and depending on the size of the project, the lead piping material
engineer may be assisted by a number of suitably qualified piping material engineers
especially during the peak period of the project. This peak period is early in the job, while
the piping classes are being developed and the first bulk inquiry requisitions are sent out
to vendors.
3. The Piping Material Engineer’s Responsibilities

The piping material engineer’s responsibilities vary from company to company. Here is a
list of typical functions that he or she is expected to perform:
• Develop the project piping classes for all process and utility services.
• Write specifications for fabrication, shop and field testing, insulation, and
painting.
• Create and maintain all data sheets for process and utility valves.
• Create a list of piping specials, such as hoses and hose couplings, steam traps,
interlocks.
• Create and maintain data sheets for these piping special (SP) items.
• Assemble a piping material requisition with all additional documents.
• Review offers from vendors and create a technical bid evaluation.
• Make a technical recommendation.
• After placement of a purchase order, review and approve documentation from
vendors related to piping components.
• When required, visit the vendor’s premises to attend kickoff meetings, the testing
of piping components, or clarification meetings.
• Liaise with the following departments: Piping Design and Stress, Process,
Instrumentation, Vessels, Mechanical, Structural, Procurement, Material control.
4. Qualities of an Engineer
Not only is it essential that a piping material engineer be experienced in several piping
sectors, such as design, construction, and stress, he or she must also be a good
communicator, to guarantee that everyone in the piping group is aware of the materials of
construction that can be used for piping systems. The PME must also have a basic
understanding of other disciplines having interface with the piping, such as mechanical,
process, instrumentation, and structural engineering. He or she should also be aware of
the corrosion characteristics of piping material and welding processes necessary for the
fabrication of piping systems. Both corrosion and welding engineering are specialist
subjects, and if the PME has any doubts, he or she must turn to a specialist engineer for
advice.
5. Experience
There is no substitute for experience, and the piping material engineer should have
strengths in several sectors and be confident with a number of others disciplines, to
enable the individual to arrive at a suitable conclusion when selecting material for piping
systems. Strong areas should include piping design layout and process requirements.
Familiar areas should include the following:
• Corrosion.
• Welding.
• Piping stress.
• Static equipment.
• Rotating equipment.
• Instruments
PIPING MATERIAL ENGINEER’S ACTIVITIES
Outlined here are the principal activities of a piping material engineer. These are listed in
chronological order as they would arise as a project develops from preliminary to detailed
design.
1. Development of the Project Piping Classes
All process plants have of two types of principal piping systems: process (primary and
secondary) piping systems and utility piping systems.
Process piping systems are the arteries of a process plant. They receive the feedstock,
carry the product through the various items of process equipment for treatment, and
finally deliver the refined fluid to the battery limits for transportation to the next facility
for further refinement. Process piping systems can be further divided into primary
process, which is the main process flow, and secondary process, which applies to the
various recycling systems.
Utility piping systems are no less important. They are there to support the primary
process, falling into three groups:
• Support—instrument air, cooling water, steam.
• Maintenance—plant air, nitrogen.
• Protection—foam and firewater.
There are other utility services such as drinking water.
Piping Class
Each piping system is allocated a piping class, which lists all the components required to
construct the piping. A piping class includes the following:
• Process design conditions.
• Corrosion allowance.
• List of piping components.
• Branch table.
• Special assemblies.
• Support notes.
Both process and utility piping systems operate at various temperatures and pressures,
and the following must be analyzed:
• Fluid type—corrosivity, toxicity, viscosity.
• Temperature range.
• Pressure range.
• Size range.
• Method of joining.
• Corrosion allowance.
After analyzing these characteristics, process and utility piping systems can be grouped
into autonomous piping classes. This allows piping systems that share fundamental
characteristics (pipe size range, pressure and temperature limits, and method of joining)
to be classified together.
This standardization or optimization has benefits in the procurement, inspection, and
construction phases of the project. Too little optimization increases the number of piping
classes, making the paperwork at all stages of the project difficult to handle and leading
to confusion, resulting in mistakes. Too much optimization reduces the number of piping
classes, however, as the piping class must satisfy the characteristics of the most severe
service and use the most expensive material. This
means that less-severe services are constructed using more-expensive material, because
the piping class is ‘‘over specified.’’ It is the responsibility of the piping material
engineer to fine-tune this
optimization to the benefit the project.
A typical oil and gas separation process plant may have 10 process piping classes and a
similar number of utility piping classes. More complex petrochemical facilities require a
greater number of piping classes to cover the various process streams and their numerous
temperature and pressure ranges. It is not uncommon for process plants such as these to
have in excess of 50 process and piping classes.
A typical line number is as follows:
Selection of piping material
Material selection is done considering the corrosion properties, strength and engineering
characteristics, relative cost and availability.
The main process considerations are;
• Corrosion properties of the fluid.
• Pressure temperature
• Mechanical consideration are Yield strength, Ultimate Tensile strength ,creep and
Fatigue strength
For process fluids the basic material of construction is specified by the process licensor or
metallurgy specialist. The piping engineer is expected to detail out the same on codes and
standards. The materials for utility service will be selected by piping engineer.
Materials basically classified as follows;
Basic Material Classification given below;

3.2. PIPING MATERIALS
3.2.1 Metals
The most commonly used metallic piping materials are listed in ASME B31.3; however,
materials outside of this list can be used as long as they are supported by the appropriate
data sheets and independent testing reports. All materials have different chemical
compositions, which have an effect on the mechanical and physical characteristics and
their resistance to corrosion at differing temperatures and pressures.
The most commonly used material in the oil and gas industry is carbon steel, which
performs satisfactorily at temperatures between -29°C and 427"C, and it can be used at
the highest ASME and AH pressure ratings. It is very cheap and readily available
material.
Metals used for process piping systems can be divided into two groups:
• Ferrous (iron and iron-base alloys)
• Nonferrous (all other metals and alloys).
Ferrous Metals
The vast majority of piping materials are made from ferrous metals. Iron is one of the
most commonly used metals, but it is rarely found in its purest form, and ferrous metals
are defined as those that contain iron as the base metal. The properties of ferrous metals
may be changed by adding various alloying elements. The chemical, mechanical, and
physical properties need to be combined to produce a metal to serve a specific purpose.
The basic ferrous metal form is pig iron, which is produced in a blast furnace charged
with an iron ore, coke, and limestone. Iron can be found in the form of various mineral
oxides, the principal ones being hematite, limonite, magnetite, and faconite. All ferrous
metals are magnetic and give limited resistance to corrosion. The most commonly used
ferrous metals are cast iron, carbon steel, and stainless steel.
Carbon steel
Carbon steels have a nominal composition of iron with about 1% Manganese and carbon
content varying from 0.05 to 1 weight percentage. Plain carbon steel piping is used for
the majority of service encountered in the petroleum since it is cost effective, easily
fabricated and readily available in the market.
ASME B31.3 allows carbon steel piping to be used up to -200 without toughness testing.
For lower temperature, Impact tested carbon steel grades such as ASTM A333 Grade 1
and ASTM A333 Grade 6
There are basically three general groups of carbon steel, based on their carbon content,
which can vary from between 0.05 and 1.0 weight percent: low-carbon steels (0.05-
0.25% carbon), medium-carbon steels (0.25-0.50% carbon), and high-carbon steels
(0.50% and greater carbon content).
Low-Carbon (Mild) Steel

Mild steel is the most commonly used ferrous metal. Its major properties are toughness,
high tensile strength, and ductility. It contains approximately 0.15-0.25% carbon.
Because of the low carbon content, it cannot be hardened and tempered. It must be case
hardened. It is normally used in manufacturing of girders, plates, nuts and bolts, and other
general steel products.
Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of approximately 0.25-0.50%. It is stronger
and harder than mild steels but has less ductility, toughness, and malleability. It is used in
making steel ropes, wire, garden tools, springs, and the like.
High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel is a ferrous metal that contains approximately 0.50% or more carbon. It
is the hardest of the carbon steels but is less ductile, tough, and malleable.
Alloying of Steel
Alloy Steels are steel to which one or more alloying elements other than carbon and
added to give them special properties.
Normally steel is considered as alloy steel when amount of Manganese, Silicon or copper
exceeds the maximum limits for carbon steel or purposeful addition of element like
Chromium, Molybdenum, Nickel, cobalt etc is done.
Each of the above alloying elements impart special properties to the steel for use in
special services like high temperature above 4270C,presence of Hydrogen in the service
fluid causing Hydrogen attack of the material, acid service etc. Carbon steel can be
combined, alloyed, with a number of other elements that modify the chemical
composition to obtain a wide selection of desired mechanical and physical properties and
create engineering materials. The following list identifies the known effects of adding
certain elements, in known quantities to steel:
Chromium (Cr):- Chromium increases steel's response to heat treatment. It also

increases depth of hardness penetration. Most chromium-bearing alloys contain 0.50-1
SOYO chromium. Stainless steels contain chromium in large quantities, 12-25%,
frequently in combination with nickel, and possess increased resistance to oxidation and
corrosion.
Molybdenum (Mo):- Molybdenum adds to the penetration of hardness and increases
toughness. Molybdenum helps steel to resist softening at high temperatures and is an
important means of assuring high creep strength. It generally is used in comparatively
small quantities, ranging from 0.10 to 0.40%.
Nickel (Ni). Nickel increases strength and toughness but has 4%, although higher
quantities are possible. Steels containing little effect on hardenability. It is added in
quantities of 1 to nickel usually have more impact resistance, especially at low
temperatures. Certain stainless steels employ nickel up to about 20%.
Silicon (Si):-Silicon is one of the common deoxidizers used in the manufacturing of steel.
It also may be present in varying quantities up to 1% in finished steel and has a beneficial
effect on certain properties, such as tensile strength. It is used in special steels in the
range of 1.5 to 2.5% silicon to improve the hardenability. In higher percentages, silicon is
added as an alloy to produce certain electrical characteristics in the so called silicon
electrical steels and finds certain applications in some tool steels, where it seems to have
a hardening and toughening effect.
Sulfur (S). Sulfur is an important element in steel, because when present in relatively
large quantities, it increases machinability. The amount generally used for this purpose is
from 0.06 to 0.30%. Sulfur is detrimental to the hot forming properties.
Manganese (Mn):- Next in importance to carbon is manganese. It normally is present in

all steel and functions both as a deoxidizer and to impart strength and responsiveness to
heat treatment. Manganese usually is present in quantities from 0.5 to 2'30, but certain
special steels are made in the range of 10-1 5%.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steels are used for their corrosion-resistance properties or for subzero centigrade
temperatures. Stainless steels are those ferrous alloys that contain a minimum of 12%
chromium. Austenitic stainless steels are the ones most commonly used in the process
industry, and they possess an excellent combination of strength, ductility, and corrosion
resistance.
Stainless steel types can be divided into the following groups:
• Austenitic,
• Martensitic,
• Ferritic,
• Duplex,
Austenitic
Austenitic grades are the most commonly used stainless steels for process piping
components. Despite the iron present, the austenitic grades are not magnetic. The most
common austenitic alloys are iron/chromium/nickel steels, widely known as the 300
series. The austenitic stainless steels, because of their high chromium and nickel content,
are the most corrosion resistant of the stainless group, providing unusually fine
mechanical properties. They cannot be hardened by heat treatment but can be hardened
significantly by cold working.
Straight Grades
The straight grades of austenitic stainless steel contain a maximum of 0.08% carbon.
The most commonly used austenitic stainless steel grades for piping material components
are 304, 316, and 321.
Low-Carbon Grades
The L suffix after the grade number, for example, 316L, signifies that it is low in carbon.
The low carbon content helps with the weldability and provides extra corrosion resistance
after welding.
It is possible to specify dual certified stainless steel, 316/316L. This material has the
mechanical strength of 316 and the chemical composition of 3 16L. The most commonly
used austenitic stainless steel grades for piping material components are 304L, 316L, and
321L.
High-Carbon Grades
The H suffix after the grade number, for example, 304H, means that the grade can be
used at temperatures higher than that of 304.
Austenitic Steel Grades
Ferritic Grades
Ferritic grades, also 400 series, stainless steel are the least specified in the oil and gas
industry. This type of stainless steel also is magnetic but cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat treatment. Generally, these steels are more corrosion resistant than
the martensitic grades but inferior to the austenitic grades. Ferritic grades are straight
chromium steels with no nickel and most commonly are used for decorative purposes.
Ferritic Steel Grades
Duplex Grades
This material is a combination of austenitic and ferritic materials. The material has higher
strength and superior resistance to stress corrosion cracking than the Ferritic stainless
steels. Initially, duplex stainless steels were introduced for offshore applications. The
benefit from the use of duplex stainless steel is that it combines the basic toughness of the
more common austenitic stainless steels with the higher strength and improved corrosion
resistance of ferritic steels. A significant characteristic of duplex stainless steel is that its
pitting and crevice corrosion resistance is superior to that of standard austenitic alloys.
The two most commonly specified duplex stainless steels are duplex stainless steel and
super duplex steel. The most commonly used grade is UNS 31802. This has 22%
chromium, and 5% molybdenum.
Super Stainless Steels

Super stainless steels are used when austenitic and ferritic/austenitic stainless steels are
inadequate to withstand corrosion attack. They contain very large percentages of nickel
or chrome and molybdenum. This makes them much more expensive than the usual 300
series alloys and not as readily available. These alloys include alloy 20 and Hastelloy.
Nonferrous Metals
Commonly used nonferrous pure metals employed in alloying include aluminum, brass,
copper, tin, titanium, and zinc and their various alloyed types.
The commonly used materials are given below;
• Cupro Nickel
• Monel
• Inconel
Cupro Nickel (90% Cu+ 10% Ni)

The material contained in this are 90% Copper and 10% Nickel. It is mostly used in sea
water service application.
Monel (30% Cu + 67% Ni)

The material contained in this are 30% Copper and 67% Nickel. It is used in sea water
application. This material specially used for Sulphuric acid and Caustic soda solution
application.
Inconel
The materials contained in this are 76%Nickel, 16%Cromium and 8%Iron.It is used for
very high temperature, high resistance to corrosion and high resistance to oxidation at
high temperature application.
3.2.2NON METAL
Lined pipe
Carbon steel pipe internally coated with a protective line is used with corrosive water,
brines and many chemicals. Lines include Teflon, polypropylene, high density poly
ethylene, epoxy and cement materials etc.
3.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

There are numerous material standards for metallic piping components, but the two most
commonly used in ASME B31 code projects are from the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) and the Unified Numbering System (UNS).
American Society for Testing and Materials
It complete with a list of the extent of the coverage of the 67 volumes. Many of these are
not relevant to process piping systems and the process industry The most commonly
referred to volumes for process piping systems designed to ASME B31 codes are the
following:
Section 1, Iron and Steel Products.
Volume 01.01, Steel-Piping, Tubing, Fittings.

Volume 01.02, Ferrous Castings; Ferroalloys.
Volume 01.03, Steel-Plate, Sheet, Strip, Wire.
Volume 01.04, Steel-Structural, Reinforcing, Pressure Vessel, Railway.
Volume 01.05, Steel-Bars, Forgings, Bearing, Chain, Springs.
Volume 01.06, Coated Steel Products.
Volume 01.07, Shipbuilding.
Section 2, Nonferrous Metal Products.
Volume 02.01, Copper and Copper Alloys.

Volume 02.02, Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys.
Volume 02.03, Electrical Conductors.
Volume 02.04, Nonferrous Metals-Nickel, Cobalt, Lead, Tin, Zinc, Cadmium, Precious,
Reactive, Refractory, Metals, and Alloys.
Volume 02.05, Metallic and Inorganic Coatings; Metal Powders, Sintered P/M Structural
Parts.
Section 3, Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures.
Volume 03.01, Metals-Mechanical Testing: Elevated and Low-Temperature Tests,

Metallography.
Volume 03.02, Wear and Erosion, Metal Corrosion.
Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing.
Volume 03.04, Magnetic Properties; Metallic Materials for Thermostats, Electrical
Heating and Resistance, Heating, Contacts, and Connectors.
Volume 03.05, Analytical Chemistry of Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (I).
Volume 03.06, Analytical Chemistry of Metals, Ores, and Related Materials (11).
Section 8, Plastics.
Volume 08.01, Plastics (I): C 177-D 1600.

Volume 08.02, Plastics (11): D 1601-D 3099.
Volume 08.03, Plastics (111): D 3100-Latest.
Volume 08.04, Plastic Pipe and Building Products.
Section 9, Rubber.
Volume 09.01, Rubber, Natural, and Synthetic-General

Test Methods; Carbon Black.
Volume 09.02, Rubber Products, Industria$- Specifications and Related Test Mkthods;
Gaskets; Tires.
Section 00, Index.
Volume 00.01, Subject Index and Alphanumeric List.

Unified Numbering System of Ferrous Metals and Alloys
The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys provides methods of correlating
many internationally used metal and alloy numbering systems currently published by
engineering bodies, societies, trade associations, and producers of metals 2nd alloys. This
numbering system is not limited to the oil and gas industry; it is commonly referred to
through most engineering industries. The system helps avoid the confusion caused by the
use of more than one identification number for the same type of metal or alloy. Such
uniformity provides an efficient method for referencing and cross referencing material
types.
The UNS identifies nine series of designations for ferrous metals and their alloys. Each
UNS designation consists of a single-letter prefix followed by five digits. In most cases
the letter is suggestive of the family of metals identified; for example, A for aluminum, F
for cast irons, T
for tool steel, and S for stainless steels. The cross-referenced specifications in Table 3-5
are representative only and are not necessarily a complete list of specifications applicable
to a particular UNS designation. The table is an outline of the organization of UNS
designations.
3.4 PIPING CLASS
For any project a set of piping classes will be developed to cover the piping material to be
used for combination of various service fluids, pressure, temperature etc.
Each piping class specifies the fluid service, pressure, temperature conditions etc for
which that piping class has to be used. Then it specifies the details of all the piping
components for the times that meant those set of conditions. Each piping class will be
identified by a unique alphanumeric designation. The line will indicate the piping class
number along with other details.
The line number will be indicate the piping class number along with other details
A typical line is as follows:-
2”-R-2472-BIA-Ih
Sour Service Applications
A fluid is called ‘sour’ it if has hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) contents. H2 S will cause various
types of failures to the normal piping materials. Also, any type of the material and
subsequent leak of H2 S gas is extremely dangerous to human life.
Hence any material to use in sour services should meet special requirement mentioned in
the standard.
Eg: NACE-MR-0175/ ISO-15156
PIPING MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES ARE ON
FOLLOWS
• Carbon Steel - -29ºc to + 427ºc
• Impact tested low temperature carbon steel - -29ºc to -46ºc.
• Stainless steel – Below -46ºc and corrosive services.
• Alloy steel – above 427ºc
Killed carbon steel
Impact tested carbon steel
The activities of a piping material engineer in a project

1. Prepare Piping classes for the project
2. Prepare detailed specifications for the piping components.
3. Prepare data sheet for valves and specialty items.
4. Estimation of qualities from drawings (material take off)
5. Grouping the items and prepare material requisition for purchase of the materials.
6. Technical evaluation of the bids received.
7. Vendor drawing checking and approval
8. Material control and receipt at site.
9. Substitution.
10. Material reconciliation.
1. Prepare the Piping classes for the project

Piping class is the base document for material selection .Base material is selected by
process engineer with metallurgical engineer.
2.Prepare detailed specifications for the piping components
3.Prepare data sheet for valves and specialty items.

4.Estimation of qualities from drawings (material take off)
Successful combination of projects depends on correct estimation of piping
quantities. Piping material engineer will prepare MTO from Layout, Isometrics etc.
Following are the different stages of MTO:-
a) Preliminary MTO:-
We cannot weight till the piping design drawings are finalized to start the material
procurement activities. Hence at the beginning of the project itself some kinds of
reasonable estimate has to be done to get the piping quantities. This is called the
preliminary MTO.
For a preliminary MTO, the following documents are needed:-
• P& ID from process dept
• Line list from process dept.
• Piping specifications (Classes)
• Equipment layout/piping studies
From the P&IDs all the major valves, specialty items etc can be estimated to about
75-80% accuracy.
Also with the help of equipment layouts and piping studies, the pipe lengths and
fittings can be estimated to an accuracy of about 50-60%.
b) Intermediate MTO:-
Once the piping general arrangement drawings (GAD) are prepared, a second MTO
called intermediate MTO is taken with an accuracy of about 90-95%
c) Final MTO:-
The final MTO is prepared based on final piping isometrics.
5.Grouping the items and prepare material requisition for purchase of the
materials.
6.Technical evaluation of the bids received.
7.Vendor drawing checking and approval
8.Material control and receipt at site.

9.Substitution.
10.Material reconciliation.
CHAPTER IV
PIPING CODES AND STANDARDS
4.1 Introduction
Compliance to a code generally is mandatory, imposed by regulatory and enforcement

agencies or their representatives. Also, the insurance company for the facility requires the
owner to comply with the requirements of the relevant code or codes to ensure the safety
of the workers and the general public. Compliance to standards normally is required by
the rules of the applicable code or the purchaser’s specification.
Codes are a broad-based set of guidelines that govern the total scope of a project.A code
identifies the general requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, test,
and inspection of process piping systems. For example, ASME B31.3-Process Piping is
classified as a design code. This is the most commonly used international design code for
process plants.
A standard contains more-detailed design and construction parameters and standard

dimensional and tolerance requirements for individual piping components, such as
various types of valves, pipe, tee, flanges, and other in-line items to complete a piping
system. For example, ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, is classified as a
dimensional standard, but it also references ASTM material specifications.
A specification, as the word implies, gives more specific information and data on the
component; and ASTM’s are considered to be material specifications, although they
sometimes are ambiguously called standard specifications. ASTM A105 is the “standard
specification for carbon steel forgings for piping applications.”
To conclude and combine these definitions, ASME B31.3 is a design code, with flanges
designed to the ASME B16.5 standard, which are constructed to the material
specification ASTM A105.
4.2 CODES
A regulatory organization imposes mandatory compliance to a code, from the basic

design through to mechanical completion and eventual hand-over of a plant to the
operator. For example, ASME B31. 3, Process Piping, is the refinery code. The insurer of
the plant will make this a contractual requirement to ensure safety for personnel and plant
during construction, commissioning, and ongoing operation.
The codes, standards, and specifications that relate to piping systems and piping
components are published by various organizations. These organizations have
committees comprising representatives from industry associations, manufacturers, EPC
contractors, end users/operators, government bodies, insurance companies, and other
interested groups.A committee is responsible for maintaining, updating, and revising the
codes, standards, and specifications, taking into consideration all technological
developments, research, experience feedback from end users, and any changes in
referenced codes, standards, specifications, or regulations.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler Pressure Vessel Codes
The boiler pressure vessel (BPV) section covers major codes and standards related to
piping.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is one of the leading

engineering organizations in the world. It develops and publishes engineering codes and
standards.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code comprises 12 sections:

Section I, Power Boilers.
Section 11, Material Specifications.
Section 111, Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Division 1, Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Division 2, Concrete Reactor Vessel and Containments.
Division 3, Containment Systems and Transport Packaging for Spent Nuclear Fuel and
High- Level Radioactive Waste.
Section IV, Heating Boilers.
Section V, Nondestructive Examination.
Section VI, Recommended Rules for Care and Operation of Heating Boilers.
Section VII, Recommended Rules for Care of Power Boilers.
Section VIII, Pressure Vessels.
Division 1, Pressure Vessels.
Division 2, Pressure Vessels (Alternative Rules).
Division 3, Alternative Rules for Construction of High- Pressure Vessels.
Section IX, Welding and Brazing Qualifications.
Section X, Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels.
Section XI, Rules for In-Service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components.
Section XII, Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks.
Code Cases: Boilers and Pressure Vessels.
Code Cases: Nuclear Components.
ASME Section I, Power Boilers
This ASME section provides requirements for all methods of construction of power,
electric, and miniature boilers; high-temperature water boilers used in stationary service;
and power boilers used in locomotive, portable, and traction service. Superheaters,
economizers, and other pressure parts connected directly to the boiler without intervening
valves are considered part of the scope of Section I.
ASME Section II, Material Specifications (Scope)

ASME Section I1 consists of four parts, three of which contain material specifications
and the fourth the properties of materials.
Part A, Ferrous Material Specifications.
Part B, Nonferrous Material Specifications.
Part C, Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals.
Part D, Properties.
Part A, Ferrous Material Specifications, provides material specifications for ferrous

materials adequate for safety in the field of pressure equipment. These specifications
contain requirements and mechanical properties, test specimens, and methods of testing.
They are designated by SA numbers and are derived from ASTM A specifications.
Part B, Nonferrous Material Specifications, provides material specifications for

nonferrous materials adequate for safety in the field of pressure equipment. These
specifications contain requirements for heat treatment, manufacture, chemical
composition, heat and product analyses, mechanical test requirements, and mechanical
properties, test specimens, and methods of testing. They are designated by SB numbers
and derived from ASTM B specifications.
Part C, Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals, provides material
specifications for the manufacture, acceptability, chemical composition, mechanical
usability, surfacing, testing requirements and procedures, operating characteristics, and
intended uses for welding rods, electrodes, and filler metals. These specifications are
designated by SFA numbers and derived from AWS specifications.
Part D, Properties, provides tables of design stress values, tensile and yield strength
values, and tables and charts of material properties. Part D facilitates ready identification
of specific materials to specific sections of the boiler and pressure vessel code. Part D’s
appendices contain criteria for establishing allowable stress, the bases for establishing
external pressure charts, and information required for approval of new materials
Subpart 1 contains allowable stress and design stress intensity tables for ferrous and
nonferrous materials for pipe, fittings, plates, bolts, and so forth. In addition, it provides
tensile strength and yield strength values for ferrous and nonferrous materials and lists
factors for limiting permanent strain in nickel, high-nickel alloys, and high alloy steels.
Subpart 2 of Part D has tables and charts providing physical properties, such as the
coefficient of thermal expansion, moduli of elasticity, and other technical data needed for
the design and construction of pressure-containing components and their supports made
from ferrous and nonferrous materials.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers B31, Codes

for Pressure Piping
The group of ASME B31 codes, previously known as ANSI B31, covers pressure piping,
was created by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and includes power
piping, fuel gas piping, process piping, pipeline transportation systems for liquid
hydrocarbons and other liquids, refrigeration piping and heat transfer components, and
building services piping.
The following sections of ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping, are published:
ASME B31.1, Power Piping: piping typically found in electric power generating stations,
in industrial and institutional plants, geothermal heating systems, and central and district
heating and cooling systems.
ASME B31.2, Fuel Gas Piping.
ASME B3 1.3, Process Piping: piping typically found in petroleum refineries, chemical,
pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants, and related
processing plants and terminals.
ASME B31.4, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other
Liquids: piping transporting products which are predominately liquid between plants and
terminals and within terminals, pumping, regulating, and metering stations.
ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping: piping for refrigerants
and secondary coolants.
ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems: piping transporting
products which are predominately gas between sources and terminals, including
compressor, regulating, and metering stations; gas gathering pipelines.
ASME B3 1.8S, Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines.
ASME B31.9, Building Services Piping: piping typically found in industrial, institutional,
commercial, and public buildings, and in multi-unit residences, which does not require
the range of sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1.
ASME B31.11, Slurry Transportation Piping Systems: piping transporting aqueous
slurries between plants and terminals and within terminals, pumping, and regulating
stations.
B31G, Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines.
ASME B31, Standards of Pressure Piping.
B31.3, Process Piping

This ASME section covers the most commonly used code in the B31 series. It covers the
design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals and
hydrocarbons, water, and steam. The code contains rules for piping typically found in
petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and
cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals. ASME
B3 1.3 also prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication,
assembly, erection, examination, inspection, and testing of piping. The code applies to
piping for all fluids, including (1) raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2)
petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air, and water; (4) fluidized solids; (5) refrigerants;
and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping that interconnects pieces or stages
within a packaged equipment assembly. To maintain high-quality workmanship that will
result in a safe environment
and the use of standard materials, components, and methods of construction and testing,
this code sets out a number of rules that cover
• Design.
• Material (strength).
• Flexibility (stress).
• Fabrication (welded joints).
• Erection (mechanical joints).
• Examination.
• Testing.
The basic function of ASME B31.3 code is to guarantee the safety of construction,
commissioning, and operating personnel during the most critical periods of a plant’s life.
ASME B31.3, Process Piping, assumes that the plant life, that is, the length of time that it
will be in operation, is 20 to 30 years, based on a safety factor of 3 to 1. These are for
commercial projects. Plants that demand a very high level of reliability, because
downtime has an
immediate impact on power delivered to the general public are designed to ASME B31.1,
Power Piping, which uses a safety factor of 4 to 1, which results in a plant life of
approximately 40 years. Between two facilities designed to ASME B31.3, the
interconnecting pipelines are covered by ASME B3 1.4 for oil transportation and ASME
B31.8 for gas transportation. These two transportation codes are very similar in format to
ASME B31.3 but have additional factors to consider, because a pipeline could be several
thousands of miles long and travel through differing locations and encounter various
environmental changes and climatic variations. In comparison, a process unit is in one
geographical location that will be of several hundred acres but subjected to only one
climate and, in a vast majority of cases, a common elevation, also known as grade.
The subjects covered within ASME B31.3 are.
Chapter I, Scope and Definitions.
Chapter 11, Design.
Part 1, Conditions and Criteria.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Piping Components.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints Part 5, Flexibility and Support.
Part 6, Systems.
Chapter 111, Materials.
Chapter IV, Standards for Piping Components.
Chapter V, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection.
Chapter VI, Inspection, Examination, and Testing.
Chapter VII, Nonmetallic Piping and Piping Lined with Nonmetals.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping
Components. Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support.
Part 6, Systems.
Part 7, Materials.
Part 8, Standards for Piping Components.
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection.
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, and Testing.
Chapter VIII, Piping for Category M Fluid Service.
Part 2, Pressure Design of Metallic Piping Components.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Metallic Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Metallic Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support of Metallic Piping.
Part 6, Systems.
Part 7, Metallic Materials.
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection of Metallic Piping.
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, Testing, and Records of Metallic Piping.
Parts 11 through 20 correspond to Chapter VII.
Part 12, Pressure Design of Nonmetallic Piping Components.
Part 13, Fluid Service Requirements for Nonmetallic Piping Components.
Part 14, Fluid Service Requirements for Nonmetallic Piping Joints.
Part 15, Flexibility and Support of Nonmetallic Piping.
Part 16, Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic Lined Systems.
Part 17, Nonmetallic Materials.
Part 18, Standards for Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic-Lined Piping Components.
Part 19, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection of Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic-Lined
Piping.
Part 20, Inspection, Examination, Testing, and Records of Nonmetallic and Nonmetallic-
Lined Piping.
Chapter IX, High Pressure Piping.
Part 3, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Components.
Part 4, Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints.
Part 5, Flexibility and Support.
Part 6, Systems.
Part 7, Materials.
Part 9, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection.
Part 10, Inspection, Examination, and Testing.
Figures.
4.3 STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATION
ASME B31.3 is the design code supported by numerous standards and specifications that
covers a great detail of information and data regarding the individual components that
make up a piping system. These international standards and specifications cover
Materials-chemical composition, mechanical strength, and testing.
Dimensions and tolerances.
Examination.
Fabrication.
Testing of piping systems and valves.
Fabrication.
The most commonly used standards and specifications under the umbrella of the ASME
B31.3 code are from the following organizations:
American Petroleum Institute (API).
Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS).
American Welding Society (AWS).
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
American Water Works Association (AWA).
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valves and Fittings Industry (MSS).
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI).
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
The series of ASME standards that follow are primarily dimensional standards for piping
components:
B1.l, Standard for Screw Threads.
B1.20.1, Pipe Threads, General Purpose, Inch.
B16.1, Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.3, Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings.
B16.4, Cast Iron Threaded Fittings.
B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.9, Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt Welding Fittings.
B16.10, Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves.
B16.11, Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded.
B16.14, Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe Threads.
B16.15, Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings.
B16.18, Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
B16.20, Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges-Ring Joint, Spiral- Wound, and Jacketed.
B16.21, Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges.
B16.22, Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
B16.24, Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B16.25, Butt Welding Ends.
B16.26, Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes.
B16.28, Wrought Steel, Butt Welding, Short Radius Elbows and Returns.
B16.34, Valves-Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End.
16.36, Orifice Flanges.
B16.39, Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions.
B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and 300.
B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 through NPS 60.
B16.48, Steel Line Blanks.
B36.10M, Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe.
B36.19M, Stainless Steel Pipe
CHAPTER V
FABRICATION ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A piping system is made up of numerous assemblies and subassemblies that have to be

fabricated, inspected, installed, and tested to form a completed system. The fabrication of
pipe is the bending, cutting, forming, and welding of individual pipe lengths and piping
components to each other and, if specified, the subsequent heat treatment of
subassemblies.
The erection or installation of pipe refers to placing the fabricated piping assemblies,
valves, and other special piping items in their final location to interconnect pumps,
compressors, heat exchangers, turbines, boilers, and other items of process equipment.
The fabrication of a piping assembly can be carried out in one of the following locations:
• Commercial fabrication shop distant from the job site, shop fabrication.
• A fabrication shop on the job site, shop fabrication.
• On site close to or at the final site for installation, site fabrication.
The decision on the location of the fabrication shop is based on cost, logistics, and
availability of qualified personnel. A commercial fabrication shop has specialized
equipment, such as automatic welding machines or large-diameter pipe bending
machines, that might not be available at a fabrication facility on site. Shop fabrication is
carried out under controlled conditions and in a predictable environment; and it is the
preferred location for fabrication. Site fabrication means a limit to the availability of
special machines; and it is carried out at the mercy of local weather conditions, however,
sometimes site fabrication is unavoidable.
Fabrication of piping subassemblies generally is carried out in a dedicated shop for pipe
NPS 3 (DN 75) and larger. Piping NPS 2 (DN 50) and smaller usually are field fabricated
in the final location, unless it requires special welding, inspection, or an internal cleaning
process. In cases where there are long straight runs of pipe, like those on pipe racks or for
pipelines, these pipe sections are welded together in the field very close to their final
location.
Codes and Standards Considerations
Many codes and standards are used for to the fabrication, erection, and inspection of
process piping systems, some of them are mandatory. The code refered to most in the
book is ASME B31.3; and the subject of fabrication, assembly and erection is covered in
Chapter 5 of this code.
5.2 FABRICATION MATERIALS FOR PIPING SYSTEMS
Carbon steel is the most commonly used material of construction used for process piping
systems, followed by stainless steel and various alloys. Many nonmetallic materials also
are used. Material are selected according to their corrosion resistance to the fluid and
ability to handle the design temperature and design pressure. The material used for
fabrication must conform to a relevant ASTM, API, or other recognized standard that
guarantees the predictability of
• Chemical composition.
• Mechanical properties.
• Physical properties.
• Heat treatment.
When the materials of construction are known, the fabricator can select the correct
welding procedure to ensure the best possible weld and a leak-free joint under the
pressure and temperature conditions the piping system will be subjected to in service.
ASME B31.3 has a list of materials that are acceptable for the construction of piping
systems designed to that code. This does not exclude the use of other materials: but
before an unlisted material is used, it must be qualified for use.
Fabrication Drawings
The 3D piping model is developed using the IFC P&IDs as the basis. From the model, the
production piping isometrics are extracted. These issued for construction isometrics are
considered to be the basis of the fabrication of a piping system. An isometric contains
piping material that will be fabricated in the shop and field material and the location of
any field welds that will be used to erect the piping system in site.
These IFC isometrics then are sent to the piping fabricator, who divides this piping
assembly into subassemblies, which contain only materials that have to be fabricated.
These subassemblies are called spool isometrics. The size of these spools is based on a
number of factors:
• Field welds.
• Weight.
• Heat treatment.
• Overall dimensions of the spool.
• Availability of space at the fabricator.
The spool isometrics carry all the necessary dimensions, angles, and make allowances for
all component and fabrication tolerances specified in the relevant codes and standards.
5.3 FABRICATION ACTIVITIES
Numerous types of activities take place in the fabrication shop, but these are the most
significant:
• Cutting.
• Beveling.
• Forming.
• Bending.
• Welding.
• Brazing and soldering.
• Galvanizing.
The two most basic fabrication activities are cutting and beveling.
5.3.1 CUTTING
The most fundamental fabrication activity, it applies almost exclusively to pipe lengths,
because pipe fittings are supplied in standard dimensions and the 3D modeler uses these
dimensions to create a piping system. The isometric uses these standard component
dimensions to create isometrics, from which spools are created. The cutting method
generally is mechanical or thermal. The mechanical methods, or cold cuts, involve the
use of saws, abrasive discs, and pipe cutting machines. The thermal methods, also known
as hot cuts, involve flame cutting using gas or electric arc cutting.
5.3.2 BEVELLING
Beveling is the process to profile the correct shape at the end of a pipe to allow it to be
mated to the other pipe or piping component and creates a groove that can be welded.
This can be a single bevel or, on thicker walled pipes, a compound bevel at two or more
angles. The beveling can be completed by either mechanical or thermal methods.
5.3.3 FORMING
Forming is piping fabrication that includes bending, extruding, swaging, lapping, and
expanding to create a component of a connection. The standardization of welded pipe
fitting has meant that this fabrication process for components is not commonly required;
however, it is an option that ASME B31.3 allows.
5.3.4 BENDING
The cold or hot bending of straight pipe is another option and a more commonly used
method of fabrication than forming. Small-bore piping usually less than 2" for utility
services can be bent if an approved procedure is applied. Also, large pipelines lines that
required to be pigged for cleaning or batching purposes, require long radius bends of
three and sometimes five times the outside diameter to allow a smooth passage for the
pig. These can be bent from pipe. Bending is more common on pipeline projects designed
to ASME B31.4, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid, and ASME B31.8, Gas
Transportation and Distribution Piping Systems.
Three very important dimensional limitations must be addressed when considering
bending pipe: thinning, buckling, and ovality.
Thinning is important because, during the bending operation, the outer edge is stretched
and the inner edge compressed. The stretching causes a thinning of the wall thickness of
the outer section, which has to be monitored and should not exceed the tolerance
allowable for the pipe.
Buckling is important because the bending operation has an opposite effect on the inner
wall thickness and has the tendency to compress; however, this does not always result in
a thickening of the wall section and there is a tendency, at a certain stage of compression,
for the inner edge to buckle.
Ovality is important because, during the bending operation, the cross section of the bend
can assume a oval shape. The degree of ovality is determined by the difference between
the major and minor axes divided by the nominal diameter of the pipe. ASME B31.3
states that the difference between maximum and minimum diameters at any cross section
shall not exceed 8% of nominal outside diameter for internal pressure and 3% for external
pressure. Removal of metal shall not be used to achieve these requirements.
The cold bending of ferritic materials should be done at temperatures below their
transformation range. Hot bending should be done at a temperature above their
transformation range.
5.3.5 WELDING
Welding is a joining process that uses heat, pressure, and/or chemicals to fuse two
materials together permanently. It is the process of joining two similar work pieces by
melting them together, usually with an additional filler rod of some sort to take up space.
Welding plays a very important part in the fabrication of process piping systems, and it is
essential that the correct procedures and suitable, qualified welders are used. ASME
B31.3, Process Piping, references ASME Section IX as the minimum requirements for
qualifying welding procedures (WPS, or welding procedure specifications) and welding
personnel. A well-defined WPS that references the base metal, filler material, shielding
fluxes/gases, positions, and heat treatment can produce a welded joint with the required
characteristics and leak free. The parameters are recorded in a procedure qualification
record (PQR).
The welding processes most commonly used for the fabrication of process piping systems
are
• Submerged arc welding (SAW).
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
However, any welding process that can be qualified under the requirements of ASME
Section IX is acceptable.
The American Welding Society (AWS) definition for a welding process is "a materials
joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure
alone and with or without the use of filler material".
The most basic principle of the welding process is joining two pieces of metal. This is
generally accomplished by heating the metals to be joined until they become liquid or
molten and the two edges fuse together. Most often, the complete joining of the two
metal edges is accomplished by melting new metal into the joint at the same time. The
new metal added to form a fused welding joint is called filler metal, while the original
pieces being joined are called the parent metal.
WELD JOINTS
The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic
types of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.
A Butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same plane. This joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type may be either
square or grooved.
Corner and Tee joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other.
In cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the
letter T. Various joint designs of both types have uses in many types of metal structures.
A Lap joint, as the name implies, is made by lapping one piece of metal over another.
This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint
efficiency, you should overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the
thinnest member you are joining. Lap joints are commonly used with torch brazing and
spot welding applications.
An Edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane.
Inmost cases, one of the members are flanged. While this type of joint has some
applications in plate work, it is more frequently used in sheet metal work An edge joint
should only be used for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected
to heavy loads.
TYPES OF WELDS
There are many types of welds. Some of the common types you will work with are the
bead, groove, fillet, surfacing, tack, plug, slot, and resistance
A weld bead is a weld deposit produced by a single pass with one of the welding process.
A weld bead may be either narrow or wide, depending on the amount of transverse
oscillation (side-to-side movement) used by the welder.
Groove welds are simply welds made in the groove between two members to be joined.
The weld is adapt-able to a variety of butt joints.
A cross-sectional view of a fillet weld is triangular in shape. This weld is used to join two
surfaces that are at approximately right angles to each other in a lap, tee, or corner joint.
Surfacing is a welding process used to apply a hard, wear-resistant layer of metal to

surfaces or edges of worn-out parts. It is one of the most economical methods of
conserving and extending the life of machines, tools, and construction equipment.
A tack weld is a weld made to hold parts of an assembly in proper alignment temporarily
until the final welds are made. Although the sizes of tack welds are not specified, they are
normally between 1/2 inch to 3/4 inch in length, but never more than 1 inch in length.
Plug and slot welds are welds made through holes or slots in one member of a lap joint.
These welds are used to join that member to the surface of another member that has been
exposed through the hole. The hole may or may not be completely filled with weld metal.
Resistance welding is a metal fabricating process in which the fusing temperature is

generated at the joint by the resistance to the flow of an electrical current. This is
accomplished by clamping two or more sheets of metal between copper electrodes and
then passing an electrical current through them. When the metals are heated to a melting
temperature, forging pressure is applied through either a manual or automatic means to
weld the pieces together. Spot and seam welding are two common types of resistance
welding processes.
Spot welding is probably the most commonly used type of resistance welding. The
material to be joined is placed between two electrodes and pressure is applied. Next, a
charge of electricity is sent from one electrode through the material to the other electrode.
Spot welding is especially useful in fabricating sheet metal parts.
Seam welding is like spot welding except that the spots overlap each other, making a
continuous weld seam. In this process, the metal pieces pass between roller type of
electrodes. As the electrodes revolve, the current is automatically turned on and off at the
speed at which the parts are set to move. Seam welding is almost exclusively used in
industrial manufacturing.
PARTS OF WELDS
The toe is the junction between the face of the weld and the base metal. The root of a
weld includes the points at which the back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
When we look at a triangular cross section of a fillet weld the leg is the portion of the
weld from the toe to the root. The throat is the distance from the root to a point on the
face of the weld along a line perpendicular to the face of the weld. The terms leg and
throat apply only to fillet welds.
WELDING POSITIONS
All welding is done in one of four positions: F is fillet weld and G is groove weld.
1. Flat.
2. Horizontal
3. Vertical
4. Overhead
Although the terms flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead sufficiently describe the
positions for plate welding, they do not adequately describe pipe welding positions. In
pipe welding, there are four basic test positions used. Notice that the position refers to the
position of the pipe, not the position of welding.
Four main Pipe-and-Tube-Welding positions are used in pipe welding tests. They are
• (1G) the horizontal rolled flat position

• (5G) the horizontal fixed position
• (6G) the pipe inclined fixed position
• (2G) the pipe vertical, horizontal weld position.
Th
ere is no 3G or 4G test position in pipe welding. Also, since most pipe welds are groove
welds, they are identified by the letter G.
COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES
In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the
current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into
two groups: consumable and non consumable. Consumable electrodes not only provide a
path for the current but also supply fuller metal to the joint.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding, also known as manual metal arc welding, stick welding, or
electric arc welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes.
Welding is performed with the heat of an electric arc that is maintained between the end
of a coated metal electrode and the work piece. The heat produced by the arc melts the
base metal, the electrode core rod, and the coating. As the molten metal droplets are
transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle, they are shielded from the
atmosphere by the gases produced from the decomposition of the flux coating. The
molten slag floats to the top of the weld puddle where it protects the weld metal from the
atmosphere during solidification. Other functions of the coating are to provide arc
stability and control bead shape. One reason for the wide acceptance of the SMAW
process is the simplicity of the necessary equipment.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a welding process performed using the heat of an arc
established between a non consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece. The
electrode, the arc, and the area surrounding the molten weld puddle are protected from
the atmosphere by an inert gas shield. The electrode is not consumed in the weld puddle
as in shielded metal arc welding. If a filler metal is necessary, it is added. Gas tungsten
arc welding produces exceptionally clean welds since no slag is produced, the chance of
inclusions in the weld metal is less and the finished weld requires virtually no cleaning.
Argon and Helium, the primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases. Inert gases do
not chemically combine with other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the
reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, from forming compounds that could be
detrimental to the weld metal.
Gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding almost all metals — mild steel, low
alloys, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, nickel
and nickel alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium, and others. This process
is most extensively used for welding aluminum and stainless steel alloys where weld
integrity is of the utmost importance. Another use is for the root pass (initial pass) in
pipe welding, which requires a weld of the highest quality. Full penetration without an
excessively high inside bead is important in the root pass, and due to the ease of current
control of this process, it lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality welds,
it is usually necessary to provide an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent
oxidation of the inside weld bead.
The major disadvantages of the process are that it is slower than welding with
consumable electrodes and is little used on thicknesses over 1/4" for this reason.
Shielding gas and tungsten electrode costs make the process relatively expensive.
Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic operation. In manual
operation, the welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc into the weld joint.
The filler metal is fed manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In automatic
applications, the torch may be automatically moved over a stationary work piece or the
torch may be stationary with the work moved or rotated in relation to the torch. Filler
metal, if required, is also fed automatically.
Gas Metal Arc Welding is an arc welding process that uses the heat of an electric arc
established between a consumable metal electrode and the work to be welded. The
electrode is a bare metal wire that is transferred across the arc and into the molten weld
puddle. The wire, the weld puddle, and the area in the arc zone are protected from the
atmosphere by a gaseous shield. Inert gases, reactive gases, and gas mixtures are used for
shielding. The metal transfer mode is dependent on shielding gas choice and welding
current level.
Gas metal arc welding is a versatile process that may be used to weld a wide variety of
metals including carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys,
magnesium, copper and copper alloys, and nickel alloys. It can be used to weld sheet
metal or relatively heavy sections. Welds may be made in all positions, and the process
may be used for semiautomatic welding or automatic welding. In semiautomatic
welding, the wire feed speed; voltage, amperage, and gas flow are all preset on the
control equipment. The operator needs merely to guide the welding gun along the joint at
a uniform speed and hold a relatively constant arc length. In automatic welding, the gun
is mounted on a travel carriage that moves along the joint, or the gun may be stationary
with the work moving or revolving beneath it.
Metal Transfer Modes

Spray transfer is a high current density process that rapidly deposits weld metal in
droplets smaller than the electrode diameter. They are propelled in a straight line from
the center of the electrode. A shielding gas mixture of Argon with 1% to 2% Oxygen is
used for welding mild and low alloy steel, and pure Argon or Argon-Helium mixtures are
used for welding aluminum, magnesium, copper, and nickel alloys. Welding current at
which spray transfer takes place is relatively high and will vary with the metal being
welded, electrode diameter, and the shielding gas being used. Deposition rates are high
and welding is usually limited to the flat or horizontal fillet position.
Globular transfer takes place at lower welding currents than spray transfer. There is a
transition current where the transfer changes to globular even when shielding gases using
a high percentage of argon are used. When carbon dioxide (CO2) is used as a shielding
gas, the transfer is always globular. In globular transfer, a molten drop larger than the
electrode diameter forms on the end of the electrode moves to the outer edge of the
electrode and falls into the molten puddle. Occasionally, a large drop will "short circuit"
across the arc, causing the arc to extinguish momentarily, and then instantaneously
reignite. As a result, the arc is somewhat erratic, spatter level is high, and penetration
shallow. Globular transfer is not suitable for out-of-position welding.
Short circuiting transfer is a much used method in gas metal arc welding. It is produced
by using the lowest current-voltage settings and the smaller wires, usually .030", .035",
and .045" diameters. The low heat input makes this process ideal for sheet metal, out- of-
position work, and poor fit-up applications. Often called "short arc welding" because
metal transfer is achieved each time the wire actually short circuits (makes contact) with
the weld puddle. This happens very rapidly. It is feasible for the short circuit frequency
to be 20-200 times a second, but in practice, it occurs from 90-100 times a second. Each
time the electrode touches the puddle, the arc is extinguished. It happens so rapidly that
it is visible only on high speed films.
Pulse transfer is a mode of metal transfer somewhat between spray and short circuiting.
The specific power source has built into it two output levels: a steady background level,
and a high output (peak) level. The later permits the transfer of metal across the arc. This
peak output is controllable between high and low values up to several hundred cycles per
second. The result of such a peak output produces a spray arc below the typical transition
current.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is quite similar to GMAW as far as operation and
equipment are concerned. The major difference is that FCAW utilizes an electrode that is
very different from the solid electrode used in GMAW. The flux cored electrode is a
fabricated electrode and as the name implies, flux material is deposited into its core. The
flux cored electrode begins as a flat metal strip that is formed first into a "U" shape. Flux
and alloying elements are deposited into the "U" and then the shape is closed into a
tubular configuration by a series of forming rolls.
The flux cored electrode is a continuous electrode that is fed into the arc where it is
melted and transferred into the molten puddle. As in GMAW, the flux cored process
depends on a gas shield to protect the weld zone from detrimental atmospheric
contamination. With FCAW, there are two primary ways this is accomplished. The gas
is either applied externally, in which case the electrode is referred to as a gas shielded
flux cored electrode, or it is generated from the decomposition of gas forming ingredients
contained in the electrode's core. In this instance, the electrode is known as a self-
shielding flux cored electrode. In addition to the gas shield, the flux cored electrode
produces a slag covering for further protection of the weld metal as it cools. The slag is
manually removed with a wire brush or chipping hammer.
Carbon dioxide is the most widely used gas for auxiliary shielding of the flux cored
electrode. The other commonly used gas is a mixture of 75% Argon and 25% CO2.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is different from the previously explained arc welding
processes in that the arc is not visible. The arc is submerged beneath loose granular flux.
A continuous electrode is fed by automatic drive rolls through an electrode holder where
current is picked up at the contact tube. The electrode moves into the loose flux and the
arc is initiated. The flux is deposited from a separate container that moves at the same
pace as the electrode assuring complete coverage.
Submerged Arc Flux - The flux helps form the molten puddle, slows the cooling rate, and
acts as a protective shield. The flux, which is in close contact with the arc, is fused into a
slag cover and that which is not fused is collected for reuse. The flux can contain
alloying elements that, when molten, will pass into the weld metal affecting the
metallurgy. Some fluxes are specifically prepared for their alloy altering capabilities
while others, known as neutral fluxes, are chosen when a minimal alloy change is
desired. Although these latter fluxes are called "neutral", they still have the ability to
slightly alter the weld chemistry.
Submerged arc welding has some advantages over other welding processes. Since the
radiance of the arc is blanketed by the loose flux, there is no need for a protective
welding hood (although safety glasses are recommended), there is no spatter and only a
very minimal amount of fumes escape from under the blanket.
Although SAW has these advantages, it does have some limitations. The flux must be
deposited and collected for every welding pass. This requires additional equipment and
handling. Also because of the loose flux, the process is limited to the flat and horizontal
positions. The equipment for SAW is commonly quite bulky which limits its mobility,
and although the process works well on thick materials, it usually is not satisfactory for
thin gauge material. The process requires care in the operation.
OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Oxyacetylene welding is a gas welding process. A coalescence or bond is produced by

heating with a gas flame or flames obtained from the combustion of acetylene with
oxygen, with or without the application of pressure, and with or without the use of filler
metal. A welding torch is used to mix the gases in the proper proportions and to direct the
flame against the parts to be welded. The molten edges of the parts then literally flow
together and, after cooling, form one solid piece. Usually, it is necessary to add extra
material to the joint. The correct material in rod form is dipped in and fuses with the
puddle of molten metal from the parent metal parts. This is used mainly for small
diameter piping and tubing.
WELD DEFECTS
Some problems that can be found in welds include lack of fusion, porosity, cracks,
undercutting etc.
POROSITY
This occurs as a series of fine cavities, generally spherical, but sometimes tubular in form
(worm holes). Porosity can occur in various patterns, for example, linear porosity,
scattered porosity and start porosity. The defect is caused by such factors as Excessive
gas content generated by chemical reactions in the weld, Gases or other hydrocarbon
contamination and Damp flux. The preferred NDT techniques are radiography, ultrasonic
testing and, if the porosity is at the surface, liquid penetrants.
Trapped Slag
A number of welding processes deliberately form a flux or slag covering over the
molten weld pool as it solidifies. This isolates the weld metal from the atmosphere and
helps purify the weld metal. Some of this slag can be trapped in the weld metal due to
insufficient slag removal between runs or insufficient back gouging of the root.
Depending on the circumstances of formation the slag is generally in an isolated or linear
pattern. Preferred NDT is radiography or ultrasonic testing.
Lack of Fusion
This refers to incomplete fusion between the weld metal and the parent metal or weld
metal with previously deposited weld metal. Three distinct types of fusion defect occur
depending on the location of the defect within the weld zone are Lack of side wall fusion,
Lack of inter-run fusion between weld runs and Lack of root fusion. Causes include such
factors as Poor welding technique, incorrect electrode size, and inadequate weld
preparation. Lacks of fusion defects are generally planar and crack-like in nature. The
best NDT method is ultrasonic testing. Radiography may be used for lack of side wall
and root fusion.
Lack of Penetration
This is where the weld metal has failed to penetrate into the root of a joint as opposed to
lack of root fusion where weld metal has penetrated into the root area but has failed to
fuse to one side. The causes of lack of penetration are the same as for lack of fusion
defects. The preferred NDT technique for detecting lack of penetration is radiography or
ultrasonic testing.
Undercutting
Undercutting is the burning away of the base metal at the toe of the weld. Undercutting
may be caused because Current adjustment that is too high, Arc gap that is too long
Failure to fill up the crater completely with weld metal.
Slag Inclusions
Slag inclusions are elongated or globular pockets of metallic oxides and other solids
compounds. They produce porosity in the weld metal. In arc welding, slag inclusions are
generally made up of electrode coating materials or fluxes. In multilayer welding
operations, failure to remove the slag between the layers causes slag inclusions. Most
slag inclusion can be prevented by Preparing the groove and weld properly before each
bead is deposited, removing all slag, Making sure that the slag rises to the surface of the
weld pool.
WELD INSPECTIONS
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection and is the only inspection
required unless the specification calls for a more stringent inspection method. Inspection
is done by the welder before, during, and after welding. When outside inspection is
required it should also be done before, during, and after welding. Minor problems can be
identified and corrected before the weld is complete.
Dye Penetrant Test
Dye penetrant testing locates minute surface cracks and porosity.

Dye types that may be used include Color contrast dye which shows up under ordinary
light and Fluorescent dye which shows up under black light. The dye is normally applied
by spraying it directly on the weld
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection uses powdered magnetic particles to indicate defects in

magnetic materials. A magnetic field is induced in the part. The magnetic powder is
attracted to and outlines cracks within the material.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect flaws inside welds. High frequency sound
waves are directed into the metal with a probe held at a specific angle. The flaws reflect
some energy back to the probe. Flaws show up as indications on a screen (above) and are
subject to interpretation by an inspector.
Radiographic Inspection
Radiographic inspection, or X-ray, can also be used to detect flaws inside welds. Invisible
rays penetrate the metal and reveal flaws on an x-ray film or fluorescent screen
(above).This is the most costly of the inspection methods
ELDING SYMBOLS
Special symbols are used on a drawing to specify where welds are to be located, the type
of joint to be used, as well as the size and amount of weld metal to be deposited in the
joint. These symbols have been standardized by the American Welding Society (AWS).
A standard welding symbol consists of a reference line, an arrow, and a tail. The
reference line becomes the foundation of the welding symbol. It is used to apply weld
symbols, dimensions, and other data to the weld. The arrow simply connects the
reference line to the joint or area to be welded. The direction of the arrow has no bearing
on the significance of the reference line. The tail of the welding symbol is used only
when necessary to include a specification, process, or other reference information.
The term weld symbol refers to the symbol for a specific type of weld. Fillet, groove,
surfacing, plug, and slot are all types of welds. Basic weld symbols are shown in the
above figure. The weld symbol is only part of the information required in the welding
symbol. The term welding symbol refers to the total symbol, which includes all
information needed to specify the weld(s) required.
This figure shows the significance of the positions of the weld symbols position on the
reference line. In view A the weld symbol is on the lower side of the reference line that is
termed the arrow side. View B shows a weld symbol on the upper side of the reference
line that is termed the other side. When weld symbols are placed on both sides of the
reference line, welds must be made on both sides of the joint (view C).
This Figure shows other elements that may be added to a welding symbol. The
information applied to the reference line on a welding symbol is read from left to right
regardless of the direction of the arrow.
Weld Repair
Any weld considered to be defective and requires repair must be ground back to the base
metal. The preheating and heat treatment should be the same as specified for the original
welding.
Preheating
Preheating before the welding process helps slow the cooling rate of the weld joint,
which results in a high level of ductility in the final weld and the heat-affected zone
(HAZ). It allows dissolved hydrogen to diffuse more readily, which helps reduce
shrinkage, distortion, and possible cracking caused by residual stresses.
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is used to avoid or alleviate the detrimental effects of high temperatures,
which are unavoidable during the welding process. The heat treatment required and the
recommended temperatures
and holding times vary among metals. The method of heating the work piece should be
applied uniformly under a controlled condition, which includes an enclosed furnace, local
flame, electric induction, electric resistance, or any other approved method. The cooling-
down method also must be in a controlled environment, which allows uniform
temperature reduction.
Brazing and Soldering
The qualification for brazing procedures, brazing equipment and brazing operators is in
accordance with the requirements of the BPV code, Section IX, for category D fluid
service at design temperatures not over 93°C (200°F).
Prior to brazing or soldering, a suitable chemical or mechanical cleaning method is used
to provide a dirt free surface that is not water resistant. The fitup clearance between
surfaces of the two components to be joined by brazing or soldering should not be so
large as to prevent complete capillary distribution of the filler metal. Soldering should
follow the procedure in the Copper Tube Handbook of the Copper Development
Association.
Protection of Carbon Steel in Corrosive Services
The following are methods of giving basic carbon steel longer inservice life when it is
subjected to a corrosive service:
• Adding an additional corrosion allowance, usually 1.5 mm, 3 mm, or 6 mm to the

calculated wall thickness of the pipe or component.
• Internally galvanizing the pipe and piping systems
• Internally cladding the carbon steel pipe with a corrosion resistant alloy.
Corrosion Allowance
Carbon steel can be used for a piping system even if there is a possibity of the service
fluid causing some corrosion to the carbon steel pipe. A weight loss study is carried out
to determine the volume of pipe material that will be lost to corrosion over the intended
inservice life of the piping system. This weight loss is converted into an additional
internal wall thickness added to the wall of the pipe, which has been calculated for
pressure containing purposes, and called a corrosion allowance (CA).
Internal Galvanizing of Pipe and Piping Systems
Another method of arresting corrosion of piping systems in certain utility services
operating at ambient temperatures is to galvanize them with an internal zinc based coat.
Pipe galvanizing requires four steps: cleaning, fluxing, galvanizing, and degreasing. A
galvanizing procedure must be followed to ensure that the galvanized coat is of a high
quality and unlikely to be removed.
Pipe Cladding
Another method of protecting the carbon steel base material from a corrosive fluid is to
internally clad the piping system with a corrosion-resistant alloy metal such as stainless
steel, alloy 625, or alloy 825 or to line it with a nonmetallic material such as concrete,
PTFE, glass, or epoxy. The choice of cladding or lining a piping system is based on
• Economics.
• A proven cladding procedure.
• A qualified cladding fabricator.
• Additional inspection.
The decision to use a cladded piping system should be made very carefully, because it
introduces an additional activity that requires careful monitoring to ensure the integrity of
the cladding and subsequent fabrication.
5.4 ASSEBLY AND ERECTION
ALIGNMENT
A degree of misalignment is acceptable, in ASME B31.3, for the mating of assemblies to

complete a piping system; however, they must not introduce strain that will be
detrimental to the components or equipment. Cold spring of process piping systems is not
prohibited in ASME B3 1.3; however, most operators and EPC contractors avoid this
option. For a flanged joint bolt-up, flange faces should be aligned in the design plane
within 1 mm in 200 mm (1.16 in./ft) measured across any diameter; flange bolt holes
should be aligned within 3 mm (1.8 in.) maximum offset.
Flanged Joints
Flange faces to be bolted up must be parallel, free from damage, and have a surface type
and finish that is acceptable for the gasket in the specifications. The most commonly
specified flange types are
• Weld-neck flange.
• Socket-weld flange.
• Screwed flange.
• Slip-on flange.
• Lap-joint flange with a stub end.
An approved bolting procedure must be employed to ensure that the gasket is uniformly
compressed to the recommended design loadings to achieve a leak-free joint. Special care
must be taken with bolt-ups of flanges of different materials or differing mechanical
properties. Bolt lengths must be specified so that they extend completely through the nut
and full thread engagement is achieved. ASME B31.3 allows a lack of complete
engagement of one thread. Only one gasket should be used between two flanged joint
assemblies.
Threaded joints
Threaded piping components are available up to NPS 4, although in reality, threaded

fittings are rarely specified above NPS 2 and restricted to low-pressure, nonhazardous
utility services at ambient temperatures. For threaded joints, the compound or lubricant
used on the mating surfaces must be compatible with the piping component and suitable
for the fluid and the design service conditions. A threaded joint that will be welded
should be made up without a thread compound to avoid the possibility of creating a
defective weld.
CHAPTER VI
VALVES AND FLANGES
6.1INTRODUCTION
Valves are essential components of a piping system, and they allow the process fluid to
be controlled and directed on its journey through the process plant. Valves can control
not only the flow, but also the rate, the volume, the pressure, and the direction of a fluid
within a pipe.
THE FUNCTIONS OF A VALVE
The main functions of valves are

Isolation: - On/Off
Regulation: - throttle flow.
Non-return: - check, prevent flow reversal.
Special Purpose: - Pressure Relief.
6.2 VALVE CLASSIFICATION
i.Based on Mechanical Motion
Linear Motion Valves: The valves in which the closure member, as in gate, globe,
diaphragm, pinch, and lift check valves, moves in a straight line to allow, stop, or throttle
the flow
Rotary Motion Valves: When the valve-closure member travels along an angular or
circular path, as in butterfly, ball, plug, eccentric- and swing check valves, the valves are
called rotary motion valves
Quarter Turn Valves: Some rotary motion valves require approximately a quarter turn, 0
through 90, motion of the stem to go to fully open from a fully closed position or vice
versa.
ii.Based on Operation
Manual: Manual operators employ levers, gears, or wheels to facilitate movement within
a valve.
Automatic: Automatic operators known as actuators use an external power supply to
provide the necessary force required to operate valves. Automatic actuators use
hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical power as their source for operating valves. Hydraulic
and pneumatic actuators use fluid or air pressure, respectively, to operate valves needing
linear or quarter-turn movements. Electric actuators have motor drives that operate valves
requiring multiple turn movements.
6.3 VALVE COMPONENTS
The following are the primary components of a valve:

A valve body is the housing for all the internal working components of a valve and it
contains the method of joining the valve to the piping system. The closure element,
known as the disk or plug, is a valve component that, when moved, opens or closes to
allow the passage of fluid through the valve. The mating surface of the disk bears against
the seat. The actuator is a movable component that, when operated, causes the closure
element to open or close. The stem is a movable component that connects the actuator to
the closure element. The bonnet is a valve component that provides a leak proof closure
for the body through which the stem passes and is sealed. The seat is a component that
provides a surface capable of sealing against the flow of fluids in a valve when contacted
by a mating surface on the disk. The seat is attached to the valve body. The stuffing box
is the interior area of the valve between the stem and the bonnet that contains the
packing. Packing is the material that seals the stem from leaking to the outside of the
valve. The packing is contained by the packing nut on the bonnet. The backseat is a seat
in the bonnet used in the fully open position to seal the valve stem against leakage into
the packing. A bushing on the stem provides the mating surface. Backseating is useful if
the packing begins to leak and it provides a means to prevent the stem from being ejected
from the valve. The stroke of a closure member is the distance the member must travel
from the fully opened to the fully closed position.
Two types of valve stems are rising stems and nonrising stems. For a rising stem
valve, the stem will rise above the actuator as the valve is opened. This occurs because
the stem is threaded and mated with the bushing threads of a yoke that is an integral part
of, or is mounted to, the bonnet. There is no upward stem movement from outside the
valve for a nonrising stem design. For the nonrising stem design, the valve disk is
threaded internally and mates with the stem threads.
6.4 TYPES OF VALVES
Due to the various environments, system fluids, and system conditions in which flow
must be controlled, a large number of valve designs have been developed. A basic
understanding of the differences between the various types of valves, and how these
differences affect valve function, will help ensure the proper application of each valve
type during design and the proper use of each valve type during operation.
The most commonly used valves in projects designed to the ASME B31 code are
Gate valves, Globe valves, Check valves, Ball valves, Plug valves, Butterfly valves,
Pinch or diaphragm valves, Control valves, Pressure relief valves. Each of these can be
subdivided in other groupings based on their design and materials of construction.
i.Gate Valves
The gate valve is the most frequently used valve in piping systems. It is a general
service valve that is used primarily for on-off, non-throttling applications. Gate valves,
use a wedge-shaped disk or gate as the closure member operating perpendicular to the
flow; it is raised to open and lowered to close the valve. As the disk closes, it fits tightly
against the seat surfaces in the valve body. A gate valve is used fully opened or closed
only. It should not be used for throttling service (partly open), as the gate will vibrate and
quickly become damaged and subject to wire drawing caused by the velocity of the liquid
flowing past the disk.
Three dimensions are crucial when drawing a valve symbol: face-to-face,
handwheel height, and handwheel diameter. The length of a valve is represented on most
dimensioning charts as the face-to-face dimension. Another important dimension is the
diameter of the flanged faces on flanged valves. When representing flanged valves, the
diameter of the valve’s flanges must be drawn to match the size and pound rating of the
flange or nozzle to which it is being bolted. Gate valves are available with a variety of
disks. Classification of gate valves is usually made by the type disk used: solid wedge,
flexible wedge, split wedge, or parallel disk.
ii.Globe Valves
Globe valves are so named due to the globular shape of the valve body. Globe
valves are used where throttling and/or frequent operation is desired. Each uses the same
method of closure-a round disk or tapered plug-type disk that seats against a round
opening (port). This design deliberately restricts flow, so globes should not be used
where full, non obstructed flow is required. By simply rotating the handwheel, the rate at
which the commodity flows through the valve can be adjusted to any desired level.
Having the valve seat parallel to the line of flow is an important feature of the globe
valve. This feature makes the globe valve efficient when throttling commodities as well
as yielding minimal disc and seat erosion. This configuration, however, creates a large
amount of resistance within the valve. The design of the globe valve body forces the flow
of the commodity to change direction within the valve itself. This change in direction
creates substantial pressure drop and turbulence. The globe valve is therefore not
recommended when flow resistance and pressure drop are to be avoided. There are basic
types of globe valve: the standard globe, the angle globe valve and the needle valve Y
type globe valve.
iv .Angle valves
Angle valves are identical to standard globe valves in seat design and operation. The
basic difference is that the body of the angle valve acts as a 90_ elbow, eliminating the
need for a fitting at that point in the system. Angle valves also have less resistance to
flow than the combination of globe valves and the fittings they replace.
v .Needle valves
Needle valves are generally small in size and are intended to provide precise flow
control. Many turns of the handle are required to adjust flow in order to achieve precise
control.
This design is a remedy for the high pressure drop inherent in globe valves. The seat and
stem are angled at approximately 45. The angle yields a straighter flow path (at full
opening) and provides the stem, bonnet, and packing a relatively pressure resistant
envelope.
vi .Plug Valves
A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is
derived from the shape of the disk, which resembles a plug. A plug valve is a quarter-turn
valve that uses a tapered cylindrical plug that fits a body seat of corresponding shape.
When the port in the plug is aligned with the body opening, flow is permitted in a way
similar to a ball valve. A one-quarter (900) turn operates the valve from opened to closed
and vice versa. Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or non lubricated design
and with a variety of styles of port openings through the plug as well as a number of plug
designs.
vii .Ball Valves

A ball valve utilizes a ball with a hole drilled through it as the opening/ closing device. It
is a quarter-turn valve. The ball seals by fitting tightly against resilient seat rings on either
side. Flow is straight through, and pressure loss depends on the size of the opening in the
ball (port). The ball valve is an inexpensive alternative to other valves. When the valve
handle is turned to open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where the hole through the
ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is
rotated so that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and the
flow is stopped. Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a
900 turn of the valve handle to operate the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary
gear-operated. This type of gearing allows the use of a relatively small handwheel and
operating force to operate a fairly large valve.
The split body design consists of a two-part body, a cover, ball, seat rings, stem, and
other internals. The two-part body is held together by a flange connection. One body part
is smaller than the other. The ball is inserted in the larger body part and the smaller body
part is assembled by a bolted connection Top-entry ball valves allow access to valve
internals for assembly, disassembly, repair, or maintenance by removal of the valve
bonnet-cover. The valve is not required to be removed from the pipeline. End-entry ball
valves have a single-piece body. The ball is inserted from one end and is retained by an
insert. These valves have flange- or screwed-end connections. This design is commonly
used for inexpensive small valves.
viii .Butterfly Valves

A butterfly valve has a wafer-shaped body with a thin rotating disk as the closing
device. Like the ball valve, the butterfly operates with a one-quarter turn from fully
opened to fully close. The disk is always in the flow path, but since it is relatively thin, it
offers little restriction to the flow. When the valve is closed, the disk edge fits tightly
against a ring-shaped liner (seat).
These valves generally have one-piece bodies that fit sandwich-style between two
pipe flanges. The two most common body types are wafer body and lug body. The wafer
body is placed between pipe flanges, and the flange bolts surround the valve body. The
lug body has protruding lugs that provide bolt holes matching those in the flanges.
Butterfly valves have continued to grow in popularity, generally at the expense of gate
valves, because they are lightweight, easy to install, low in cost, easy to actuate, and easy
to insulate and also because they feature one-quarter turn operation, tight shutoff (due to
resilient seal), and a variety of construction materials.
ix .Diaphragm Valves
A diaphragm valve uses a rubber, plastic or elastomer diaphragm to seal the stem.
The diaphragm not only seals the stem but forms the closure element. There are two
styles of diaphragm valves, one having a body with a weir and the other having a
straight-through body. On the weir type, the stem is connected to a finger arrangement,
which in turn presses the diaphragm down onto a weir. This creates an extremely tight
seal that will seal even on some solids.
Since the diaphragm is not metallic and forms the closure, the valve is severely
limited in pressure and temperature. A wide variety of diaphragm materials are available
for use with different fluids. To enable draining of horizontal pipelines, the weir valve
must be mounted 150 from the horizontal plane (because of the weir). This complicates
installation, especially with air actuators.
x. Pinch Valves
A pinch valve uses a round elastomeric sleeve connected to the valve body from
inlet to outlet that completely isolates the liquid passing through the valve from all
internal valve components. Closure is made by a movable closure element outside the
sleeve that pinches the sleeve between the element and the valve body. This type of valve
is used for slurry and other liquids with highly corrosive Properties
xi. Check Valves
Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These
valves are activated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid
passing through the system opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the
valve. Closure is accomplished by the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure,
by a spring, or by a combination of these means. Basic types are the swing check, lift
check, ball check, and wafer check designs.
The swing check valve has a hinged disk, sometimes called a flapper that swings on a
hinge pin. When flow reverses, the pressure pushes the disk against a seat. The flapper
may have a composition disk, rubber or Teflon, rather than metal when tight closure is
required. Swing checks offer little resistance to flow.
The lift check valve has a guided disk that is raised from the seat by upward flow
pressure. Reversal of flow pushes the disks down against the seat, stopping back flow.
Lift checks have considerable resistance to flow, similar to that of a globe valve. They are
well suited for high-pressure service.
The tilting-disc check valve is designed to overcome some of the weaknesses
inherent in conventional swing check valves. A combination of design features enables
the valve to open fully and remain steady at lower flow velocities and to close quickly
upon cessation of forward flow.
Another common check is a wafer design which fits between flanges in the same fashion
as a butterfly valve. Wafer checks come in two types: a dual flapper that is hinged on a
center post and a single flapper that is similar to the standard swing check. They are
generally used in larger size piping (4 in and larger) because they are much lighter and
less expensive than traditional flanged end swing check valves.
A demand check valve is of two-piece construction, with one piece having a spring-
loaded closure similar to the air values found on automobile tires. The second piece,
when inserted into the first, opens the valve, allowing free passage of air. The demand
check valve is used for connecting gauges, allowing removal without permitting air to
escape from the pipe.
A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe valve. It has a stem
which, when closed, prevents the disk from coming off the seat and provides a tight seal
(similar to a globe valve). When the stem is operated to the open position, the valve
operates as a lift check. The stem is not connected to the disk and functions to close the
valve tightly or to limit the travel of the valve disk in the open direction.
xii. Relief and Safety Valves
Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over-
pressurization of fluid systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety
valve is the extent of opening at the set point pressure. A relief valve gradually opens as
the inlet pressure increases above the set point. A relief valve opens only as necessary to
relieve the over-pressure condition. A safety valve rapidly pops fully open as soon as the
pressure setting is reached. A safety valve will stay fully open until the pressure drops
below a reset pressure. The reset pressure is lower than the actuating pressure set point.
The difference between the actuating pressure set point and the pressure at which the
safety valve resets is called blow down. Blow down is expressed as a percentage of the
actuating pressure set point. Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids
such as water or oil. Safety valves are typically used for compressible fluids such as
steam or other gases. Safety valves can often be distinguished by the presence of an
external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used as an operational check.
System pressure provides a force that is attempting to push the disk of the safety
valve off its seat. Spring pressure on the stem is forcing the disk onto the seat. At the
pressure determined by spring compression, system pressure overcomes spring pressure
and the relief valve opens. As system pressure is relieved, the valve closes when spring
pressure again overcomes system pressure. Most relief and safety valves open against the
force of a compression spring. The pressure set point is adjusted by turning the adjusting
nuts on top of the yoke to increase or decrease the spring compression.
xii.Control Valves
The control valve is an automated valve that can make precise adjustments to
regulate and monitor any commodity flowing through a piping system. The most
common valve body style used as a control valve is the globe valve. Although many other
body styles are used, the globe valve provides the most effective means to regulate and
control flow. Control valves use signals received from instruments positioned throughout
the piping system to automatically make adjustments that regulate the commodity within
the pipe. Though control valves can perform many functions, they are typically used to
control the flow of a commodity within a pipe or to limit its pressure.
Control valves must be arranged within a run of pipe so that they can be easily
operated. To achieve this, control\valve manifolds are configured. Control valve
manifolds make control valves readily accessible to plant workers.
Types of Valves Summary
Gate valves are generally used in systems where low flow resistance for a fully open
valve is desired and there is no need to throttle the flow. Globe valves are used in systems
where good throttling characteristics and low seat leakage are desired and a relatively
high head loss in an open valve is acceptable. Ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off
operation and have poor throttling characteristics. Plug valves are often used to direct
flow between several different ports through use of a single valve. Diaphragm valves and
pinch valves are used in systems where it is desirable for the entire operating mechanism
to be completely isolated from the fluid. Butterfly valves provide significant advantages
over other valve designs in weight, space, and cost for large valve applications. Check
valves automatically open to allow flow in one direction and seat to prevent flow in the
reverse direction. A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe
valve and incorporates the characteristics of both. Safety/relief valves are used to provide
automatic over pressurization protection for a system.
6.5 FLANGES
Flanges used when the joint needs dismantling. These are done mainly at equipments,
valves and specialties. In certain piping systems where maintenance is a regular feature,
break out flanges are provided at definite intervals on the piping. To erect the piping
system, every piece of mechanical equipment is manufactured with at least one outlet
called a nozzle. The nozzle is the point where, via the flange, the piping system is
connected to the equipment. From this flange, the piping system is begun.
• Flanges are covered under the following standards.
o Size ½” to 24” – ASME –B16.5
• 26” and above – ASME –B16.47
• Flange strength increases with class number.
• Material and design temperature combinations without pressure indicated not
acceptable.
• A flange has to be specified with the following details.
o Size
o Pressure rating
o Type of attachment to piping
o Facing of the flange
o Material of construction
Nozzle and flange
6.6 Rating flanges

Rating may be defined as the maximum pressure allowed by the pressure piping code for
the specific temperature at which the flange will be operating. Flanges and nozzles are
sized according to pressure ratings established by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). These pressure ratings, sometimes called pound ratings, are divided into
seven categories for forged steel flanges. Cast iron flanges have 4 categories.
Forged steel flanges pound rating
150#, 300#, 400#, 600#, 900#, 1500#, and 2500#
Cast iron flanges pound rating
25#, 125#, 250#, and 800#.

6.7 Types of flange facing
The mating surface of a flange, nozzle, or valve is called the face. The face is usually
machined to create a smooth surface. This smooth surface will help assure a leak-proof
seal when two flanges are bolted together with a gasket sandwiched between.
• Flat face
• Raised face
• Ring type
• Tongue and groove
•
Flat face: - This is used for 150#flanges, especially when connected to cast iron
equipments, valves etc, since cast iron flanges can break due to the movement induced
by bolting against a raised face.
Raised face: - Mostly flanges if 150# to600# ratings used in the petroleum industry will
be raised face. For 150# & 300# rating the raised face is of 1/16”and for higher ratings
it is ¼”.
Ring type joint: - These are used for high pressure services, normally 900# and above.
Tongue and groove: - These were used mainly for vacuum services, high temp/pressure
services. How ever, these are not recommended for use now-a-days due to corrosion in
the grove and also the problem of matching male &female flanges at each installation.
( Flat face)
(Ring type)
(Raised face)
Type of finish on flange face

The face finish depends on the types of gasket used .There are 2 types of finishes done to
flange facings.
• Smooth finish
• Serrated finish.
Smooth finish flanges are specified when metallic gaskets are used and serrated finish
flanges are used when with non metallic gasket are used. The finish as also specified
by a term called Arithmetic Averages Rough Lines Height (AARH) .It indicates the
depth of the serration in micro inches. Smooth finish will have a face finish of 125 –
250 AARH. Serrated finish for raised force flanges will have 250- 500 AARH. The
serrations provided on the facing could be concentric or spiral concentric serrations
are insisted, when fluid being carried has very low density and can leak through these
points.
6.8 FLANGE TYPE
Flanges have been designed and developed to be used in a myriad of applications. Each
one has its own special characteristics, and should be carefully selected to meet specific
function requirements. Type of flanges is given below;
Welding Neck flange: - These are attached to the piping by butt welding. There are
generally used for sizes 2” and above and critical services. The thickness of the welding
end of these flanges shall be same as the pipe schedule
Socket weld flanges: - They are used on sizes 1½ and smaller. Pipe is inserted in to the
socked on the flanges and is fillet welded.
Screwed flanges: - These are used on small bore piping of non critical services.
Slip-on flanges: - These are attached by welding inside as well as out side used for non
critical services.
Lap joint flanges: - This consists of a stub end which is welded on to the pipe and a
loose flange. These are normally used when the pipe material is costly for e.g.: - if the
piping is stainless steel, the stub end will be stainless steel and the loose flange will be
carbon steel which is cheaper.
Blind flanges: - These are used to close the ends which need to be reopened later.
Welding neck flange Socket weld flange Screwed flange
Slip-on flanges Lap joint flanges Blind flanges

6.9 Materials of construction for flanges
• Flanges are normally are normally forged except in very few cases, where they
are fabricated from plates.
• The normal material standards for forged flanges are
o ASTM A105 – Carbon steel

o ASTM A181 – Carbon steel for general purpose
o ASTM A182 – Alloy steel and stainless steel
o ASTM A350 – Alloy steel for low temperature services.
Material Specification List
Pressure - Temperature Ratings
6.10 BOLTS & GASKETS
Bolts and gaskets are used at flange connections in piping.
Bolting
• Bolt materials and type are selected based on service fluid & pressure temperature
rating. For low pressure & non critical services, machine bolts are used and for
other services studs are used.
• Machine bolt has hexagonal head at one and threads at other end. It is used with a
hexagonal nut and a round washer.
• A stud doesn’t have head and is fully threaded. It is used with two hexagonal nuts
and two washers.
• The length and diameter of studs / bolts required for flange joints of all pressure
classes are specified in ASME B16.5.
The most common bolting materials used in the petroleum industry
• ASTM A193-Alloy steel bolts for high temperature service

• ASTM A 194-Alloy steel nuts for high temperature service
• ASTM A 320-Alloy steel bolting materials for low temperature service.
• ASTM A 307- Low carbon steel bolting material.
The dimensional standards for bolts are
• ASME B 18.2.1- Square and hexagonal head bolts

• ASM B 18.2.2- Square and hexagonal nuts
Machine bolt Stud
Gaskets
Selection of gasket depends upon the following factors.
• Compatibility of the gasket material with the fluid.
• Ability to with stand the pressure – temperature of the system.
There are 3 types of gaskets normally used

• Non metallic flat gasket
• Metallic gasket
• Ring joint gasket.
Non metallic flat gasket
• Non metallic flat ring gasket is the least expensive and most common. There are
however an unconfined gasket subject to blow out, and is normally used only for
150# rating.
• Flat ring gaskets are used with raised face flanges.
• Full face gaskets are used with flat face flanges.
• The most common material is the compressed fiber jointing gasket, which
consists of a fibrous material, a binder and inert filler. Other nonmetallic
materials used are PTPE (Teflon), Rubber etc.
• Non metallic gaskets are manufactured to dimensional standard ASME B16.21
Metallic gasket
• Metallic gaskets are used for high pressure, high temperature services. They are
used for 150#, 300# and 600# ratings.
• The most common type of metallic gasket is the spiral wound gasket. They are
manufactured from a thin V-shaped metal strip and a strip of gasketing material
wound into a ring.
• The metal strip is usually 55304, but other materials can also be used for
corrosion resistance depending on the fluid.
• Spiral wound gaskets are provided with carbon steel external ring known as
centering ring, which helps in positioning the gaskets between the two flanges.
For critical services, an internal ring is also provided to avoid over compression of
the gaskets. The internal ring material should be suitable for the service fluid.
• Spiral wound gaskets are covered under standard ASME B 16.20
Ring joint gasket
• Ring joint gaskets are used with Ring type joint flanges for high pressure services,
normally 900# and above.
• These gaskets have either octagonal or oval cross section; however octagonal type
is preferred because of its larger contact area with the flange groove.
• The material of the gaskets should be suitable for the service fluid.
• Their hardness should be less than that of the material flanges to assure a tight
joint.
• Ring joint gaskets are covered under standard ASME B16.20
Non Metallic flat gasket Metallic gasket Ring joint gasket

CHAPTER VII
PIPING LAYOUT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A piping layout or piping general arrangement drawing is the most significant drawing
developed by a piping designer. The piping arrangement drawing evolves from the
foundation location and equipment location drawings. It shows all mechanical equipment
and vessels in the unit and the pipes connecting them, including manholes, ladders,
platforms, and davits. It identifies all structural supports such as pipe racks, equipment
structures, columns, braces and any fireproofing they may have. Once locations for
foundations and equipment have been established, piping configurations are added to the
drawing with the aid of symbols that represent fittings, flanges, and valves. Written
information placed on the arrangement drawing includes equipment coordinates,
identification numbers, elevation callouts, line numbers, flow arrows, and dimensions
establishing pipe locations. Instrumentation symbols are included to indicate type,
position, and orientation for accessibility by plant personnel. Ladders and platforms are
also shown on equipment and structures that have them. A nozzle schedule is included
that contains detailed information about all piping and instrument connections for every
piece of equipment. Information such as nozzle number, size and pound rating,
orientation, elevation, and projection is also included. With so much required information
on a drawing, it is easy to understand why the piping arrangement drawing must be neat,
accurate, and legible.
Piping is a major expenditure in the design and construction of industrial, refinery,
petrochemical, or power-generating plants when one considers engineering costs,
material costs, and fabrication and field labor costs. Proper planning and execution of the
design and routing of pipe can have a major impact on controlling the total installed cost.
The design department designing a refinery or petrochemical complex consists of four
main functions:
• Piping .
• Structural/ civil.
• Electrical & instrumentation.
• Equipments.
An experienced piping designer should have thorough knowledge of functions of the
piping department activities. In addition to this, he should have a broad knowledge of the
other sections also.
A piping designer must also know about the following:
• Details and specific requirements of various equipments which are connected by
his piping.
• Materials necessary for various services
• Piping flexibility basics.
• Field construction practices and constraints.
• General knowledge of plant operation and maintenance.
Piping design and equipment arrangement are interrelated subjects that cannot be well
taught in the classroom. Most good designers throughout history have learned their
profession by a combination of academic and practical work. Field and design office plus
a little shop experience is good preparation for designing.
The piping layout design is developed through three major sets of drawings. They are
• Equipment layout / plot plan.
• Piping General Arrangement drawing (piping plan).
• Piping isometrics.
To develop the above drawings the piping designer needs lot of information and
documents from various disciplines. Some of the major inputs required to start the piping
design are:
• Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) from process department .
• Line list from process department.
• Piping material specification.
• Overall site plan from civil department.
• Major equipment sizes and details.
• Drawings from other sources .
7.2 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Flow diagrams describe in a schematic drawing format the flow of fluids and gases
through a unit or an entire plant. By using symbols to represent various pieces of
equipment, the flow diagram provides the piping designer with an overall view of the
operation of a facility. The flow diagram is used by the piping group to develop and lay
out the plot plan. When developing the plot plan, the arrangement of the equipment in the
facility reflects, in part, the logical sequence of flow depicted on the flow diagram.
However, many other factors such as code requirements, client standards and preferences,
worker safety, and cost also influence the positioning of equipment.
Once the plot plan is finalized, the piping designer routes the pipe between two vessels as
indicated by the
flow diagram using piping specifications and accepted design practices. The flow
diagram is usually “yellowed out” as each line is completed and incorporated into the
design. Process engineers are responsible for developing flow diagrams. In many large
engineering firms, an entire department is dedicated to the development of flow
diagrams. The process flow diagram is the first flow diagram
developed by the flow diagram department. It includes the following:
• major equipment
• main piping
• direction of flow
• operating pressure and temperature
• major instrumentation
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A UNIT:

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM:
7.3 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)
P&ID is the main input required for piping design. It indicates the design process
equipment and interconnecting piping required to perform the function for which the
system is intended. It also indicates the instrumentation and control requirements. It
defines the sequence of equipment, valves, inline components, pipeline sizes, and overall
system arrangement required for proper system function. Piping and instrumentation
diagrams are the piping designer’s roadmap for laying out piping systems. The designer
should understand the P&ID and the specific system characteristics. P&ID are
representative schematics and are not drawn to scale.
The following information are taken from the P&ID by piping designer:
• Flow scheme.
• Piping material for each piping sections.
• Valve requirements and types of valves.
• Line size.
• Insulation and heat tracing requirements.
• Equipment connection details.
• Process vents and drain requirements.
7.4 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT / PLOT PLAN
Plot plan is derived from two drawings, site plan and equipment arrangement drawing.
The piping group produces a site plan into a small scale. It shows whole site including
boundaries, roads, buildings, railroad spurs, pavement, process plant areas, large
structures, storage areas, effluent ponds, waste disposal, shipping and loading areas. True
or geographic and assumed or plant north are marked and their angular separation is also
shown. Then a key plan is produced by adapting the site plan and dividing the area of the
site into smaller areas identified by key letters or key numbers. Equipments are arranged
by a piping group. The piping group usually makes several viable arrangements of
equipment, seeking an optimal design that satisfies process requirements. When the
equipment arrangement drawings are approved, they are developed into plot plans by the
addition of dimensions and coordinates to locate all major items of equipment and
structures. A pot plan shows the following:
• All equipments.
• Major structures.
• Main and sub pipe racks.
• Access ways.
• Control room.
• Space for future expansion.
• North and east extremities of building, center lines of steel work or other
architectural constructions.
• Plant north and true north
• Any other items of important.
Equipment layouts are drawn to scale of 1:50, 1:100, 1:250 etc depending on the size of
the plant and the number of equipments. Updated copy of the above drawings are sent to
civil, structural, electrical or other groups involved in design, to inform them about
requirements as the design develops.
For the correct placing of all the above items in an equipment layout, following inputs are
required:
• Available plot area.
• Process flow diagram.
• P&ID.
• Line list for sizing rack.
• Dimension of equipments / data sheets of equipments.
• Type of building, structures and foundations.
• Wind directions.
• Equipment erection, maintenance and operation requirements.
7.5 DRWAINGS FROM OTHER SOURCES
Piping drawings should be correlated with the following from design group and from
vendors. Points to be checked are listed:
7.5.1 ARCHITECTURAL DRWAING

• Outlines of walls or sidings, indicating thickness.
• Floor penetrations for stairways, lifts, elevators, ducts, drains etc.
• Positions of doors and windows.
7.5.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING DRWAING
• Foundation, underground piping, drains etc.
7.5.3 STRUCTURAL STEEL DRWAING
• Position of steel columns supporting next higher floor level.
• Supporting structures such as overhead cranes, monorails, platforms or beams.
• Wall bracing where pipes may be taken through walls.
7.5.4 HEAT VENTILATING & AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) DRWING
• Paths of drawing and rising ducts, fan room, space heater etc.
7.5.5 ELECTRICAL DRWAING
• Positions of motor control centers, junction boxes& control panels.
• Major conduits or wiring runs(including buried runs)
• Positioning of light.
7.5.6 INSTRUMENTATION DRWAING
• Instrumentation panel& console locations.
7.5.7 VENDOR DRWAING
• Dimension of equipment.
• Position of nozzle, flange type& pressure rating etc.
7.5.7 MECHANICAL DRAWING
• Position and dimension of mechanical equipment.
• Piped service needed for mechanical equipment.
7.6 LINE LIST
Line list is a document prepared by process engineers. Each line in a unit is listed in the
list.
Line list (line designation sheet or table) include:
• The number of the line
• Line size
• Material of construction
• Conveyed fluid
• Pressure, temperature, flow rate
• Test pressure
• Insulation and jacketing
• Connected line (which will usually branch)
A line list will look like as follows:
7.7 PIPING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DRAWING
Once, the equipment layout in finalized, the next step is to introduce the piping network
connecting the various equipments. This is done in another set of drawings called the
piping plan or piping general arrangement drawing.
The entire plant will be divided into numerous units or sections and each piping plan
shows the piping arrangement of a section.
Piping plans are normally drawn to scale of 1: 33.33. it shows the plan view of the plant
with detailed dimensions of the piping arrangement. Where required, sectional views and
elevations are also shown for more clarity.
7.8 CONSIDERATION FOR PLANT AND PIPING LAYOUT
As we have seen, developing a plant layout involves locating various equipments like
pumps, compressors, vessels, towers, furnaces etc. and arranging the piping network
connecting these equipments as per process schematic requirements given in the P&ID.
A good plant layout takes into account, the most important features of the plant such as
plant economy, appearance and arrangement of the equipment from aesthetic point of
view, proper maintenance facilities, safety considerations and to facilitate movement of
erection machinery like crane etc during the construction activities.
All these featured have direct bearing on the economy of the plant and a plant layout
designer has to consider carefully, all the above aspects to arrive at an optimum plant
layout.
Plant Economy:-
Second biggest cost factor for a plant like refinery, petrochemical or other process plant
is the piping cost. There is a good scope to achieve an economy by way of saving in
piping cost by improving up on plant layout. Basically, plant economy means installing a
plant in a smallest possible space, consistent operability , safety and law of maintenance
and using the smallest possible amount of piping material, structural steel or concrete.
Erection / Construction equipments:-
Erection scheme of all equipment must be considered during equipment layout. While
developing the equipment layout, the construction dept must be consulted for erection of
equipment. Adequate clearance and open access should be provided for erection of tall
columns, and heavy equipments.
Safety Requirements:-
Various international regulations, guidelines and safe practices set rules for minimum
distance between different types of equipments. The distance between fired heaters, Fuel
oil dry tank, control room, fire water hydrant /monitors, blow down facilities, water
spray deluge valve etc are mainly detected by safety consideration.
For e.g.:-Fired heaters shall be located minimum 15 m away from other hydrocarbon
units, to avoid a fire incase of a gas leak etc.
Similarly fire hydrant/monitors should be so located that incase of a fire, the operator
should be able to safety operate the Hydrant / Monitor.
Operation and maintenance requirements:-

Any plant is run by operators and adequate access for the operation to perform various
activities shall be provided. All the manually operated valves, instruments etc should
either be located at grade level or if at a higher level, suitable platforms, ladders etc shall
be provided. Similarly maintenance of equipments need adequate space. Sufficient
overhead and horizontal clearances shall be provided around each equipment for crane
access, removal of parts etc. It is also essential to have road access to equipments
facilitate access for cranes, trucks etc.
7,9 LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR PIPE RACK
Pipe rack is the structure with tiers at generally 3 to 4 levels and pipe laid on these tires.
One of the important steps in preparing an equipment layout is the arrangement of the
pipe rack with relation to the equipment. The simplest arrangement is the pipe rack in the
middle and the row of equipment on either side and access roads parallel to the row of
equipment on the both sides. But these type of arrangement require a long plot area and
in several cases, it may not be feasible. Hence “L” Shape, “H” shaped racks may be
considered.
The total width of the rack can be 6m, 8m and 10m for single bay and 12m and 16m for
double bay having three tires maximum.
• The spacing between pipe rack portals is generally taken as 3m.
• Clearance beneath pipe rack shall be 3m.
• Road clearance beneath pipe rack should be 7m for main road and 5m for
secondary road.
• A head room clearance of minimum 2.2 m is provided. For all lines to clear man
height.
• Locate the largest bore and the heaviest piping as close to stanchions as possible.
• Lines requiring a constant fall (relief headers) can be run on cantilevers from
pipe-rack stanchions or on vertical extensions to pipe-track stanchions.
• Run the hot line requiring expansion loops on the outside edge of pipe way to
permit loops to have greatest width over the pipe way and facilitate nesting.
• Takeoff elevations from pipe ways should be at a constant elevation, consistent
with the range of pipe sizes involved.
• Change elevation whenever banks of pipes, either on pipe ways at grade or at
higher elevations on pipe racks, change direction.
• Elevations to the underside of pipe racks should be the minimum for operation
and mobile maintenance equipment and consistent with allowable clearances.
• Open pipe trenches may be used between plants where there is no risk of
flammable vapors collecting.
• It sometimes is convenient to run open trenches alongside roadways. (Soil from
the trench can be used to build up the road.)
• Where a pipe way or road changes from a parallel direction, the pipe generally is
run beneath the road.
7.10 PIPE RACK SPACING
Arrangement and positioning are important factors in the layout of a piping facility.
Space is limited. Area and boundary limits force conservation of space. Arranging
equipment throughout the unit in an orderly and sequential fashion is a necessity.
Therefore, proper spacing and arrangement of pipe in the pipe rack requires special
attention. A pipe rack has a defined width; therefore, working within the allotted space
makes spacing crucial. Not only must pipe be arranged to take up a minimum amount of
space, but allowances should be made for any pipe that might be added in the future. Line
spacing dimensions are based on a clearance of 1” between the outside diameter of the
largest flange and the outside diameter of the adjacent pipe. The minimum spacing
between any two lines is 4”. If either of the lines is insulated, the thickness of the
insulation must be added. When lines are placed adjacent to a wall, column, building, or
other structure, a minimum clearance of 2’-0” is required from the outside diameter of a
flange. Pipes having orifice flanges also require a minimum clearance of 2’-0” on either
side of the pipe. Figure shows the requirements for establishing the minimum clearances
for line spacing. The line spacing chart shown in Table provides the minimum clearances
for pipe without insulation.
DRAWING PIPE IN THE RACK
When representing pipe in a pipe rack, the careful arrangement and organization of
names, dimensions, and line numbers will make the drawing easier to read. Figure shows
a pipe rack that has been well organized. Notice how the alignment of notes, dimensions,
and other callouts makes the drawing easy to read. The following guidelines will help
you organize your drawing:
• Keep flow arrows the same size and aligned.
• Line numbers should be left justified when possible.
• Pipe commodity should be identified on utility lines only.
• Line spacing dimensions should align across the pipe rack from one pipe support
column to the other. This allows coordinates for each pipe to be calculated since
each pipe support column is positioned using a coordinate.
7.11 LAYOUT CONSIDERATION FOR EQUIPMENTS
7.11.1 Layout consideration for pumps
• Locate pumps close to equipment from which they take suction.

• Consideration should be made to locate pumps under structures or with their
motor ends under a pipe rack.
• Pump suction lines are generally larger than discharge line to avoid problems
arising from a low net positive suction head (NPSH).
• End suction top discharge is the preferable option for pumps, when taking suction
directly from tanks or vessels located at grade.
• Pumps should be arranged in rows with center line of discharge is on a common
line.
• Clearance between pumps or pumps and pipes are a minimum of 900mm.
7.11.2 Layout consideration for compressors
• It is important to locate reciprocating compressors, anchors, and restraints for

pipes belonging to the compressor system on foundations that are independent of
any building, structure, or pipe track or rack. This independence gives the
associated piping stability and minimizes unnecessary fatigue and possible failure.
• Spacing between compressors and other equipment varies with the type of
machine and its duty.
• Particular attention must be paid to withdrawal of engine and compressor pistons,
cam shaft, crank shaft, and lube oil cooler bundle; cylinder valve maintenance
clearance with the least possible obstruction from piping supports.
• Compressors generally are provided a degree of shelter, that is, a sheets building.
Keep the sides up to 8 feet above grade and open and vent the ridge to allow for
escape of flammable gas, which might leak from the machines.
• Certain types of compressors, owing to the height of the mass foundation above
grade level, require a mezzanine floor of a grid construction to avoid trapping any
gas and for operation and maintenance.
7.11.3 Layout consideration for exchangers
• Tubular exchangers usually have standard length tubes of 2.5, 4, 5, and 6 m.

• Whenever possible locate exchangers at grade to facilitate maintenance and tube
withdrawal.
• Two or more shells forming one unit can be stacked or otherwise arranged as
indicated on the exchanger specification sheet, which is delineated by the
manufacturer.
• Exchangers with dissimilar service can be stacked, but rarely more than three
high, except for fin-tube-type units.
• Horizontal clearance of at least 900 mm should be left between exchangers or
between exchangers and piping.
• Where space is limited, clearance may be reduced between alternate exchangers,
providing sufficient space is left for maintenance and inspection access.
• Where a rear shell cover is provided with a davit, allow clearance for the full
swing of the head. Set overhead vapor exchangers or condensers at such elevation
that the exchanger is self-draining.
• Arrange outlets to a liquid hold pot or trap, so that the underside of the exchanger
tubes is above the liquid level in the trap.
• Arrange exchangers so that the fixed end is at the channel end.
• Vertical exchangers should be set td allow lifting or lowering of the tube bundle.
• Consult the Vessel Department as to the feasibility of supporting vertical
exchangers from associated towers.
• Space should be left free for tube or bundle withdrawal, with the exchanger
channels preferably pointing toward an access area or road.
• If an exchanger is situated well within the plot, leave a free area and approach for
mobile lifting equipment.
• Air fin exchangers, preferably, should be located in a separate row outside the
main equipment row, remote from the central pipe way.
• Consider locating air fin exchangers over the central pipe way if plot space if very
limited.
7.11.4 Layout consideration for fired heaters
• Fired heaters should be located at least 15 m away from other equipment that
could be a source of liquid spillage or gas leakage.
• To avoid accumulation of flammable liquids, no pits or trenches should be
permitted to extend under furnaces or any fired equipment, and if possible, they
are to be avoided in furnace areas.
• Ensure ample room at the firing front of the fired heater for operation and removal
of the burners and for the burner control panel, if required.
• Bottom-floor fired furnaces require adequate headroom underneath the furnace.
Wall fired furnaces require an adequate platform width with escape routes at each
end of the furnace.
• Apart from adequate platform and access to the firing front, other structural
attachments and platforms around furnaces should be kept minimum. Access by
means of stepladder is sufficient.
• Arrange fired heaters on a common center line, wherever possible.
• Provide unobstructed space for withdrawal.
• Operation and maintenance platforms should be wide enough to permit a 1-m
clear walkway.
• Escape ladders should be provided on large heaters.
• Vertical heaters usually are supplied with stub supporting feet; ensure drawings
show adequate supports elevated to the required height.
• Headroom elevation from the floor level to the underside of heater should be 2.3
m, to provide good firing control operation.
7.11.5 Layout consideration for columns
• Columns usually are self-supporting with no external structures.

• Circular or segmental platforms with ladders are supported from the shell.
• The maximum allowable straight run of a ladder before a break platform should
not exceed 9 m.
• The factors influencing column elevation are the provision of a gravity flow
system and installation of thermosyphon reboilers.
• Depending on the plant arrangement, columns may have to be elevated to a height
in excess of the normal requirements to allow for headroom clearance from lower-
level piping off-takes.
• The skirt height of all columns or vessels providing suction to pumps, particularly
if handling hot or boiling liquids should be adequate for the pump NPSH
requirements.
• Access platforms should be provided on columns for all valves 3" and above,
instrument controllers and transmitters, relief valves, manholes and blinds or
spades, and other components that require periodic attention.
• Platforms for access to level gauges and controllers should not be provided if
underside of supporting steelwork is less than normal headroom clearance from
grade.
• Adjacent columns should be checked, so that platforms do not overlap. For
layout, 2.0-2.5 m between shells, depending on insulation, should suffice.
• Allow a 900 mm minimum clearance between column foundation and the
adjacent plinth.
• Provide clearance for the removal of internal parts and attachments and for davits
at top of columns, if relevant.
• The center line of manholes should be 900 mm above any platform.
• Horizontal vessels should be located at grade, with the longitudinal axis at a right
angle to the pipe way, if possible.
• Consider saving plot space by changing vessels from the horizontal to the vertical,
if possible, and combining vessels together with an internal head (subject to
project or process approval).
• The size and number of access platforms on horizontal vessels should be kept to a
minimum and are not to be provided on horizontal vessels or drums when the top
of the vessel is 2.5 m or less from the grade.
• The channel end of vessels provided with internal tubular heaters should face
toward an open space. The withdrawal area must be indicated on studies, general
arrangements (GAs), and plot plans.
• Internal agitators or mixers are to be provided with adequate clearance for
removal. Removal area must be indicated on studies, GAs, and plot plans.
(COLUMN PIPING)
7.11.1 Layout consideration for tanks
• The layout of tanks, as distinct from their spacing should always take into
consideration the accessibility needed for firefighting and the potential value of a
storage tank in providing a buffer area between process plant and for example,
public roads and houses, for safety and environmental reasons.
• The location of tanks relative to process units must be such as to ensure maximum
safety from possible incidents.
7.12 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS TO ENSURE PIPING FLEXIBILITY AND

FACILITATE SUPPORTING
While routing the piping every effort has to be made to provide adequate flexibility in the
piping using a minimum number of fittings, loops at appropriate locations and flexible
joints. When a quick check the determines that the system is not flexible enough, the
designer reviews the system to determine whether or not he can re design, may be by
adding an elbow or two to increase flexibility.
Two cardinal principles in routing lines for economic support , restraint are:-
• Group the pipe lines so as to minimize the number of structures needed solely for
pipe supports and restrains.
• Keep lines located close to possible points of supports. i.e.:- Either to grade or
two structures which are to be provided for other purposes.
EQUIPMENT PIPING
While routing the piping to the equipments, care has to be taken to ensure that any special
requirements and constraints of the equipments operation, maintenance etc are taken in to
consideration.
For e.g. :- Pump suction piping shall be arranged with a particular care to avoid various
pockets or un necessary pressure drip and piping shall be as short as possible, to avoid
cavitations and ensured the required NPSH at the pump suction.
While routing compressor piping, adequate supports and clamps need to be provided to
contain vibration
Suction piping to centrifugal compressors should be designed to allow sufficient straight
length. i.e. 5D minimum of pipe (D= Diameter of pipe) immediately ahead of suction
nozzle to allow dissipation of un desirable flow distortion causes by elbows, valves or
other fittings At heat exchangers the piping shall not run in the way of the handling
facilities for tube-bundle removal.
The basic rule for the piping at the heat exchangers is- fluid being heated should flow up
and fluid being cooled will flow down. However if no considering or vaporizing can
occur during heat transfer, flow can be routed in any manner. In any case for best heat
transfer, reverse flow must be maintained. i.e. the flow should be in opposite directions.
Hence, designing the piping layout requires through understanding of the process
conditions and requirements, mechanical design, operation and maintenance features of
the connected equipments, Special requirements of the instruments, valves etc in the line,
to name a few.
Mastery in piping design can be achieved only by vast experience, continuous learning
process and interaction with various departments.
7.13 PIPING ISOMETRICS
Piping isometric drawings shows the pipe routing in the isometric view with detailed
dimensions, which can be used for fabrication of the piping spools. Isometrics are not
drawn to scale.
Other information shown in the isometric are
• Plant north
• Line number and specification
• Bill of material
• Stress analysis requirements
• Design temperature and pressure.
• Hydro test pressure.
• NDT requirements
• Insulation thickness, if insulated.
Documents required for making ISO
• Piping GA
• P and ID, Line list for process parameters
• Piping material specification
• Vendor drawings for equipment.
EXAMPLE: draw an ISO of a line starting from nozzle N1 of the pump P101 and goes
over the rack and reaches at the nozzle N1 of the vessel V101. Piping GA, material
specifications etc. are given.
7.14 STEPS FOR GENERATING ISOMETRICS FROM GENERAL
ARRANGEMENT DRAWINGS
• The line in our question is pump discharge line .It start from the discharge nozzle
of pump P-101, goes over the pipe rack and goes to the inlet nozzle (Ni) of the
vessel V-101
• Mark the ‘NORTH’ direction on the isometric drawing
• Start from the pump discharge nozzle. Draw the isometric according to the
routing given in the GA drawing
• All elevations, dimensions to be indicated
• Flow arrow to be indicated
• Pipe supports to be marked
• All the design and operation parameters and reference drawings to be indicated in
the appropriate columns
• Mark the reference coordinates.
BILL OF MATERIAL
• Each and every items shall be numbered as shown on the isometrics
• Each item number shall be described in the bill of materials column on the right
side of the isometric drawing
• Detailed description of the materials shall be taken from the piping material
specification
Mechanical Equipment
Although components such as pipe, fittings, flanges, and valves, which are used to
transport various commodities from one location in a piping facility to another, are
important and impossible to do without, they play a minor role in the actual
manufacturing of a salable product. Other components of a piping facility actually
perform the tasks for which the facility is being built. These items are known collectively
as mechanical equipment. Mechanical equipment is used to start, stop, heat, cool, liquefy,
vaporize, transfer, store, mix, or separate the commodity flowing through the piping
system.
Vessels
Horizontal Vessels/Accumulators
The horizontal vessel is a cylindrical-shaped storage tank whose long axis is parallel to
the horizon. It is used primarily as a receiving and collecting container for liquids and,
therefore, has no internal moving parts. Support saddles are welded on the underside of
the vessel to prevent it from rolling off its concrete foundations. A nozzle on the top
of the vessel allows liquids to enter and fill the vessel. A nozzle on the bottom allows the
liquids to be drawn out. Smaller nozzles can be used for venting and instrumentation
attachment. Instruments are needed to measure the level of the commodity within the
vessel. A large diameter nozzle, typically 18_ ID, called a manway, provides an entrance
for a worker into the vessel for internal inspection and maintenance.
Vertical Vessels/Fractionation Columns

The vertical vessel is a cylindrical vessel whose long axis is perpendicular to the horizon.
Easily the most visible piece of equipment, some vertical vessels can exceed 200 feet in
height. Fractionation columns have internal plates called trays that aid in the separation
and collection of the various molecular compounds of a feed stock. The process of
breaking down a feed stock into its molecular compounds is called fractional distillation.
After further refinement and processing, these compounds will become by-products such
as diesel, gasoline, kerosene, and many others.
Ladders, Cages, and Platforms

Many vessels and other pieces of equipment are built to such great heights they become
accessible only by ladders. Ladders allow workers to access the higher elevations of
equipment for routine inspection and maintenance. Ladders are made of steel bar and
plate, and are welded or bolted to the exterior of a vessel. Cages are designed to enclose a
ladder and prevent a worker from falling away should he lose his grip on the rungs. Made
of steel plate, cages provide the worker with a sense of security when scaling tall vertical
structures. Platforms are like small elevated walkways around the outside of a vessel or
between equipment and structures.
Pumps
Pumps are mechanical devices used to move fluids under pressure from one location to
another. Pumps accelerate the speed at which a commodity travels within a pipe, thereby
increasing its rate of flow. Pumps used in piping facilities will be one of the following
classifications: centrifugal, reciprocating, or rotary.
Centrifugal pumps
The centrifugal force created by the high speed impellers of a centrifugal pump creates a
smooth nonpulsating rate of flow. With a fast spinning impeller creating a low pressure
center point, any commodity entering the pump will naturally seek the center of the
impeller only to be spun out at a high rate of speed. The efficient operation of the
centrifugal pump makes it the standard of most piping facilities.
Reciprocating pumps
The reciprocating pump uses internal parts, similar to a piston or plunger, that alternately
move back and forth to create pressure. With each stroke of the piston, pressure is
increased forcing the commodity out of the pump. The reciprocating pump is installed in
piping systems where extremely high pressures are required.
Rotary pump
The rotary pump is similar to the reciprocating pump in that it is a positive displacement
type. Rotary pumps use mechanical devices such as pistons, gears, or screws to discharge
a commodity at a smooth, continuous rate of flow. It performs without creating the
extreme pressure surges often associated with the reciprocating pump.
Nozzle arrangements
To effectively locate a pump within a piping facility, one must consider the suction and
discharge nozzles. The suction nozzle is where the commodity enters the pump.
The discharge nozzle is where the commodity exits the pump. The positioning of the
nozzles on the pump is called pump nozzle arrangement. Depending upon the type,
pumps typically are available in five different nozzle arrangements.
To achieve maximum efficiency, most pumps are installed with the shortest possible
suction line.
Pump Drivers
All pumps require a starting device to function. These devices are known as drivers. The
driver is connected to the pump via a rotating shaft. The shaft turns the impellers, gears,
screws, or pistons to initiate the pumping action. An electric motor is the most commonly
used driver. As an alternative to electricity and as a back-up to the electric motor, a steam
turbine is often employed. The steam turbine can operate during power outages or when a
motor is being repaired or replaced. Steam turbines are also chosen over electric motors
for use in areas where explosive gases may be present. The electric current required to
power the motor is a possible source to ignite flammable gases. The turbine, driven by
steam, obviously reduces the possibility of an explosion. Figure 6-8 shows
an electric motor driver. A diesel engine is used during times of emergency. When piping
systems are shut down, diesel engines provide power to operate firewater systems and
other essential services. Limited to outdoor service only, diesel engines can be used when
conditions render electric motors and steam turbines useless.
Compressors
The compressor is similar to the pump, but it is designed to move air, gases, or vapors
rather than liquids. The compressor is used to increase the rate at which a gaseous
commodity flows from one location to another. Gases, unlike liquids, are elastic and must
be compressed in order to control their flow characteristics. Like pumps, compressors are
manufactured in centrifugal, reciprocating, and rotary configurations.
Exchangers
Another common piece of mechanical equipment is the exchanger. Its purpose in a piping
facility is to transfer heat from one commodity to another. Whether the objective is to
heat a liquid to a desired temperature or cool a product for final storage, the exchanger
can accomplish both. Exchangers do not mix commodities together, but rather transfer
heat through contact with a surface of a different temperature. A number of exchanger
types are available; they include the shell and tube, double pipe, reboiler, and air fan.
Shell and tube exchanger

The shell and tube exchanger performs its task by circulating a hot liquid around tubes
which contain a cooler liquid. The hot liquid circulates in an enclosed area called the
shell. Tubes containing the cooler liquid are looped through the shell. Hot liquid in the
shell warms the cooler liquid in the tubes, while the cooler liquid in the tubes cools the
warm liquid in the shell. Contact between the cool and hot liquids will naturally exchange
heat from the hotter to the colder.
Double pipe exchanger
Also known as the G-Fin or hairpin exchanger, double pipe exchangers are manufactured
with a single, small diameter pipe inserted into a larger diameter pipe. The two pipes
contain commodities of different temperatures similar to the shell and tube exchanger. To
prevent the two pipes of the exchanger from coming in contact with one another, thin
metal plates called fins are welded to the outside of the smaller pipe. These fins also aid
in the transfer of heat from one commodity to the other.
Double pipe exchanger

Reboiler
The reboiler, as the name implies, is used to replenish the temperature of a commodity.
Two types of reboilers are used; the kettle-type and thermosyphon. A kettle-type reboiler
is similar in design to the shell and tube exchanger. The thermo syphon reboiler is
attached directly to the bottom of a fractionating tower. Reboilers are used to keep fluids,
which are circulatingthrough a tower, at their boiling point. The process commodityenters
the reboiler from the tower in a liquid state, is heated by either super heated steam or
another hot liquid, and is returned in a vaporous state to an area in the tower called the
flash zone.
Air fan
Air fans are large fan-type coolers placed above or below a pipe rack that draw air across
pipes to cool them. Air fans operate on the same principle as an automobile's radiator,
only on a larger scale.
Cooling Towers
After circulating through equipment such as exchangers and condensers, cooling water
will have accumulated substantial heat gain. Without dissipating the heat gain, cooling
water will lose its cooling effectiveness. A cooling tower is a mechanical device that will
lower the temperature of cooling water. Cooling towers are uniquely designed to
dissipate heat gain by evaporating specific amounts of aerated water that has been
circulated through an air-induced tower. Although there is a significant amount of drift
the amount of water lost during the aerating and evaporation sequence) cooling towers
are extremely efficient and are widely used.
Heaters/Boilers
Heaters, or furnaces as they are also known, are used to raise the temperature of a feed
stock to the point where it can be used in a process facility. Some feeds, like crude oil,
must be heated to approximately 700°F before it can be piped into a fractionation
column. Lining the interior walls of a heater are pipes that travel in a continuous S or U
pattern. Burners, fueled with oil or gas, are used to generate the extreme temperatures
required in a heater.
Heaters can be of the vertical or horizontal type. Vertical heaters are often circular in
shape and have internal piping traveling in a vertical direction.
Boilers use the same principle as a heater. They are used primarily to generate super
heated steam or stripping steam. Constructed similar to a heater, boilers can raise the
temperature of water or condensate to 1,000°F or more.
Storage tanks
Storage tanks are used in several phases of the refining process. They can be used to store
crude oil prior to its use in the facility, as holding tanks for a partially refined product
waiting further processing, or to collect a finished product prior to its delivery or pick-up
by a customer. Usually placed within a common area of a facility known as a tank farm,
storage tanks come in various shapes and sizes. Some are shaped similar to horizontal
vessels and some are spherical, like a ball. The majority of storage tanks, however, are
huge, ground-supported vessels, as much as 200 feet in diameter and up to 60 feet tall.
Spherical tanks are used primarily for storing liquefied petroleum gases like butane,
methane, or propane. The larger tanks, used for storing liquid product, will have either a
conical, elliptical, open, or a floating roof. Floating roofs raise and lower to automatically
adjust to the level of the commodity in the tank. Floating roofs help reduce evaporation
and prevent the buildup of dangerous gases that often occur with flammable liquids. As a
preventative measure, dikes are erected to contain major leaks or spills. Should a storage
tank rupture or suffer severe damage, a dike would prevent major contamination to
surrounding areas. Dikes can be earthen dams or concrete walls built around a storage
tank at a height that would contain the entire contents of the storage tank should a spill
occur.
EQUIPMENT IN USE
Crude oil is the most common supply product used in petrochemical facilities. Known as
feed, crude oil is made up of molecules formed by thousands of different hydrogen and
carbon atom combinations. Because the molecules are different, each crude oil molecule
will boil at a different temperature. But, because they are comparatively similar in
molecular structure, groups of molecules often boil within a narrow range of each other.
These groups are called fractions. The process that will separate these fractions into their
various groups so they may be collected for further processing is called fractional
distillation.
From the storage tank facility, crude oil feed is pumped to a heater. Once inside the
heater, the feed is circulated through the pipes and heated to a temperature of
approximately 700°F. The boiling feed is then piped to the flash zone of the fractionating
column. The flash zone is the position in the fractionating column where the incoming
feed separates into vapor and liquid states. Inside the column, the heated crude oil
molecules will begin to group together according to their weights. The natural tendency
of lighter weight molecules to rise causes the light fractions, those with a low-
temperature boiling point, to vaporize and rise to the top of the column. Heavy fractions,
the heavier molecules with a high temperature boiling point, remain in a liquid state and
settle to the bottom of the column. The horizontal trays in the column, spaced 18_ to 24_
apart, act as a filter to separate the rising vapors and falling liquids into individual
fractions. As vapors rise through the column, they begin to cool and condense.
Condensing fractions collect on the trays and are drawn off through a nozzle. The liquid
fraction, now a by-product of the feed, is routed to other areas of the facility for
additional refinement and processing. If an excess of liquid collects on the tray, it will
overflow and fall down to a lower section of the column. There it is once again heated to
the point of vaporization. The vapors will begin to rise and start the process over again.
In the typical fractional distillation process, heavy by-products such as asphalt and tar
come off the bottom of the column as residue. As temperatures begin to decrease, heavy
oil products, which include fuel and lubricating oils, are extracted. At higher elevations in
the column, light oil products such as diesel fuel and kerosene are removed. Above the
kerosene, heavy naphtha, used in making motor gasoline, and light naphtha, used to make
aviation gasoline, are collected for further processing. The light naphtha is a prime
example of how further processing can yield additional products. When the light naphtha
vapors are removed from the top of the column, they are sent through exchangers to be
condensed. As the liquid naphtha is condensed, it is piped to an accumulator for
collection. In the accumulator, the liquid naphtha settles to the bottom and is pumped
away for additional processing to later become aviation gasoline (av gas). The naphtha
vapors left in the accumulator rise to the top and are removed by a compressor to be
further processed into liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) such as butane, methane, and
propane.
EQUIPMENT TERMINOLOGY
The following list identifies items generally associated with mechanical equipment and
vessels: Base plate. A flat, metal ring welded to the bottom of a vessel’s supporting skirt
that rests on a concrete foundation. Holes around the perimeter of the metal ring make it
possible to position it over anchor bolts and secure it to the foundation.
• Skirt. A cylinder shaped support for a vertical vessel. One end is welded to the base
plate allowing it to rest on the foundation and the other end is welded to the bottom head
of a vertical vessel.
• Head. The end enclosures of a vessel. They can beeither semi-elliptical, spherical, or
dished.
• Shell. The cylindrical walls of a vessel.
• Skirt access opening. An 18_ ID hole 2_-6_ above thefoundation that allows workers
entrance for inspectionand maintenance.
• Skirt vents. Equally spaced holes approximately 3”to 4” in diameter bored near the top
of the vessel skirt that allow toxic and explosive gases to escape.
Skirt fireproofing. Generally brick or gunite, fireproofing is applied around the interior
and exterior walls of a vessel skirt. It is necessary to prevent damage to vessel skirt in
case a fire occurs.
• Nozzle. The tie-in connection between the vessel or\equipment and the piping system.
Nozzles areprovided in locations where a commodity is either introduced or removed
from a vessel or piece of equipment.
• Nozzle orientation. The angular arrangement of nozzles around the perimeter of a
vessel’s shell.
• Nozzle projection. Used to establish the distance from the vessel’s centerline to the
nozzle’s face of flange.
• Reinforcing pad. A plate contoured to the shape of a vessel shell. It is positioned around
nozzles and provides additional strength in the areas where metal was removed from the
shell.
• Manholes. Similar to large nozzles that allow workersentry points into a vessel. They
generally are 18” ID and are accessible by ladders and platforms. When not in use, the
manhole is sealed with a blind flange.
• Manhole hinge: A hinge that creates a pivot point allowing the blind flange attached to
the manhole to be easily removed for worker entrance.
• Seal pan. A tray installed below the bottom tray in a vessel to prevent liquids from
bypassing the trays.
• Trays: Flat metal plates spaced approximately 18_ to 24_ apart inside a vertical vessel.
They can be bolted or welded to the vessel shell. Trays are perforated to allow rising
vapors and falling liquids to pass through with the aid of a valving mechanism called a
cap.
• Weir: A dam-like plate welded on a tray that allows a fractionated by-product to collect
and be extracted by a nozzle.
• Down comers: Openings adjacent to a tray that allow liquids flowing over a weir plate
to fall to the tray below and begin the fractionation process over again.
• Insulation rings: Continuous circular rings welded to the exterior of a vertical vessel
that support a vessel's insulation.
• Saddles: U-shaped supports welded on horizontal vessels and exchangers. Saddles are
bolted to concrete foundations and create a cradle-like support in which the vessel can
rest.
• Lifting lugs: Donut-shaped rings welded to the vessel’s shell or head that allow the
vessel to be raised and positioned during installation.
CHAPTER VIII
PIPING DESIGN BASE

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Design bases are the physical attributes, loading and service conditions, environmental
factors, and materials-related factors which must be considered in the detailed design of a
piping system, to ensure its pressure integrity over its design life.
• Physical Attributes
• Loading and Service Conditions
• Environmental Factors
• Materials-Related Considerations
• Pressure Integrity
Physical Attributes
Physical attributes are those parameters that govern the size, layout, and dimensional
limits or proportions of the piping system.
Dimensional standards have been established for most piping components such as
fittings, flanges, and valves, as well as for the diameter and wall thickness of
standard manufactured pipe.
Certain types of piping systems require special design practices for configuration
control, to ensure constructability, or in-service performance.
Loading and Service Conditions
• Loading conditions, or loads, are forces, moments, pressure changes, temperature

changes, thermal gradients, or any other parameters that affect the state of stress
of the piping system.
• Loads may be external to the piping system, such as environmental temperature
changes or wind loads; or they may be internal to the system, such as internal
fluid pressure or temperature changes.
• Service conditions are combinations of loads or load sets that occur
simultaneously, therefore the piping system must be designed to withstand their
combined effects.
• Occasionally, the service conditions will be specified by the piping design code.
• Where service conditions are not specified by a particular code, the designer
should review the various loading conditions that the piping system is exposed to
and formulate the combinations that must be considered in design.
Environmental Factors
• The term environmental factors refers to operating conditions that result in

progressive physical or chemically induced deterioration of the piping system
which can ultimately lead to a breach of the pressure boundary or a gross
structural failure.
• The most common examples of Environmental factors include corrosion, erosion,
and physical damage.
• Failures that are the result of environmental factors are usually slow to progress
and frequently involve localized areas of the piping system.
Materials-Related Considerations
• Materials-related considerations are the specific chemical, metallurgical, and

physical properties of a piping system’s material constituents that can ultimately
determine its suitability for a particular service.
• This is an important consideration that will determine the adequacy of
performance of a piping system where extremes of temperature, chemical attack,
or erosion are significant factors in its operation.
Pressure Integrity
• Pressure integrity is the maintenance of a leak-tight condition in piping systems

pressure-containing boundaries coincident with the control of the level of stress or
strain within predefined criteria limits.
• Maintenance of the pressure integrity of a piping system, within predefined
criteria limits, is a major objective of the design process.
8.2 Use of codes and standards in piping system design
• The assurance that the design and construction of a piping system will meet
prescribed pressure-integrity requirements is achieved through the use of
published codes and standards.
• The most widely used codes and standards for piping system design are published
by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) accredits many of these codes and standards.
Differentiation between Codes and Standards
Codes
• Piping codes provide specific design criteria such as permissible materials of

construction, allowable working stresses, and load sets that must be considered in
design.
• In addition, rules are provided to determine the minimum wall thickness and
structural behavior due to the effects of internal pressure, deadweight, seismic loads,
live loads, thermal expansion, and other imposed internal or external loads.
• Piping codes provide design rules for nonstandard components and for the
reinforcement of openings in the pipe wall.
• They do not provide design rules for standard in-line components such as valves,
flanges, and standard fittings; rather, they define the design requirements for these
classes of components by reference to industry standards.
Standards
• Standards provide specific design criteria and rules for individual components or
classes of components such as valves, flanges, and fittings.
• There are two general types of standards: Dimensional and Pressure integrity.
• Dimensional standards provide configuration control parameters for components.
• The main purpose of dimensional standards is to ensure that similar components
manufactured by different suppliers will be physically interchangeable
• Pressure-integrity standards provide uniform minimum-performance criteria.
• Components designed and manufactured to the same standards will function in an
equivalent manner
• Statute or regulation does not normally mandate standards; rather they are usually
invoked by a construction code or purchaser’s specification.
The ASME Pressure Classification System
• The ASME pressure classification system meets the needs of industry by providing
quantitative performance standards for a wide range of piping components, based
upon a manageable number of operational variables.
• The pressure classification system in ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings, will be used for illustration.
• ASME B16.5 provides seven pressure classes for flanges. They are Classes 150, 300,
400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500.
• The pressure-temperature ratings for flanges representing all material groups are
organized within 34 tables, one for each material group.
• The table is organized with the pressure classes listed across the top and the
maximum working temperatures along the left-hand border.
• The body of the table provides the pressure ratings for flanges from each pressure
class, at the given temperature.
Example:
Assume that an ASTM A105 carbon-steel flange is required to satisfy a pressure
rating of 1060 psig (7310 kPa gage) at 650F (343C). ASTM A105 is a material group
1.1 material.
SOLUTION:
Entering Table B2.3 from ASME B16.5 at a temperature of 650F (343C), a Class
600 flange is found to have a rating of 1075 psig (7420 kPa gage) at 650F (343C).
Therefore, a Class 600 ASTM A105 flange is suitable for the stated conditions.
8.3 PIPING JOINTS
• Joint design and selection can have a major impact on the initial installed cost, the
long-range operating and maintenance cost, and the performance of the piping
system.
• Factors that must be considered in the joint selection phase of the project design
include material cost, installation labor cost, and degree of leakage integrity required,
periodic maintenance requirements, and specific performance requirements.
Common piping system joints are:
• Butt-welded Joints
• Socket-welded Joints
• Brazed and Soldered Joints
• Threaded or Screwed Joints
• Grooved Joints
• Flanged Joints
• Compression Joints
8.4 LOADING CONDITIONS
• Loading conditions may be classified as either Sustained or Occasional

• Sustained loads act on the piping system during all or at least the great majority of its
operating time. These loads are time-invariant. EG: deadweight of the pipe plus its
contents or the pressure load, including the effects of static head.
• Occasional loads are transient and act during relatively small percentages of the
system’s total operation time. EG: surges due to pump start-up and shutdown or
pressure depressions and/or peaks due to sudden valve actuations.
Design Pressure
• The design pressure is the maximum sustained pressure that a piping system must
contain without exceeding its code-defined allowable stress limits
• In single-compartment systems the design pressure is the maximum differential
pressure between the interior and exterior portions of the system
• In multi-compartment systems the design pressure is the maximum differential
pressure between any two adjacent compartments
• The design pressure is not to be exceeded during any normal steady-state
operating mode of the piping system.
• In formulating the design pressure, the designer must consider all potential
pressure sources.
• Among the more common sources to be considered are:
o The hydrostatic head due to differences in elevation between the high and
low points in the system
o Back-pressure effects
o Friction losses
o The shutoff head of in-line pumps
o Frequently occurring pressure surges
o Variations in control system performance
Variations in System Pressure
• It is reasonable to expect that short-duration transient system pressure excursions

in excess of the steady-state design pressure will occur during normal system
operation
• These transients, or occasional pressure excursions, may be tolerated without
increasing the basic system design pressure, provided that the pressure increase
does not exceed predefined limits and provided that the amount of time that the
transients act does not exceed a specified percentage of the total system operating
time
• For such variations, either pressure or temperature, or both, may exceed the
design values if the computed circumferential pressure stress does not exceed the
maximum allowable stress from Appendix A for the coincident temperature by:
• A. 15% if the event duration occurs less than 10% of any 24 hour operating period
• 20% if the event duration occurs less than 1% of any 24 hour operating period.
• FROM PARA 104.1.2 OF B31.1,maximum allowable stress on a straight pipe is:
P = 2SE(tm-A)
Do-2y(tm-A)
• For transient pressure conditions that exceed the design pressure by 10 percent or
less and act for no more than 10 percent of the total operating time, the transient
may be neglected and the design pressure need not be increased
• For transients whose magnitude or duration is greater than 10 percent of the
design pressure or operating time, the design pressure should be increased to
envelop `the transient.
8.5 DETERMINATION OF THE PIPING WALL THICKNESS FOR INTERNAL

PRESSURE
Pipe wall thickness calculation for internal pressure is performed as per formula given in
piping code ASME B 31.3
Internal pressure design thickness t = PD

2(SE+PY)
t = pressure design thickness (cm).
P = Internal design gauge pressure (kg/cm2g).
D = Outside diameter of the pipe (cm).
S = Allowable stress value of the pipe material at the design pressure. This is given in
ASME B 31.3 Table A 1.
E = Quality factor from Table A-1 B of ASME B 31.3
Y= Quality factor from Table 304.1.1 of ASME B31.3
The thickness‘t’ calculated as per this formula is the minimum thickness required to
withstand this internal pressure.
The minimum required thickness Tm is calculated by adding the corrosion allowances to
the value‘t’
Tm= t + corrosion allowance
The corrosion allowance depends on the corrosive nature of the fluid in service and
typical value for normal hydro carbon services, corrosion allowance of 3mm is
considered. Basically this is calculated by multiplying the expected corrosion rate
(mm/year) by the design life of the system (year).
For e.g. - If the corrosion allowance = 0.075*20 = 1.5mm.
On this thickness including corrosion allowance, a mill tolerance of 12.5% is considered
at the final thickness.
Example:-
Find the wall thickness for 10” pipe with the following condition.
Design pressure – 20 kg/cm^2
Design Temperature - 80˚C (176 F)
Corrosion allowance - 1.5 mm
Pipe material – API 5LG.B (Seamless)
SOLUTION
Outside diameter of 10” pipe = 273 mm = 27.3
Allowable stress for pipe material
at design temperature of 80˚C = 20000 psi = 1400 kg/cm^2g
Quality factor E = 1 (for seamless pipe)
Y = 0.4
t= PD
2(SE+PY)
= 20*27.3 / 2[(1406*1) + (20*.04)] = 0.193 cm = 1.93 mm
Adding corrosion allowance, t = 1.93+1.5= 3.43 mm

If Tm is the required minimum thickness, and negative mill tolerance to the considered is
12.5%,
Tm* 0.875 = 3.45 mm
Tm = 3.43 / .875 = 3.92 mm
The next higher available schedule to be selected.
8.6 PIPE WALL THICKNESS FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Pipe wall thickness calculation for vacuum or external pressure lines are not covered in
ASME B 31.3. The code states that this calculation has to be done as per the method
gives in ASME section VIII div 1. ASME section VIII is the code for under vacuum
service or under external pressure. This method can be used for calculating wall thickness
of pipes under external pressure.
Design Temperature
• The design temperature is the temperature at which the allowable stresses for all
pressure-retaining parts of the piping system are assigned
• The design temperature must be equal to or greater than the maximum sustained
temperature that the pressure-retaining components will experience during all
normal and expected abnormal modes of operation.
• The design temperature of the system’s pressure-retaining metal parts is normally
assumed equal to the maximum free-stream fluid temperature.
• While the pressure-integrity design is based upon the design temperature, most
other thermally related aspects of the design are based upon the normal operating
temperature.
• The normal operating temperature is the temperature achieved by the system fluid
while the system is operating in full-load, steady-state, non-transient conditions.
• It is lower than the design temperature
• The normal operating temperature is used as the basis for all thermal design
analyses that relate to the structural integrity of the piping system, including the
thermal flexibility analysis, the spring hanger sizing and setting calculations, and
the thermally induced anchor movement calculations.
Deadweight
• The deadweight (self-weight) of a piping system consists of the sum of the

distributed loads from the weight of the pipe itself, its thermal insulation, and/or
other uniformly applied covering materials, plus the sum of the weights of any
permanently installed concentrated loads such as valves, strainers, or other in-line
appurtenances.
• External loads on the piping system such as wind loads, snow and ice loads, and
the weight of the fluid contents are considered as live loads.
Wind Load
• Wind load, like deadweight, is a uniformly distributed load that acts along the
entire length or that portion of the piping system that is exposed to the wind.
• Wind loads are horizontally oriented and may act in any arbitrary direction
• When wind loading is a factor, a separate structural evaluation and wind load
support system design is required
Snow and Ice Loads
• Snow and ice loads, like wind loads, need to be considered in the design of piping
systems which are installed outdoors, particularly if the installation is made in the
northern latitudes.
• Since snow and ice loads act in the vertical direction, they are treated the same as
deadweight loads.
• Based upon the data from Table B2.4, the following relationship for the design
snow load for outdoor piping systems may be used:
Ws = 1 DoS50
2
Where,
Ws - Design snow load to be added to other distributed loads acting on pipe (lb/ft).
Do - Outside diameter of pipe or insulation (ft).
S50 - 2 percent probability snow loading for nearest appropriate location from Table B2.4,
lb/ft2.
Ice Loads
• Ice storms are sporadic in the frequency of their occurrence and in their intensity
• Once the appropriate design thickness is determined, the following formula may
be used to estimate the unit loadings on an exposed pipeline due to ice
accumulation:
W/L =1.3t (Do+t)
Where
W/L =unit loading on pipe, lb/ft.
Do = outside diameter of pipe or insulation lagging (in).
t = assumed iced covering thickness (in).
Seismic (Earthquake) Loads
• Under certain circumstances it is necessary or desirable to design a piping system

to withstand the effects of an earthquake
• Because of the higher construction costs and design complexities introduced by
the application of seismic design criteria; this type of work is normally done only
in response to specific regulatory, code, or contractual requirements.
• In general, seismic analysis of nuclear power plant piping is done to demonstrate
that the piping system satisfies one of two specific objectives:
o Operability
o Structural Integrity.
Operability
• The design of the piping system is such that it will retain its pressure-integrity
status and remain capable of performing its design function before, during, and
after the occurrence of a postulated seismic event at the plant site.
• Piping systems designed to meet operability criteria must normally comply with
code-specified stress limits during the postulated earthquake
Structural Integrity
• The only requirement is that the piping system retain its gross structural integrity
so that it does not deflect excessively or cause the generation of secondary
missiles
• Either condition could cause impact and subsequent unacceptable damage to
adjacent safety-related structures, systems, or components.
• Piping designed under this classification is normally allowed to attain stress
levels, due to seismic excitation, well in excess of normal code limits.
Contractual Arrangement
Under certain specific circumstances, an agreement might be reached to seismically
design a piping system; this agreement would be made between the owner-operator of the
system and another organization which has a vested financial interest in it, such as an
insurance carrier.
Methods of Analysis
There are three methods of analysis in common use for the seismic design of piping
systems:
• Static coefficient method
• Response spectra modal analysis method
• Time history analysis method
The static coefficient
This method is the easiest to apply, but due to simplifying assumptions, it provides a very
conservative design.
Response spectra modal analysis method

The response spectra modal analysis method is about midway in complexity and provides
a lesser degree of conservatism. This is the method used for the majority of piping system
analysis and design.
Time history analysis method

This method is the least conservative and the most difficult to apply. This approach is
used only when the most exacting (and least conservative) results are required.
Effects of Seismic Analysis on Overall Design

The design costs associated with seismic analysis of a piping system go far beyond the
simple costs of analyzing the piping system for ‘‘just one more load.’’ A piping system is
usually a subordinate part of a larger structure, typically a building. Seismic qualification
of a piping system also leads to greatly increased construction costs.
Some of the principal contributors to those costs include the following:
• Higher Loads
• Multiple Load Paths
• Special Supporting Devices
• Hydraulic Transient Loads
Higher Loads
If the frequency content of the seismic excitation forces is coincident with the natural
frequencies of the piping system, resonant amplification of the forcing function loads will
occur. The resulting support system loads will be much higher than corresponding loads
caused by deadweight effects alone. These higher loads translate to heavier, and
consequently more expensive, supporting structures.
Multiple Load Paths
The multidirectional load characteristics of earthquake acting on seismically qualified
piping systems invariably result in the application of upward and/or lateral reactions on
the building structure which would not be present in a typical static design.
Special Supporting Devices

Seismic design of high-temperature piping systems represents an especially challenging
exercise. Thermal expansion effects require that the piping system be flexibly supported
to allow for free thermal growth. The dynamic aspects of the design usually require that
the piping system be rigidly supported during the earthquake to transfer the seismic loads
back into the building structure. The simultaneous consideration of these diametrically
opposite requirements results in the need to use a significant number of specialized (and
therefore expensive) pipe support devices called snubbers. Snubbers lock up and carry
load when subjected to the rapidly varying vibratory loads associated with an earthquake,
yet remain free to permit thermal movement of the piping system during the relatively
slow expansion or contraction caused by temperature changes.
Hydraulic Transient Loads

Of all the loading conditions that a piping system may experience in service, hydraulic
transients are among the most damaging. The most common form of damage caused by
hydraulic transient loads is the failure of pipe supports and supporting structures.
However, occasional breaches of pressure integrity are also experienced, particularly
where large-diameter thin-walled pipe is involved.
Two common types of hydraulic transient loads are;
o Waterhammer
o Relief valve discharge
o Acoustically Induced Vibration Loads
o Relative Anchor Movements
Waterhammer
o If the velocity of water or other liquid flowing in a pipe is suddenly reduced, a
pressure wave results which travels up and down the piping system at the speed of
sound in the liquid. Depending upon the initial velocity and physical properties of the
liquid and the mechanical properties of the piping system, the peak value of the
pressure wave may exceed the steady-state pressure.
o It frequently occurs in systems that are subject to rapid changes in fluid flow rate,
including systems with rapidly actuated valves, fast-starting pumps, and check valves.
It is most severe in systems which convey fully condensed liquids; however, it is
possible to develop waterhammer-type pressure transients in systems containing two-
phase fluids and gases, although the magnitude of the pressure rise for these systems
will generally be lower.
o It must be considered in the design of those systems where it is likely to occur. For
systems designed to codes that provide higher allowable stress criteria for occasional
loads, the waterhammer-induced peak pressure should be evaluated under that
loading category.
Relief Valve Discharge Loads

Because of the rapid opening characteristics and generally high flow rates, the actuation
of relief valves frequently results in the application of significant loads to the associated
piping system. These loads are caused by the differential pressures across the valves,
differential pressure between the valve discharge and the downstream discharge piping,
and differential pressure.
Acoustically Induced Vibration Loads

When a piping system is exposed to fluctuating pressure disturbances, or pulsations, it
frequently responds by vibrating. The magnitude and nature of the piping system
vibration are dependent upon the frequency and energy content of the excitation. Low- to
moderate-level periodic excitation, such as the pressure pulsations from positive-
displacement or constant-speed centrifugal pumps, will not ordinarily excite significant
levels of response in the piping system as long as the excitation frequencies are well
removed from the natural vibrating frequencies of the pipe. If the pulsation frequency of
the disturbance coincides with the natural frequencies of the piping system, however,
resonant vibration can occur. Resonant response normally results in vibratory amplitudes
many times that which would occur if the disturbance did not coincide with the natural
frequencies of the piping system. Broad-spectrum or random excitation of the type
associated with cavitations, bubble collapse, and extreme pressure reductions can also
lead to resonant vibration. This type of vibration is known as self-excited vibration. The
piping system draws energy from the broad-spectrum excitation and responds by
vibrating at its own fundamental or harmonic natural frequencies.
Relative Anchor Movements

Every piping system requires some type of support system to function properly. The
piping system can be supported from a building or other structure on traditional pipe
hangers or from the ground on piers or bents. As long as all the piping system’s support
points remain motionless relative to the piping system and relative to one another, the
system is unaffected. However, if some of the piping system’s supports move relative to
the pipe or relative to one another, the piping system will attempt to follow that motion
and will experience a change in its state of stress. This condition is called relative anchor
movement.
Some of the common causes for relative movement include;
o Thermal expansion-related movement of the connection point on a larger piping

system, where the subject system is attached.
o Earthquake-induced relative movements of the various points on a building’s
structure where the subject piping system is supported.
o Thermal expansion or mechanically induced movements of a piping connection
(nozzle) on a machine, pressure vessel, or heat exchanger.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
An attribute that is common to all environmental factors is that they effectively shorten
the useful life of the piping system compared to what it would be if the factors were not
present.
The four specific environmental factors;
• Corrosion
• Erosion
• Physical damage
• Erosion-corrosion.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the loss of load-carrying material in the pipe wall due to an electrochemical
reaction between the piping material and the process fluid, or the environment. It is
normally accounted for in design by the provision of additional material in the pipe wall,
the use of a suitable coating or lining, or the specification of a corrosion-resistant
material. Frequently, the method used to deal with corrosion depends upon the corrosion
rate. When corrosion is anticipated to occur at a slow, regular rate and this rate can be
reliably predicted, it may be accommodated by the provision of excess material in the
pipe wall known as the corrosion allowance. This excess material will be consumed over
the design life of the piping system and therefore cannot be counted upon to serve any
other purpose such as pressure integrity, structural strength, or mechanical strength.
Erosion
Erosion is the wearing away of a surface by abrasion. The abrasion may be the result of
particles suspended in the fluid stream, or it may be the result of direct action by the fluid
itself. When the erosion rate is small and consistent, and reliable quantitative data
concerning that erosion rate are available, an erosion allowance may be provided in the
design. Excess material, over and above that required for pressure integrity and structural
and mechanical strength, is provided. This excess material is allowed to waste away over
the design life of the piping system. When the erosion process is not readily quantified, a
more qualitative approach to design is normally taken. One approach is to specify special
erosion-resistant piping system materials. High-hardness materials are generally effective
in resisting erosion. An alternative approach is to modify the piping system geometry to
minimize or eliminate turbulent flow, direct pipe wall impingement, and vortex flow, all
of which increase piping system erosion.
Physical Damage
Physical damage or abuse also can be a significant factor in the design of piping systems.
This is particularly true of low-pressure, thin-walled piping, which has little resistance to
external loadings. Direct buried pipe is subject to damage from soil pressure and loads
from overhead traffic. Uniformly distributed soil pressure loads can normally be
estimated with reasonable accuracy. The effects of heavy concentrated overhead loads
cannot be accounted for as easily. Consequently, pipelines which run under heavily
trafficked roads or railroad tracks are frequently run through oversized sleeves or
conduits which prevent the imposed loads from being directly transmitted to the pipe.
Piping systems of all sizes that carry important services, toxic fluids, or high pressure,
high-temperature fluids should be physically protected from impact from passing motor
vehicle traffic, including such vehicles as industrial forklift trucks. The preferred method
of protection is to route the piping outside the reach of passing traffic. Where this is not
possible, substantial barriers should be erected to protect the piping from impact. Small-
diameter piping takeoffs from large headers such as vents, drains, and instrumentation
source connections are particularly prone to damage from unspecified external loads.
Common design practice is to make the small piping from the header out to the first
isolation valve at least one schedule heavier than called for by the pressure design.
Similarly, the first isolation or root valve is normally made one or two pressure classes
heavier than called for by pressure design considerations. These steps may make the
small lines durable enough to resist random impact or other undefined external loadings
that can occur during shipping, construction, or operation.
Erosion-Corrosion (Flow-Assisted Corrosion)

When iron or steel corrodes in water, a soluble oxide layer called magnetite is formed.
If this magnetite layer is swept by water it causes localized corrosion. This is called
erosion-corrosion and also known as flow-assisted corrosion (FAC).
A number of factors have been affecting the rate of erosion-corrosion (FAC) in piping
systems. In wet-steam systems,
o Percentage of moisture
o Material composition
o PH
o Water chemistry
o Temperature,
o Oxygen level,
o Flow path geometry
In water piping systems,

o Piping material
o Temperature
o PH
o Oxygen level
o Flow path geometry
Carbon steel is known to be highly susceptible to erosion-corrosion (FAC). Both

chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) and austenitic stainless steels are significantly less
susceptible.
MATERIALS-RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
The variety of piping system materials currently in use is extensive and continually
growing. The purpose of material-related consideration is to provide a brief overview of
the common engineering properties of those materials and to describe how those
properties influence the design process. For the most part, discussions of specific material
characteristics will be limited to plain-carbon and low-alloy steel piping materials.
Strength
Most piping design codes relate the allowable working stresses for materials to their yield
strength or ultimate tensile strength at the working temperature.
For example, the allowable working stresses for materials used for construction in
accordance with ASME B31.1, Power Piping, are developed using rules defined in the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II, Materials. At any temperature below
the creep range, those rules require that the allowable working stress be set at a value no
greater than the lowest of the following alternatives;
One-fourth of the specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature
One-fourth of the tensile strength at operating temperature
Two-thirds of the specified minimum yield strength at room temperature
Two-thirds of the yield strength at operating temperature
When carbon steels are exposed to temperatures greater than 7750F (4130C) for long
periods, the carbide phase may convert to graphite. So it becomes brittle.
For above 7750F we use only alloy steel.
Toughness
Toughness or ductility is the ability of a material to resist impact, to withstand repeated
reversals of stress, or to absorb energy when stressed beyond the elastic limit. Steel is
normally considered to be a ductile material. The transition temperature for any steel is
the temperature above which the steel behaves in a predominantly ductile manner and
below which it behaves in a predominantly brittle manner. Low-alloy steels may be used
at low temperatures 00F (-180C) when they have a Charpy keyhole impact value of at
least 15 ft·lb (2.1 kg · m) at the lowest design temperature.
Corrosion Resistance
Considered as a material property, corrosion resistance is a measure of a piping system
material’s relative inertness to chemical attack from a specific process fluid at the
system’s normal operating temperature, or its environment .All common piping system
materials react with some process fluids (corrodants) at certain temperatures. Therefore,
when one is pursuing a ‘‘corrosion-resistant’’ material for a specific application, the
objective is to identify a material whose corrosion rate in the presence of a specific
corrodant is negligible, or at least acceptable, over the design life of the piping system.
Thermal insulation
Whenever the surface temperature of a piping system differs significantly from that of its
surrounding environment, the potential need for an insulation system exists.
An insulation system serves three principal purposes:
The significant reduction in the transfer of thermal (heat) energy to or from the
surface of the piping system.
The prevention of moisture formation and collection on the surface of the piping
system due to condensation.
The prevention of potentially injurious personnel contact with the surface of the
piping system.
CHAPTER IX
PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS
Pipe stress analysis provides necessary techniques for engineers to design piping systems
without overstressing and overloading the piping component and connected equipment.
Purpose of pipe stress analysis or pipe flexibility analysis is to create a layout that causes
neither excessive stress nor excessive end reactions. To achieve this, layout should not be
stiff. But excessive flexibility increases initial cost because material requirement become
more. It also ensure the safe operation of piping systems by verifying their structural and
pressure retaining integrity under the loading conditions expected to occur during the life
time of the piping in the plant. This is accomplished by calculation of stress in the pipe
wall, piping expansion movements, equipments, nozzle loads and system natural
frequencies and comparing these values to the permissible values. Additionally the stress
analyst is also responsible for determining the design support loads to ensure that the
supports are adequately designed to take the piping loads.
The requirements of piping stress analysis are laid out in the piping code ASME B31.
For the purpose of stress analysis, piping systems are typically divided in to two main
categories and then further divided into sub categories.
Basically they are classified as hot and cold systems. Hot lines are those with a design
temperature of 65˚c and above. The fundamental reason for this division is that hot lines
must potentially undergo a flexibility analysis to determine thermal forces, stress and
displacements. The hot and cold systems are further classified as large bore and small
bore diameter lines. Typically size 2” and less are small bore”
Apart from the above, lines are considered critical for stress analysis based on the
following.
Criticality of the service, for eg:- sour service, acids etc, where any failure will
cause serious threats to human and for assets.
Lines connected to critical equipment like pumps, compressors, exchangers etc,
where any excessive loads may cause damage/failure of the equipment.
Lines having 2-phase flow, possibility of water hammer etc and lines prone to
vibration.
For any given project, after careful consideration of the above criteria and classifications
the stress Engineer wills categories the piping system in the project as follows;
The layout can be accepted without stress analysis based on past experience
By analyzing the layout by an approximate method (manual calculations &
thumb ruler) – for non critical lines
Lines requiring comprehensive stress analysis using an accepted computer
software
Following are some of the international acclaimed software used for pipe stress analysis
CAESAR- II
AUPOPIPE
CAEPIPE
TRIFLEX
Following are the major aspects to be taken care while designing a piping system .
The thickness of pipe to with stand internal and external pressure
Reinforcement requirement at branch connections
Adequate support to with stand the self weight of the piping system
Flexibility requirement for thermal expansion
Adequate restraint to with stand dynamic loads and avoid vibration of the piping
system .
LOADS ON PIPE
Loads acting on pipe can be of two types. Static load and dynamic load.
1. STATIC LOAD
• Weight effect
• Live loads: it includes weight of flowing fluid, snow and ice.
• Dead load: weight of valve, flanges , insulation etc.
• Thermal expansion and contraction.
• Effect of support, anchor and terminal movements.
• Internal and external pressure loading.
2. DYNAMIC LOAD
• Impact force.
• Wind
• Seismic load (earthquake etc.)
• Vibration due to compressor, pump etc.
• Discharge load.
LONGITUDIANL STRESS
The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure weight and other sustained
loading shall not exceed the basic allowable stress (SL) at design temperature.
The thickness of pipe used in calculating SL shall be normal thickness minus
mechanical, corrosion and erosion allowances.
The loads due to weight should be based on the no minas thickness of all system
components unless otherwise justified in a more rigorous analysis.
SL can be computed as follows.
SL= (PD/4t) + (iM/Z) (Pressure stresses +weight stresses)
P = Internal pressure
D = outside diameter of pipe
t = wall thickness of pipe (t nominal –including mechanical, corrosion erosion
allowances)
i = stress intensification factor
M = Resultant moment loadings on cross section due to weight and other
sustained loads
Z =section modulus of pipe
As per code requirements,

SL ≤ Sh
Where Sh is the Basic allowable stress at the design temperature for the pipe material
which is obtained from ASME B31.3.
OCCATIONAL STRESS
Loads due to wind Earthquake etc are considered as occasional loads. ASME B31.3
stipulates that the Sum of the longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight and other
sustained loadings and stresses produced by occasional loadings such as wind;
earthquake etc must not exceed 1.33 Sh
Also, wind and earthquake forces need not be considered as acting concurrently.
Thus it can be seen that the following measures will take care of sustained and occasional
stresses.
Internal /external pressure
Provide adequate pipe wall thickness and reinforcement branch connections as required
Weight loads
This consists of weight of pipe, fittings, valves, insulations, supports etc. Adequate
support to be provided to with stand the weight of the system .Recommended basic span
for pipe supports to be followed .In addition to this additional supports to be provided at
change of direction (elbows etc), concentrated loads like valves etc.
Occasional loads
Adequate supports, guides etc shall be provided to withstand loads due to wind,
Earthquake etc.
EXPANSION STRESS
A hot piping system will expand or elongate. A cold piping system will contract or
shrink. Both of there actions create stress problems. The free expansion or contraction of
the piping system will be restricted at the point of supports, anchors or connected
equipment nozzles. This will cause large forces at the restraint points and high stresses in
the piping system, resulting in
1. Failure of piping or supports from overstress or fatigue
2. Leakage at joints
3. Detrimental stresses or distortion in piping or in connected equipment causing
failure of the equipment.
Displacement stress Range
The thermal stresses developed in the pipe are in fact ‘Stress Range’ i.e.; the difference
between the unit thermal expansion for the highest operating temperature and for the
lowest operating temperature. For piping systems that do not experience temperatures
below ambient temperature the stress range is the difference between the unit expansion
for the maximum temperature and that at the installation temperature which is normally
taken as 21°c (70F) for analysis purposes.
The displacement stress range is computed as follows:-
SE = √(Sb²+4St²)
SE = Displacement stress range

Sb = Resultant bending stress
St = Torsional Stress
Sb = [(iiMi)2 + (ioMo)2 ]0.5
Z
St = Mt
2Z
As per code requirement
the allowable Displacement stress range SA = f (1.25Sc+0.25Sh)
Ii = In plane stress intensification factor (SIF)

Io = out plane SIF
Mi = In plane bending moment
Mo = Out plane bending moment
Z = section Modulus of pipe
Sc = Basic allowable stress at ambient temp.
Sh = Basic allowable stress at Maximum temp
f = Stress range reduction factor for cyclic condition for total number of full temperature
cycles over the design life.
Table for stress range reduction factor
When Sh is greater than the calculated value of SL the difference between them may be
added to the term 0.25 Sh in the equation for SA
In this case,
SA = f (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh +Sh- SL) = f [1.25 (Sc+Sh) - SL]
The code requirement is that the computed displacement stress range (SE ). Shall be less
than or equal to allowable stress range SA.
In plane and out plane Bending moment
As per codes ASME B31.3 Code defines in plane and out plane bending movement as
shown in figure below.
On application of the in plane bending moment, the bend or branch remains in the
original plane. But When Out plane bending moment is applied, the bend or branch
connection goes out of original plane. The torsional moment about the pipe axis is
denoted by Mt.
Flexibility of piping systems for thermal movements

Suppose we have two vessels T1 and T2 say 50ft apart and we have to run a pipe between
2 nozzles at same elevation. Obviously the most economical way of doing is as shown
below.
Suppose the material is carbon steel and the vessels and the pipe is operating at a
temperature of 350˚F. Expansion rate for CS at 350˚F = 2.26 inch/100ft.
Hence there will be an expansion between centers of T1 and T2, i.e. Points A and B
which will be
2.26 x 50 = 1.13 inches
100
Because of this expansion, one of the following two things will happen
1. Pipe will dent the vessels at the nozzle location as shown below
2. Pipe will buckle as below:-

It is possible to calculate the stresses in the pipe and the vessel and even if these stresses
are within allowable limits, still this will not be considered as good engineering practice.
Preferable arrangement for such a situation is as shown below
In this case, the pipe segment AB will expand by an amount δ and the shape A B C takes
a new shape A B1C. The expansion ‘δ’ is absorbed by the leg B C.
Now le us find the minimum length of B C required absorbing the expansion ‘δ’.
If we look at leg B C, it can be seen that the end C is fixed and the end B is forced to
move by an amount ‘δ’ due to the expansion. This can be considered similar to the
behavior of guided cantilevers.
For a guided cantilever
δ = WL³
12 EI
Where
δ = movement (inches)
W = Force required (lb)
E = Modules of Elasticity (lb/in²) .
L= length (inches)
I= Area moment of inertia about the bending axis(inch4 )
If L is in foot,
δ= 144WL³
EI
W= δ EI
144L3
Maximum bending moment Mz = WL ft.lbs

2
Maximum bending stress f= DE δ

48L2
Now, if the stress range is 16000 psi at the max.temperature and considering E =
27.9x106 psi for carbon steel,
16000 = 27.9x10⁶x D x δ
48L²
L= 6.03√Dxf
Considering 6’ pipe, D = 6.625 inches
f = 1.13 inches
∴ L = 6.03√6.625x1.13 = 16.5ft
So, when locality the equipment T2, the leg Bc shall be minimum 16.5 ft to absorb the
expansion of 1.13 inches.
Flexibility factor
Pipe bend or elbows when subjected to a bending moment in its own plane, the circular
cross section undergoes changes and flattened. This results in increased flexibility as
compared to a straight pipe.
The ratio of the flexibility of a bend to that of a straight pipe having the same length and
cross section is known as flexibility factor k.
The expression for calculation flexibility factor for elbows is given in ASME B31.3 as
follows
Flexibility characteristic, h = T R
r2
Flexibility factor, k = 1.65

h
where,
T = nominal thickness of matching pipe
R = radius of bend
r = mean radius of matching pipe.
Stress Intensification factor (SIF)
SIF is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress intensity to the nominal stress
calculated as per ordinary bending theory (M/Z). This is used as a safety factor to account
for the effect of localized stresses on piping under repetitive loading. This factor is
applied to welds, fittings like elbows, branch connections and other piping components
where localized stress concentrations and possible fatigue failure may occur. ASME B
31.3 specifies different SIF values for in – plane and out –plane moments. No SIF is
required for torsion
Ii = 0.9
h⅔
Io = 0.75
h⅔
Where h is the flexibility characteristics which was discussed earlier
Primary, secondary and peak stress:-
The failure modes that piping codes addresses are
• Excessive plastic deformation or bursting
• Plastic instability or incremental collapse due to cycling in the plastic range
• High strain low cycle fatigue
Each of these failure modes is caused by a different type of stress and loading. Piping
codes have broken the types of stress and the failure modes they guard against, into the
following categories.
Primary stress – (plastic deformation and bursting ):-

Primary stress is developed by imposed mechanical loadings (forces) This is not self
limiting because local yielding does not decrease the applied load .The system never get
relieved till the load is removed
Secondary stresses –(plastic instability leading to incremental collapse)

Secondary stresses are developed in a piping system when the system is restrained
against thermal displacement. Distortion of the piping system as well as local yielding
tends to relive the developed stresses, so these stresses are said to be self limiting .
Peak stresses (Fatigue failure collapse resulting from cyclic loading)

Peak stresses are these which cause virtually no distortion, and there for high stress
levels. Examples are thermal gradients through a pipe wall, stress concentration at a
discontinuity such as pipe fitting or a weld. Peak stresses is the highest stress in a local
region and is responsible for causing fatigue failure
COLD SPRING
Consider the L shaped piping configuration anchored at A and B as shown in the figure.
The original position is as shown 1. as the long leg gets heated, it expands and takes the
shape as shown as 2. let us assume the amount of expansion is 3 inches. In the original
position, if a length of 1.5 “ (half of expansion) is cut from the leg , the line is pulled and
welded back to position. It will take the shape as shown as 4. now upon heating, the line
moves only 1.5” from the normal position, as shown as 3.
This phenomenon of shortening the over all length of the pipe by a desired amount, as a
percentage of the calculated expansion is known as cold spring Cold spring is applied to
piping systems to following reasons;
• To control expansion, so as to avoid fouling with adjacent piping, structures etc.
• To control resultant forces and moments on connected equipment etc.
Steps to carry out stress Analysis
To carry out pipe stress Analysis, following information are required

Piping configuration (Isometric drawings)
Design parameters
Temperature – Design, start up, steam out condition, upset conditions etc
Pressure
Pipe size, thickness & Material
Corrosion Allowance
insulation (weight)
Weight and dimensions of valves and other specialty items
Piping layout to have an idea of probable support locations
Connected equipment nozzle details initial movement etc.
Skirt movement for vessels
Allowable force and movements of connected equipments.
Load cases for stress analysis
For a static analysis Various load combination needs to be considered to ensure that the
systems is safe for the worst load conditions. In general following are the load cases
considered for analysis
Sustained case- weight of the system Pressure
Hydrostatic case- Weight of the system with full water at hydrostatic test
pressure
Expansion case- Thermal displacement
Operating case- Combination of the sustained and expansion case.
Occasional case- Combination of sustained, expansion and occasional loach such
as wind, earthquake etc. Only one occasional load will be acting at a time.
Stress analysis results and their interpretation
Any common software used for stress analysis will give the out puts in the form of
reports. It is the stress engineers job to review and properly interpret the results in order
to arrive at a conclusion as to whether the system is safe as it is or what modifications are
required to make the system safe. Following are the reports to be reviewed.
1. Stress Report:- This gives the stresses in the piping system in each load cases.
Acceptability shall be as follows.
Sustained case:- Max stress ≤ Sh { Sh =Basic allowable stress at max temp}
Expansion case:- Max stress≤ Sa [ Sa = f (1.25Sc+0.25Sh) or f (1.25 (Sc+ Sh) –
S c) ]
Occasional case:- Max. Stress ≤ 1.33 Sh.
Displacement Reports:- This gives the displacements and rotations (6 directions) of each
mode of the system. All the displacements shall be within acceptable limits.
3. Restraint Summary:- This given the forces and moments acting on the supports
connected equipments etc, which shall be within acceptable limits.
4. Spring support Summary:- The spring supports will be designed by the soft ware and
the spring launch stiffness etc will be provided in this report. This data can be used to
procure the spring supports.
STRESS ANALYSIS FLOW CHART
CHAPTER X
PIPE SUPPORTS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
All piping system requires pipe supports to withstand the following:

• weight of the piping system
• Thermal Expansion or contraction
• Vibration
• External influences such as wind, earthquakes etc.
Piping systems carrying hot fluids or low temperature fluids require special attention due to the
thermal expansion or contraction of the piping . Detailed stress analysis may be required to
decide the support types and location for such lines. Piping for fluids with ambient or close to
ambient temperature ( for e.g. water piping) will not have much thermal movement and in such
cases the supporting is relatively simpler ,to take care of the weight effects only. Also, larger
diameter pipe supports needs to be carefully designed t take the heavy loads.
THERMAL EFFECTS:-
Thermal effects are basically emanating from service temperatures which cause expansion of
the piping resulting in dimension change, reduction in material strength and create stress in the
piping and any connected equipment.
WEIGHT EFFECTS:-
Weight of the piping system will require adequate supports to avoid over stressing at a single
location, avoid sagging of the piping system or to avoid excessive forces on the connected
equipment
Following are some of the common terminology used with respect to pipe supports:-
RESTRAINT:
Any device that prevents, resist or limits the free thermal movement of piping.
SUPPORT:
A device used specifically to sustain a portion of weight of the piping system.
ANCHOR:
A rigid restraint ( mostly welded or bolted) which restricts all the 6 degrees of freedom of pipe
movement .They are used wherever pipe movement may adversely affect the connected
equipment nozzle etc.
CROSS GUIDE OR LIMIT STOP :
A device which restricts axial movement of the pipe ,but permits vertical and lateral
movements as well as rotation
GUIDE:
A device preventing lateral movement as well as rotation about one or more axes.
RESTING /SLIDING SUPPORT:
A device providing support from beneath the pipe ,but offering no resistance to the horizontal
movement of the pipe except frictional resistance.
HANGER:
A support by which piping is suspended from an overhead structure.
RIGID SUPPORT:
A support providing stiffener in at least one direction.
RESILIENT SUPPORT :
A support which include one or more elastic member to allow pipe movement ( e.g. spring
supports)
RESTING SUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR:

Where structure is available below the piping
Where pipe movements are high
Less space
Also resting supports offers frictional resistance to the pipe movement.
HANGER SUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR:
Structure is available above the piping.
The pipe movement is limited in this case, since it is restricted proportional to the
length of the hanger .
A hanger supports needs more space to accommodate the hanger.
There is practically no friction in the case of hanger supports.
SUPPORT SPACING AND SPANS:
All horizontal piping are subject to sagging unless the pipeline is continuously supported .The
amount of sag depends on the fluid weight, insulation, components such as valves etc. All
these must be taken into account when determining the span between pipe supports.
Allowable spans for horizontal lines are principally influenced by the need to :
Keep Stresses within limits
Limit deflections (sagging) for appearances, avoiding pockets and avoiding
interference.
Control material frequency by limiting the span, so as to avoid undesirable vibration .by
limiting the span stiffener increases.
For a simply supported beam, with uniformly distributed load
Max. Bending Stress, σ = M/Z = W L2 /8Z
Max Deflection, δ = 5 W L4 /384 E I
For a Fixed end beam with uniformly distributed load,
Max. Bending Stress, σ = WL2/12Z
Max Deflection, δ = WL4/384 E I
In piping system, the true case lies somewhere in between the above two cases. Hence for
simplicity sake, most analysts have adopted a compromise case as follows
Max Bending stress σ = W L2/10Z
Max Deflection δ = 2.5 WL4/384 E I
Thus the span will be
L= (10Zσ/W) 1/2 based on limitation of stress.

L= (384EI δ/2.5W)1/4 based on limitation of deflection.
To simplify support spacing calculation,MSS-SP-69 standard has provided recommended

support spacing for various pipe sizes. These spans which have been accepted by ASME have
been determined by considering insulated ,standard wall, thickness pipe filled with water
limited to a maximum combined bending and shear stress of 1500 psi and maximum pipe sag
of 0.1 inches ( 2.5 mm) .When these recommended support spacing are adhered to the stress
levels in the piping system due only to weight loading usually need not be explicitly
computed.
10.2 PIPE ROUTING CONSIDERATIONS FOR EFFECTIVE AND ECONOMIC

SUPORTING
Piping lay out and routing has to be prepared keeping in mind the pipe support
requirement.
The piping system should be short and straight to be self supporting as far as possible
without compromising flexibility requirements.
Excess flexibility may make additional supports or restraints necessary to avoid
movement and vibrations of the piping.
Piping prone to vibrate such as compressor suction or discharge lines should be
supported independently of other piping. Also the supports should be resting type
offering resistance to motion rather than hanger supports.
Piping from upper connections of tall vertical vessels and columns is advantageously
supported from the vessel itself to minimize relative movement between the supports
and the piping. Hence such piping should be routed close to the vessel.
The standard support spans are applicable for horizontal straight runs. However most piping
systems are not made strict of straight horizontal runs. Hence support location shall be decided
considering various factors.
Supports shall be provided as close as possible to heavy load concentrations such as
valves, strainers etc. vertical runs, branch lines. Etc
When changes of direction in a horizontal plane occurs, it is suggested that the spacing
be limited to ¾ the of the standard span to promote stability and reduce eccentric
loading. It is preferred that the support are located near elbows to reduce moments due
to directional changes between supports
The standard span does not apply to vertical run of the pipe .On a vertical line, it is
recommended that the supported be located on the upper half to prevent buckling due to
compressive forces in the pipe and to prevent instability in overturning of the pipe
under its on weight.
Guides shall be used on long vertical lines to reduce pipe sag and resulting excessive
deflections .These pipe guides do not carry any pipe dead cycles.
In a typical process unit, support spacing is largely determined by spacing of conveniently
located columns. Commonly the spacing pipe racks must provide for the weakest pipe.
The smaller diameter pipes can also be supported in between from large diameter pipe running
adjacent to it. Sometimes the diameter of the pipe is increased to make it self supporting.
10.3 PIPE SUPPORT HARDWARE

Pipe support hardware refers to the physical structural elements and structural steel used for
pipe supports. The major criteria governing hardware selection are support function, magnitude
of expected load and space limitations. However, the following must also he kept in mind:
The design temperature used for selection of pipe clamps, U- bolts, straps etc. In direct
contact with the pipe is that of the fluid contents of the pipe.
Piping operating at high temperature or subject to condensation on the outer surface
will usually he insulated. The pipe support hardware must be designed to accommodate
the insulation.
The piping, attachments and supporting structure in contact with each other must he of
compatible materials in order to avoid galvanic corrosion. In certain cases, it may be
necessary to insert inert packing material between dissimilar piping and support
materials .Additionally the support materials must be suitable for the environment to
which they will be subjected.
All hardware should be periodically inspected, beginning with the start – up of the
system. Hardware types requiring less inspection and maintenance are preferable where
possible.
The most commonly used support types are listed below:-
• Weight supports including rod hangers, sliding supports, variable spring hangers
and constant spring hangers.
• Rigid restraints and anchors including clamps, struts, support steel and welded
attachments.
• Snubbers (hydraulic and mechanical)
• Sway braces
When it is desirable to reduce friction forces between sliding support and the structural steel,
antifriction pad such as Teflon is inserted between the two.
HANGER
A device which suspends (usually a single line) from structural steel, or concrete or wood.
Usually adjustable for height.
SHOE SUPPORT
Shoe supports are provided just to take weight of the system. This is a rigid support. It can be
resting or anchored. Shoe can be anchored by bolting or welding.
GUIDES
Guides are provided for long straight pipes subjected to thermal movements.
The above picture shows deflection of a pipe loop due to thermal expansion with guide and
without guide. Clearly we can see that deflection of the loop with guide is much lesser
compared to loop without guide.
AXIAL STOP
Axial stop is used to restrict the pipe movement in axial direction. So if we fix axial stop at
middle of a long run pipe which has thermal movement, then that pipe will elongate from
middle point to end point.
PIPE ANCHORS
Expansion is not the only force that can alter the alignment of a pipe. Vibration, commodity
turbulence, and other external forces, such as wind, cause a pipe to move. Often restriction of
a pipe’s movement becomes necessary. To prevent movement or to control the direction of
movement pipe anchors are often used. Two types of pipe anchors exist: fixed and
directional.
Fixed anchors are used in locations where all movement of a line must be prevented. The
most common way to anchor a pipe is to weld the pipe directly to a support or structural
member. If the pipe to be anchored is insulated, the pipe shoe is welded to the structural
support.
Directional anchors are used to force movement to occur in one direction while preventing it
from occurring in the opposite direction. Directional anchors are often used to direct a pipe’s
movement away from buildings, structures, or pieces of equipment.
(PIPE ANCHOR)
SPRING SUPPORT
Rigid supports including rod hangers sliding supports etc. may be used where vertical thermal
movements are minimal. However, where thermal pipe movements are large, the result of
using a rigid support may be either the Pipe lifting off the support (and therefore loss of weight
support) or thermal lock up at the support, with accompanying expansion overstress in the
pipe. In such cases, it is necessary to support the piping systems with spring supports, wherein
due to the spring actions it permit the pipe to move up ward and at the same time provide
weight support. All spring supports consists of a spring enclosed in a metal casing usually
fabricated from steal pipe. Spring supports can be either hanger type (hung from over head
structure) or can type (where the pipe is supported from the bottom).
(SPRING HANGER)
Spring supports are divided into two categories – Variable spring supports and constant spring
supports.
Can type spring support and hanger type spring support are variable type spring support.
VARIABLE SPRING SUPPORTS

Variable spring supports are so called because they provide variable supporting forces as the
pipe moves vertically. This is due to the elongation and contraction of the spring with in the
can assembly corresponding to the vertical movement of the pipe. The spring is initially pre
compressed prior to installation on the system. An upward movement of the pipe causes spring
extension and therefore Reduces the spring force. Down ward movement causes compression
of the spring , consequently Increasing the resisting force.
The variation in the supporting force = vertical pipe movement X spring rate.
Spring rate is the force required to produce unit deflection of the spring.
The dead weight that is carried by the spring after installation is called the cold load. When the
system is in operation, the pipe moves because of temperature change, causing the spring to
expand or Compress. Now the spring is said to be in hot load.
Cold load = hot load + K∆
Where ,K = spring rate or spring constant (lb/in)
∆ = Vertical thermal movement of pipe at the support point, from non operating condition ,
where upward movement is considered positive. Thus it can be seen that if pipe moves cold
load is higher than hot load and if pipe moves downward, cold load is lower than hot load.
Since the pipe weight remains constant in both cold and hot condition, the variation in the
spring supporting force results in transfer of pipe weight to the adjacent supports or equipments
and consequently induces additional stress in the system.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose the cold load (i.e.;- wt of the piping as installed) =2500kg
∆, Upward movement of pipe at the support point =10mm
K = 50 kg /mm
cold load = Hot load + 50*10
Hot load = 2500-500 =2000kg
Thus in the hot operating condition, the spring is taking 2000kg.The difference, i.e.;- 500kg of
the Piping weight is transferred to nearby support or equipment.
Hence it desirable to keep the variation of spring load from cold to hot condition within some
acceptable limits to prevent significant system imbalance. The percentage load variation of
spring is defined as
generally, the accepted variations is about 15-20% .However for critical lines connected to
pump, compresses to pump, compresses etc, and the % load variation is limited to ±6%.
(VARIABLE SPRING SUPPORT)

CONSTANT SPRING SUPPORT
Both constant and variable spring supports have essentially the same function, but the load of
the constant spring hanger remains the same throughout its travel range.
Constant spring supports are used in the following cases.
• When thermal movements are too large (typically over 50mm) to permit the use of a
variable spring.
• When additional stresses induced in the system due to the load variation in variable
spring is not acceptable, for eg;- when pipe stress concern are critical, or at locations
near equipment at which very low nozzle loads must be maintained.
• Constant spring supports achieve the virtually uniform supporting force throughout the
travel range of the pipe through the application of principles of mechanical advantage.
Constant spring hangers are designed with a special spring and lever mechanism which
counter balance the force of movement and fluctuations of the spring. This counter balancing
of the load and spring moments about the main pivot is obtained by the use of carefully
designed compression –type load springs, lever and spring tension rods.
(CONSTANT SPRING SUPPORT)

OTHER TYPE OF SUPPORTS
PICK-UP PIPE SUPPORTS

In most piping facilities, structural column spacing in the pipe rack is 25’. For large diameter
pipe, spanning this distance poses no problem. Smaller diameter pipes, however, don’t have
the strength necessary to span this distance and will sag between supports. These sags or
pockets can become so severe they can prevent commodity flow. Pick-ups are designed to use
the larger pipes to support the smaller pipes. Using a length of steel angle attached to the
larger diameter pipe with U-bolts allows the small diameter pipes to be supported at their
weakest point .Pick-ups can span up to 10’and carry a load of 1,200 pounds.
(PICK UP SUPPORT)
TRUNION SUPPORT
ADJUSTABLE SUPPORT
These supports are mostly used in lines connected to pump. Using this support we can
eliminate distortion occurring at pump nozzle due to inaccuracy in construction at some points
like flanges.
DUMMY SUPPORT
SNUBBER
Snubbers allow slow expansion but it will not allow sudden vibration.
MECHANICAL SNUBBER:
Mechanical Snubbers provided by Piping Technology and Products, Inc. have two modes
of operation. In passive mode, i.e., motion caused by thermal loads, the resisting
mechanism is disengaged and the snubber "free wheels" with very low resistance. In active
mode the mechanism is engaged, and the snubber limits the acceleration to a low threshold
value. There are other types of mechanical snubbers, but these are the most common ones.
HYDRAULIC SNUBBER:
Most hydraulic snubbers have a piston which is relatively unconstrained in motion at low
displacement rates. At high displacement rates the piston "locks up", that is, the force required
to move the piston increases substantially, usually as a result of the closing of a valve. For use
on piping systems or equipment when unrestrained thermal movement must be allowed, but
which must be restrained during impulsive or cyclic disturbance. The unit is not effective
against low amplitude, high frequency movement. Preferred usage, with standard settings, to
prevent destructive results due to earthquakes, flow transients, or wind load. Special settings
are available to absorb the continuous thrust resulting from safety valve blow-off or pipe
rupture. For the most effective operation of the unit, please specify the mounting position,
vertical or horizontal.
CHAPTER XI
HEAT TRACING AND THERMAL INSULATION
11.1 Heat Tracing
Heat-tracing refers to the continuous or intermittent application of heat to a pipeline or

vessel in order to replace heat loss to ambient. The major uses of heat-tracing include
freeze protection, thawing, maintenance of fluids at process temperature (or at pumping
viscosities), prevention of fluid component separation, and prevention of gas
condensation. Heat-tracing may be avoided in situations where heat loss to the
environment can be effectively minimized. In cases where flow is intermittent, tracing
might be avoided by designing a self-draining system such as those used for steam
condensate returns.
11.2 Types of heat tracing systems
Heat-tracing systems can be divided into two broad classes:

Fluid
Electric
Fluid heat-tracing
Fluid heat-tracing systems utilize heating media at elevated temperatures to transfer heat
to a pipeline. The fluid is usually contained in a tube or a small pipe attached to the pipe
being traced. If steam is the tracing fluid, the condensate is either returned to the boiler or
dumped. If an organic heat-transfer fluid is employed, it is returned to a heat exchanger
for reheating and recirculation.
Steam
Steam’s high latent heat from vaporization is ideal for heat-transfer applications.
Only a small quantity is required for a large heating load; and it can heat a line
quickly, condense at constant temperature, and flow to the point of use without
pumping.
Steam is universally available and nontoxic.
Steam is more expensive to install and maintain than electric resistance heaters.
Periodic leaks and failed steam traps in a steam-traced system waste energy and
demand additional labour costs for repair and replacement.
The overwhelming majority of steam-traced piping systems employ external
tracing.
Straight runs of the steam pipe or tubes are attached to the pipe, and the entire
assembly is covered with preformed sectional insulation
Valves, fittings, and instruments are heat sinks (system components of large
surface area and exposed metal surfaces to which system heat will flow and be
lost to the environment) and to deliver the requisite amount of heat, several loops
of the racing tube are coiled around them before being covered with insulation
This configuration helps reduce tailing, i.e., the tendency of steam to lose heat and
condense along the line with loss of pressure
The inability to achieve precise temperature control is attributed to three factors
operating in tandem:
Saturated steam is delivered at the desired pressure by means of a pressure
reducing valve. As the pressure is reduced, the saturated steam becomes
superheated. The excess heat is rapidly dissipated in the system.
Uneven contact between the steam tracer and process pipe produces an uneven
distribution of temperature. This effect becomes more significant as the
temperature difference between pipe and tracer increases. When the steam
becomes superheated, the temperature difference reaches a maximum.
Tailing also affects the temperature of the surrounding steam.
A more precise control of steam tracer temperature can be achieved by the use of
steam jacketing or temperature-sensitive steam valves
Electric heat tracing
Electric heat-tracing systems convert electric power to heat and transfer it to the pipe and
its contained fluid. When current flows through the resistive elements, heat is produced in
proportion to the square of the current and the resistance of the elements to current flow.
Other specialized electric tracing systems make use of impedance, induction, and skin
conduction effects to generate and transfer heat. Electric tracing is proved useful for long
runs of pipe.
Electric resistance heat tracing is carried out with the help of:
Self-Regulating Heaters
Zone Heaters
Mineral-Insulated Cable (Constant-Wattage Series) Heater
Series Resistance Polymer-Insulated Cable
Self-Regulating Heaters
Self-regulating heat-tracing has an advantage with respect to other heat-tracing
products because this technology eliminates the possibility of heater burnout due
to the inability to dissipate internally generated heat—the most common cause of
heater failure
Self-regulating tracers are usually provided in the form of a heater strip consisting
of two parallel 20 to 10 American wire gauge (AWG) bus wires embedded in a
conductive polymer core
It serves as the heating element and over which a polymeric insulator is extruded.
The entire assembly is then covered with a metal braid to provide grounding and
additional mechanical protection.
The heater core consists of carbon particles embedded in a polymer matrix.
Heat is generated by resistance to current flowing through the conductive polymer
heating element.
As the temperature of the conductive core increases, so does the electric
resistance.
Self-regulating tracers can be cut to any desired length and field-installed within
the limitations of the voltage drop on the bus wires.
They have good impact resistance and are routinely handled in the field.
The only serious drawback of self-regulating tracers is the upper limit on
operating temperatures, 366F (186C) for constant exposure and 420F (215C) for
intermittent exposure.
Self-regulating tracers can fail as a result of exposure to excess heat from the
piped fluid or from steam cleaning.
Zone Heaters
Parallel resistance heaters
Zone heater consists of two insulated bus wires wrapped with a small gauge (38 to
41 AWG) Nichrome heating wire, covered with polymer insulation and sheathed
in a metallic braid covered with an optional polymer jacket.
Heat is generated by current flowing between the bus wires through the heating
wire
The parallel circuit configuration of zone heaters means that output is independent
of cable length and that system can be designed and adapted by purchasing cables
of a specific wattage which are cut to length in the field.
Zone heaters use thinner resistive wires than series heaters and are more
susceptible to damage from impact.
The addition of a Fluoro-polymer jacket for moisture protection reduces the
exposure temperature rating to 545F (285C).
Perhaps the biggest drawback of zone heaters is their susceptibility to burnout.
With their combination of constant wattage and polymer insulation, zone heaters
are vulnerable to destruction from self-generated overheating.
Mineral-Insulated Cable (Constant-Wattage Series) Heater

MI cable is a constant-wattage, series resistance heater in which the entire circuit
acts as a continuous heating element.
Heat is generated by current flowing through a nichrome, copper, or other metal
conductor, insulated with magnesium oxide and encapsulated in an outer metallic
sheath of copper, stainless steel, Inconel, or other suitable metals.
MI cable is capable of carrying high heating loads. Given the proper conductor
and sheath alloys, it can be used in applications up to 1500F (800C).
Its high impact resistance and general ruggedness allow it to stand up to the rough
handling in the field.
MI cable system circuits must be individually designed, or variable-voltage
controls must be provided to set circuit parameters.
Voltage control may also be required for short lengths due to the low resistance.
Another disadvantage of MI cable is the risk of overheating from excessive
currents or poor thermal dissipation.
Series Resistance Polymer-Insulated Cable

Polymer-insulated series resistance cables can be used with various conductor
materials.
Nichrome is suitable for short circuits, but the length must be either
predetermined to suit the available voltage or field-cut or provided with a
variable-voltage supply.
Conductors such as copper offer a measure of self-limiting heater properties, since
their resistance increases with temperature.
The possibility of catastrophic failure (series circuit) due to overheating and
melting of the polymer insulation puts this type of tracing in unfavorable
competition with parallel resistance heat-tracing systems
Skin effect tracing

Skin effect systems are primarily applicable to the tracing of long pipelines.
The skin effect is based on the tendency of an alternating current to flow in the
layers near the surface (skin) of a current-carrying ferromagnetic conductor.
The heating element is a carbon-steel pipe of small diameter welded to the fluid-
carrying pipeline to be traced.
The alternating magnetic field created by this alternating-current-carrying
conductor causes the return current in the small heat tube to be concentrated
toward the inner wall of the tube.
This phenomenon is called the proximity effect.
Skin effect heat-tracing is generally not cost-effective for pipelines shorter than
5000 ft (1500 m).
IMPEDANCE HEAT-TRACING
In impedance heating, the pipe itself becomes the heating element. The generation
of heat is produced by resistance to current flow
Impedance heat tracing has the ability to reach very high operating temperatures,
limited only by the design and contents of the piping system.
Since the pipe is the heating element, it is the supply cable and connections which
can be vulnerable to burnout.
This technique has high heat-transfer rates and uniform heat distribution and
provides excellent temperature control at the control point
INDUCTION HEATING
Induction heat-tracing uses a metallic pipeline as a heating element by placing it
in the magnetic field of an alternating-current source.
Low-resistance wire is wound around a conductive pipeline or vessel, and the
alternating current flowing through the coils generates a rapidly changing
magnetic field that induces eddy currents and hysteresis losses in the pipeline
wall.
The absence of thermal resistance between heat source and pipeline allows very
rapid heating.
11.3 Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation serves many useful purposes in both industrial and commercial piping
applications. In simplest terms, thermal insulation reduces heat flow from one surface to
another. In some cases the design purpose of the application may seem unrelated to heat
loss or heat gain; however, the net result is that heat transfer is retarded. For personnel
protection there must be enough insulation to keep the surface temperature below a given
design value—usually 140_F (60_C). For condensation control, there must be enough
insulation to keep the surface temperature above the dew point. In both cases the
insulation is used to control the surface temperature for a desired effect other than
thermal conservation. The effect, however, is that in both cases insulation retards heat
transfer enough to control the surface temperature at the given design criteria.
An insulation system is any combination of insulation materials used in conjunction with
mastic, adhesives, sealants, coatings, membranes, barriers, and/or other accessory
products to provide an efficient assembly for the reduction of heat flow.
11.4 Design parameters
By providing a medium for retarding heat transfer, thermal insulation serves many useful
functions in industrial and commercial piping applications. The following are some
common design criteria used in insulation system design for piping applications:
● Controlling heat loss on hot piping
● Providing personnel protection
● Providing personnel comfort in commercial buildings
● Reducing heat gain on cold piping
● Limiting or retarding surface condensation
● Providing process control
● Economic optimization or energy conservation
● Providing fire protection
● Providing freeze protection
● Providing noise control
In many applications these criteria will overlap, and designing for one condition will
benefit by the attainment of another. Environmental, physical, and mechanical conditions
play an important role in insulation system design. Indoor applications, for example,
generally do not require the complexity of design that outdoor applications require.
Similarly, below ambient designs are oftenmore complicated than above ambient designs.
The physical abuse and mechanical conditions that an insulation system is subject to are
also important to consider in the design process.
Flashing and sealing.

11.5 Design conditions
In addition to defining the purpose of the insulation system, it is important to define the
conditions under which the insulation system will be used. Some of the conditions to be
considered are
● indoors or outdoors
● Conditioned space or nonconditioned
● Geographic location (coastal regions, northern climes, southern climes, rainy, dry, etc.)
● Long, straight runs or frequent bends
● Personnel traffic area or unaccessible
● Aboveground or below ground
SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS
One other area that needs to be considered when properly designing an insulation system
is the service that the piping is providing. Service is very important in designing
insulation systems because of the different physical properties of the contents of the pipe.
The following are some, but not all, generalized service types that are common to
industrial and commercial construction:
● Hot water and chilled water
● Steam and condensate return
● Heat-transfer fluids
● Hot oils
● Liquefied gas (cryogenic service)
● Sanitary and sewerage water
MATERIALS
There are many different types of insulation materials available for both commercial and
industrial piping applications. The following list, comprises the material classifications
most common to the industrial and commercial piping industry:
● Calcium silicate insulation
● Cellular glass insulation
● Elastomeric foam insulation
● Fiberglass and mineral wool insulations
● Perlite insulation
● Phenolic foam insulation
● Polystyrene foam insulation
● Polyurethane and polyisocyanurate foam insulations
Calcium Silicate Insulation. Calcium silicate is a very rigid, high-density material used
exclusively for applications above 250_F (121_C). This insulation material has been a
standard for high temperature applications for many years. Compressive strengths are
very good, and it is noncombustible. It is generally available in half sections, quad-
sections, and flat blocks. Calcium silicate is applied to the piping with metal bands and
generally covered with a metal jacket.
Cellular Glass Insulation. Cellular glass insulation is a high-strength, versatile insulation
used in temperature services that range from _450_F (_268_C) up to 900_F (538_C).
Cellular glass insulation is all closed-cell glass with no organic binders
or fillers. The closed-cell glass structure renders it impervious to liquid water and the
driving force of water vapor pressure. It is manufactured in flat blocks which are then
fabricated into any shape specified.
Elastomeric Foam Insulation. Elastomeric foams are used almost exclusively in
commercial, institutional, and residential facilities. It is used primarily on hot water and
chilled water lines, or for water and sewer lines for freeze protection. It is available in
sheet form for equipment. These foams are usually taped, wired, or glued in place.
Fiberglass and Mineral Wool Insulations. Fiberglass and mineral wool are actually two
separate and distinct types of insulation; however, many of their applications and
physical properties are similar. These products are generally used in hot applications, but
with some restrictions they can be used in cold applications as well. Fiberglass is often
used from chilled water piping temperatures up to a maximum of 850_F (454_C).
Mineral wool has a peak temperature limit of 1200_F (649_C). Fiberglass is made from
glass fibers bonded together with resin binders. Mineral wool is made from rock slag
fibers and bonded together with resin or clay binders. These materials are generally
applied with metal bands or wire or tape and are covered with a metal or nonmetallic
flexible jacket. On indoor applications they are frequently covered with an all-service
jacket.
Perlite Insulation. Perlite insulation is generally used in the same types of applications as
calcium silicate. It is somewhat lighter in density and lower in compressive strength than
calcium silicate; however, it usually is treated with a water inhibitor which tends to keep
it drier than calcium silicate. Perlite insulation is also made in molds to fit the range of
pipe-covering shapes required by industry. It is usually applied with metal bands and
covered with a metal jacket.
Phenolic Foam Insulation. Phenolic foam is a very low thermal conductivity organic
foam insulation used primarily for plastic piping in freeze protection applications.
Phenolic foam insulation is made in a catalyst reaction bun and is cut in a fabrication
process to the sizes needed for the applications. It is generally applied with tape or wire
and covered with all-service jacket or metal jacket depending on the ambient conditions
and the geography.
Polystyrene Insulation. Polystyrene is a very inexpensive, efficient thermal insulation
used almost exclusively in residential and food processing applications. It comes in
expanded boards and extruded buns. The extruded buns are sometimes used to fabricate
pipe covering for chilled water lines or water and sewer lines. In residential applications
it is used in the wall panels. In food processing it is used in the walls and on the roofs. It
has a low permeability rating and is easy to work with. It is applied with bands, tape,
wire, or glue depending on the application.
Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulations. Polyurethane and polyisocyanurate
foams are two chemically different insulation materials; however, their cell structure and
physical properties are so similar that they are usually lumped into a common category.
This is probably not fair to polyisocyanurate foam insulation because it generally tends to
be of higher quality. Both insulations have very good thermal properties. They are used
from about _200_F (_129_C) up to 300_F (149_C) both indoors and outdoors. On cold
applications they require multiple layers due to the contraction characteristics. These
insulations are manufactured in batch bun processing and then sold to fabricators who cut
them into various shapes and sizes depending on the applications. These insulation
materials are usually applied with tape or wire and covered with either a fabric-reinforced
mastic or a metal jacket.
ACCESSORY MATERIALS
The accessory materials referenced in the above paragraphs and throughout the chapter
are a necessary part of the insulation system. The following are a few of the more
common accessory materials used in industrial and commercial insulation system
specifications.
Acrylic Latex Mastic
Acrylic latex mastic is a heavy-bodied weather barrier coating used primarily to cover
rigid insulations such as cellular glass and polyurethane. It is generally applied in two
coats with a reinforcing mesh fabric for impact and tear resistance. This material does not
provide vapor protection.
Aluminum Banding
Aluminum bands are used as securement for many types of insulation materials. These
bands are secured in place with metal band clips or seals of common dimensions.
Aluminum bands should not be used in applications where the insulation is being
installed for fire protection applications.
Aluminum Jacketing
Aluminum jacketing comes in many different sizes and finishes. When specifying
aluminum jacketing for use with permeable and hygroscopic insulation materials, it is
important to specify the jacketing with a factory-applied moisture barrier liner.
ASJ
ASJ jacketing stands for all-service jacket. This material is a Kraft paper/foil/scrim
laminate material used exclusively on indoor commercial applications. ASJ jacketing is
usually factory-applied and serves the primary function of providing protection to the
outer insulation surface. These are classified as vapor retarders.
Asphalt Cutback Mastic
Asphalt cutback mastics are heavy-bodied asphalts that are cut with mineral spirits so
they can be applied by spraying or with a trowel. When applied, the mineral spirits
dissipate, and leave behind a hard asphaltic vapor barrier finish. It is generally applied in
multiple coats used in conjunction with reinforcing fabric. Metal jackets are used to cover
this finish on aboveground, outdoor applications for ultraviolet protection to the mastic.
FRP Jacketing
FRP stands for fiber resin plastic or fiber-reinforced plastic. The material is a hard plastic
membrane reinforced with glass fibers. FRP jacketing can be used in many of the same
applications where aluminum is used. FRP jacketing is often the material of choice in
chemical resistance areas. The jacketing comes in sheet or rolled form, and the laps are
sealed with a resin sealant recommended by the manufacturer.
Hypalon Mastics
Hypalon is a trade name for a highly flexible and durable vapor barrier mastic material.
There are numerous products on the market that use this material in their compositions to
form what are referred to as elastomeric membranes. These elastomeric membranes are
referred to as hypalons. Hypalon mastics should not be used in conjunction with cellular
glass.
Stainless Steel Banding
Stainless steel bands are used to support or secure insulation materials to piping, tanks, or
vessels.
Stainless Steel Jacketing
Stainless steel jacketing is used to cover insulation materials of all types for various
applications. Due to the cost, stainless steel is generally used where it is required for its
chemical or fire resistance.
Stainless Steel Tie Wire
Wire may be used to secure fitings or insulation sections. Check with the insulation
manufacturer for recommendations on its usage. Soft annealed wire is best suited for field
conditions, so as not to work-harden in the field.
Fiberglass-Reinforced Tape
Tape is typically 1-in (25 mm) wide, high-tensile-strength, fiber-reinforced, strapping
tape. Tape is not acceptable as a primary means of securement if the insulation system is
being designed to provide fire protection.
Mesh Fabric
In a polyester mesh fabric, the primary strands are woven together by a method designed
to create a fabric that does not fray or pucker. This fabric is typically specified to
accompany applications of heavybodied mastics such as acrylic latex and asphalt
cutback.
Glass Scrim
Glass scrims come in many different configurations. Glass scrims are best suited to light-
bodied mastics, paints, and elastomeric membranes.
CHAPTER XII
FLOW OF FLUIDS
12.1 Introduction
A fluid is a substance which can flow and that deforms continuously(keeps deforming)
when subjected to a shear stress, however small it may be.Fluids offer no resistance
deformation, they yield continuously to tangential forces, no matter how small. The
continuous deformation or yielding action under the application of shear stress makes the
fluid possible for flow.Ordinarily fluids are classified as being liquids gases.Some
classification may also include vapour form.
Solids and fluids

A material which is a solid deform when a shear stress is applied, the magnitude of the
angular distance of a line in a body being proportional to magnitude of the shear stress. A
fluid on the other hand deform continuously as long as the shear stress is present. If the
fluid is visualized as a body composed of thin layers then the motion can be described as
one layer slipping or sliding over another adjascent one.A feature of the fluid is the
inability to regain its original geometry upon removal of an applied shearing stress, since
there are no restoring force to cause a return of the fluid particles to their original
portion.As fluid motion ceases the shearing forces resisting motion disappears where as
the elastic properties of a solid relieved from a shear stress will cause either a complete or
partial restoration of its original position or state.Liquids change volume and density very
slightly with considerable variation in pressure and when the pressure is removed they do
not dilate significantly. They are practically incompressible.A gas is a fluid which tends
to expand to fill completely any vessel in which it is contained. It is easily compressed
and a change in pressure is accompanied by a considerable change in volume and density.
A perfect gas that is (ideal or model) satisfies two conditions.
1. It obeys the gas equation pV ═ mRT at all pressures
2. Its specific heats are constant regardless of pressures and temperatures. Also
specific heat ratio k ═ Cp/Cv is also a constant.
The behavior of real gases is more complex. Real gases at low pressure tend to obey the
perfect gas low. As the pressure increases however the discrepancy increases and
becomes serious near critical conditions. For higher degrees of accuracy corrections are
applied to the ideal gas equation to take into account deviations from ideal situations.
The Vander Waals equation of state was an attempt to correct the ideal gas equation of
state so that it could be applicable to real gases. The modified gas equation ( Vander
Waals) takes into account inter molecular forces of attraction and considered the volume
occupied by particles. (finite size of molecules)
His equation took the form
( p + a/v2 ) (v-b) ═ RT
a/v2 →to compensate for the attraction forces
(v-b) →reduction in volume due to the finite size of molecules of a real gas
as p→0 the specific volume approaches infinity, the correction terms a/v2 and b are
negligible and the equation reduces to pv=RT
At low pressure where the mean free path is large in comparison to the molecular
dimensions the quantity b in Vander Waals eqn. may be neglected.
Refer ASME steam tables that contain steam properties
Units and Dimensions

Dimensions are measurable quantities in sign For example length, mass, temp etc.To
measure a physical quantity a standard quantity of the same kind is selected. This chosen
quantity is called a Unit.For instance time is a measurable quantity. It can be measured in
units of sec ,minute, hr,days. Basic dimensions are L,M,T,t these are called fundamental
quantities. The dimensions of other physical quantities can be derived in terms of these
basic dimensions (Derived quantities)
SI F→N, g → m/s2, W = J
Conversion from one system to another system is given in the tabular forms. Useful
conversion factors are in tables which can be easily applied in calculation.
12.2 Theoretical background
Some fluid properties frequently used are discussed here.

Viscosity
It is an experimental fact that a fluid in immediate contact with a solid boundary has the
same velocity as the boundary itself. This is termed as no slip condition. The fluid motion
can be ascribed as one layer slipping over another adjacent layer. Although all real fluids
resist any forces tending to cause one layer to move over another, the resistance is offered
only while movement is taking place. If the applied force is removed the shearing
movement subsides and as there are no forces tending to return the fluid particles to their
original position, the fluids keep to its new shape and position. Thus the resistance of the
movement of one layer of fluid over another is described to the viscosity of fluid. Since
relative motion between layers requires shearing forces i.e. forces parallel to the surfaces
over which they act, the resisting force must be in the exactly opposite direction and so
they too are parallel to the surfaces. If a sufficiently small portion of the fluid is
considered the parallel movement of the layers may be considered to be straight lines.
The above diagram represents two adjacent layers of fluid, although they are shown
slightly separated for the sake of clarity. The variation of velocity in a direction
perpendicular to the flow direction (straight line variation or linear) is shown. A force F is
applied to the upper moving plate, is directly proportional to the surface area A of the
upper plate and its velocity w, and is inversely proportional to the distance y between the
plates. Newton postulated this theory out of his investigations that the tangential stress
between two adjacent layers is proportional to the velocity gradient in a direction
perpendicular to the layers.
τ ═ F/A
 w/y ═ µ (w/y)
═ µ (x / y t)
═ µ (tanθ/t)
almost equals to µ (θ/t) ( Refer fig.)
Written in differential form for one dimensional flow
τ ═ µ (dw/dy)
in which ‘µ’ is the proportionality constant or factor and is called the dynamic or
absolute viscosity of the fluid. Poise and stoke are the units in CGS system of units.
Conversion factors are shown in tables. Water at 20°C has a dynamic viscosity of 1.002
centipoises (0.001 Ns/m2) or Pas .Viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature where as viscosity of a gas increases with increasing temperature. The ratio
dw/dy is called the rate of angular deformation for one dimensional flow. Viscosity of
water 55 times as viscous as air. viscosity of air 0.0181*10-3 Ns/m2. Viscosity is that
property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to shear. In Newtonian
fluids(obeys Newton's law of viscosity) there is a linear relationship between the applied
shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation (µ=constant).In non-Newtonian fluids,
this relationship is not linear. Gases and thin liquids tend to be Newtonian fluids, while
thick hydrocarbons may be non-Newtonian.
τ ═ µ (du/dy)
═ µ (∂u/∂y) (Two-three dimensional flow)
µ ═ c , Newtonian fluids (air, water, oils, molten metals)
µ varies with du/ ∂y, Non Newtonian
There are certain substances which requires a yield stress for the deformation to start
τ ═ τo + µ(du/∂y)n
e.g: drilling mud, tooth paste
An accelerating or decelerating fluid flow is better characterized by knowing the
kinematic viscosity which is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density
ν = µ/ρ
A fluid has a viscosity 1 poise if a tangential force of one dyne acts over a plane
surface of area 1cm2 in order to maintain a difference of viscosity 1cm/s between the
plane and another parallel to it by 1 cm.
12.3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE IN TWO FLUID SYSTEMS
CONTINUITY
Conservation of mass
Law of conservation of mass is mathematically stated as the continuity equation or
mass balance as applied to a flow process.The continuity equation or mass balance in
physical processes is mass of substance entering in - mass of substance leaving out is
mass of accumulation in the system. Generally these are taken as rate quantities.
Conservation of energy
First law of thermodynamics is the statement of Fluid conservation of energy.
Applied to an open system
Ein- Eout=∆Es
Ein represents all types of energy added to the system within a defined control
volume(region of space) during a specified time interval, ∆Es is the change in the
total energy of the system, and Eout represents all kinds of energy leaving the system
during the same time interval. In the steady flow system ∆Es = 0.
ENERGY BALANCE IN AN OPEN SYSTEM
Since rate at which energy transfer occurs is constant also the properties p,v, u, w do
not change with time
min ═ mout
Energy Equation in general
1Q2 - 1W2 + m1p1v1 - m2p2v2 + E1-E2 = Ef - Ei
→ rate of accumulation of energy
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
Q – Wt + mp1v1 - mp2 v2+ m(u1 + w12/ 2 + gz1) -
m(u2 + w22/2 + g z2)=0
Taking enthalpy h = u + pv
SFEE reduces to Q –Ŵt + m (h1+w12/2+gz1) - m(h2+w22/2+gz2) = 0
Where
Q→ rate of heat transfer across control surface in kJ/s
Ŵ→ rate of shaft work across control surface kJ/s
m→ rate of flow of material across control surface in kg/s
h → enthalpy kJ/kg
v → velocity in m/s
z → elevation in m
SFEE can be written in a convenient way as
Q-Ŵ= ∑ m ( h + w2/2 + gz) - ∑ m (h + w2/2 + gz)
(all streams leaving) (all streams entering)
= m[(h2-h1) + (w22- w12 )/ 2 + g(z2-z1)]
In a differential form/unit mass, this equation can be modified by introducing an
internal friction term viscous friction and other irreversible phenomena distinguishes
a real fluid from an ideal one to yield the following equation which is known as
mechanical energy balance
v dp+ d(w2/2) + gdz + d wf = - d wt

vdp + d(w2/2)+gdz = - dwt – dwf
STEADY SINGLE PHASE INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Although there is no such thing as an incompressible fluid, yet this term is applied to
liquids. Sound waves which are pressure waves travel through liquids. This is an
evidence of elasticity of liquids. In problems involving water hammer, it is necessary to
consider compressibility. The compressibility is expressed as bulk modulus of elasticity
which influences the wave speed in the liquid.When density changes of compressible
fluids (gas or steam) are gradual and do not change by more than 10% the flow may be
treated as incompressible with the use of average density
v=1/ρ =constant dwf=0 and dwt=0
Bernoulli's equation is a special case applied to nonviscous, incompressible fluids(ideal
fluid) which do not exchange shaft work with surroundings. In real flow systems,
however, the Bernoulli equation must be supplemented by a frictional head loss Hf
(expressed in m of a column of the fluid) and by a pump head term Hp (total dynamic
head, TDH, expressed in m of a column of fluid).
Then, for real systems the following equation is used
p1/γ + w12 / 2g +z1+ Hp = p2/γ + w22/2y + Hf
The frictional head loss is given by the D’Arcy-Weisbach equation:
Hf = ∆p / γ
= f (w2/ 2g) L/D
and the corresponding pressure drop (expressed in N/m2 or lbf / ft2) is

∆p = fρ (w2/2) L/D
which is four times Fanning friction factor used in some publications
For laminar flow

f = 64 / Re
MOODY DIAGRAM
It applies to all roughnesses, as the head loss in laminar flow is independent of wall
roughness.
Re = ρWD/µ
Expressions for calculating the loss of pressure in turbulent flow are based upon
experimental data. An empirical transition function for commercial pipes for the
region between smooth pipes and the complete turbulence zone has been developed
by Colebrook (see the Moody diagram) .
where the absolute roughness , expressed in ft or m, is used as a measure of pipe wall

irregularities of commercial pipes. This formula is the basis for the Moody diagram in
the transition zone flow. The Moody diagram is widely accepted for hand
calculations. For computerized calculations of pressure drop, the Colebrook equation
is built into the software. Pressure losses which occur in piping systems due to bends,
elbows, joints, valves, and so forth are called form losses. Recommended values of
flow resistance coefficients (K-factors) may be found in Refs. 7 and 8. Form losses
may also be expressed in terms of the equivalent length Le of pipe that has the same
pressure head loss for the same flow rate. Thus,
After solving for Le,

Le = KD /f
WATER SYSTEMS
General Design Considerations
Design requirements and design parameters are developed in the system descriptions
which include piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), descriptions of the
system individual components (pumps, valves, heat exchangers, etc.), design flow
rates, valve alignments, control valve operation, and pipe sizes. Pipe sizes are
determined by calculation of water velocities in the system. Selection of velocities
must consider many factors including:
Pipe material
Water quality
System flow balance requirements
Economic evaluation of pipe cost versus pumping costs
Available pump head
Water hammer prevention
Typical water flow velocities in ft/s (m/s) for various applications based on general
industry practices are,
Typical Water Flow Velocities
Condenser pump suction 3 ft/s (1 m/s)
Condenser pump discharge 10 ft/s (3 m/s)
Booster pump discharge 10 ft/s (3 m/s)
Feed pump suction (no deaerator) 10 ft/s (3 m/s)
Feed pump discharge 20–25 ft/s (6–7.5 m/s)
Circulating water system 9 ft/s (3 m/s)
General service 5–10 ft/s (1.5–3 m/s)
A steady-state analysis of a water system is generally performed twice. The first
calculation is needed to obtain data required for the purchase of the components. This
initial analysis is performed after the system description and general arrangement
drawings have been prepared. The initial analysis proceeds as follows.
Issue the system description and general arrangement drawings.
Develop a preliminary piping layout based on P&IDs and general arrangement
drawings.
Determine the system operating mode or modes (valve lineup, number of
pumps,etc.) which are critical for equipment purchase.
Calculate the pressure drop in the piping for design flow rates.
Develop a system resistance curve
Calculate the flow balance in branching systems
Revise the system description (if required) to achieve desired system flow
balance
Develop a revised system resistance curve (if required).
Calculate values of parameters required for the purchase of system
components (pump head, system pressures, control valve pressure drop, etc.)
The final steady-state hydraulic analysis of a system is usually performed after major
equipment has been purchased and piping drawings have been prepared. This analysis is
to confirm acceptable operation for all operating modes by reconciling the as built piping
and installed equipment with the initial analysis.
The final analysis proceeds as follows:
Determine the pressure drop in the system based on piping drawings and
equipment suppliers data for design flow rates (if required).
Develop system resistance curves (if required).
Plot pump curves on the system resistance curve to determine the system flow
rates.
Compare design flow rates with calculated flow rates for all operating modes.
Due to problems which occur during construction, the as-built drawings often differ
from the piping drawings. In most instances, these changes are minor and do not affect
the results of the analysis. Should any major changes occur during construction, the effect
on the analysis results would need to be evaluated.
PIPING CONFIGURATION
Piping systems may be arranged in series, in parallel, or as branching pipes. For pipes in
series, the total pressure head loss is the sum of head losses in the pipe sections, and the
flow rate is the same at all sections. For pipes in parallel, the pressure head loss is the
same for each flow path, and the total flow rate is the sum of flows in parallel sections.
For branching in pipes, the analysis must combine the above two principles. The total
energy at a junction must be the same for all branches of the pipe. Analysis of a piping
system begins with a determination of the pressure drop(pressure head loss) due to
friction, form losses (in various types of piping components) and pressure losses in
equipment for the design flow rate. For ease in evaluating the total system performance,
the head loss should be calculated for each pipe branch separately. Calculations of head
loss include a schematic sketch of the piping layout. A second head loss calculation may
be required if the pipeline is expected to operate at flow rates considerably different from
the design flow rate. Having calculated the head loss in each branch of the system for the
design flow rate, the performance of the entire system can be calculated. System
resistance curves, flow balances, pump design points, and system pressures are some of
the products of the system analysis.The complexity of the system analysis depends on the
number of pipes in series, pipes in parallel, and pipe branches. The greater the number of
pipes, the more complex the analysis becomes. The analysis is either done by manual
calculation or by computer analysis. Computerized calculations are preferable. Manual
calculations are suited for relatively simple piping systems. Manual analysis with the use
of graphs provides an easy method for analyzing systems with a number of pipes in
parallel, pipes in series, and branching pipes. This technique is based on the assumption
that head loss varies with the square of velocity.The hydraulic and energy grade line are
two useful engineering tools in hydraulic design of any system in which liquid is in
dynamic state.
The fig. below shows a hydraulic and energy grade line.
ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF LINE SIZES

The objective of this subject is balancing the savings in cost obtained by reducing the
size of pipe diameter against increased cost of pumping equipment and power
necessary to provide for increased pressure drop.For given flows, as the pipe diameter
decreases, the flow velocity increases which decreases the cost of erected piping,
including fittings, hangers, supports, and labor as represented by cost a in Fig below.
However, the piping pressure drop ratio increases to the 5th power with reduction in
the pipe internal diameter ratio, as shown in table. The same is true with the pumping
power, which is proportional to the pressure drop in the line, as represented by cost b
In addition, there is the cost of the pump and the pump drive, which increases as
greater pumping power is required, as represented by cost c.The total cost, Tcost=
a+b+c in $/year, as it reaches minimum value at the optimum flow velocity. The
analysis of each piping system should consider the optimization of flow velocity
(optimum internal diameter) of the pipe under consideration. It is important to note
that cost b depends strongly on the plant operating mode or the load factor, and on
other economic indicators for a particular project. Industry data containing updated
prices of equipment, piping, and labor are needed to implement this operation
procedure.
FLOW VELOCITY OPTIMIZATION PLOT
COMPUTER PRINTOUT OF STEAM/WATER PROPERTIES

FLOW RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
CHAPTER XIII
CORROSION
13.1 Introduction
• Corrosion is the deterioration of a substance or its properties because of a reaction

with its environment.
• Metals in general are relatively unstable with respect to most environments and have
a natural tendency to return to their original state, or corrode.
• Millions of dollars are lost each year because of corrosion. Much of this loss is due to
the corrosion of iron and steel, although many other metals may corrode as well.
• The problem with iron as well as many other metals is that the oxide formed by
oxidation does not firmly adhere to the surface of the metal and flakes off easily
causing "pitting".
• Extensive pitting eventually causes structural weakness and disintegration of the
metal. (It should be noted, however, that certain metals such as aluminum, form a
very tough oxide coating which strongly bonds to the surface of the metal preventing
the surface from further exposure to oxygen and corrosion).
13.2 Corrosion as an Electrochemical Process
Corrosion occurs in the presence of moisture. For example when iron is exposed to moist
air, it reacts with oxygen to form rust,
The amount of water complexed with the iron (III) oxide (ferric oxide) varies as indicated
by the letter "X". The amount of water present also determines the color of rust, which
may vary from black to yellow to orange brown. The formation of rust is a very complex
process which is thought to begin with the oxidation of iron to ferrous (iron "+2") ions.
Fe -------> Fe+2 + 2 e-
Both water and oxygen are required for the next sequence of reactions. The iron (+2) ions
are further oxidized to form ferric ions (iron "+3") ions.
Fe+2 ------------> Fe+3 + 1 e-
Tthe electrons provided from both oxidation steps are used to reduce oxygen as shown.
O2 (g) + 2 H2O + 4e- ------> 4 OH-
The ferric ions then combine with oxygen to form ferric oxide [iron (III) oxide] which is
then hydrated with varying amounts of water. The overall equation for the rust formation
may be written as :
The formation of rust can occur at some distance away from the actual pitting or erosion
of iron as illustrated below. This is possible because the electrons produced via the initial
oxidation of iron can be conducted through the metal and the iron ions can diffuse
through the water layer to another point on the metal surface where oxygen is available.
This process results in an electrochemical cell in which iron serves as the anode, oxygen
gas as the cathode, and the aqueous solution of ions serving as a "salt bridge" as shown
below.
The involvement of water accounts for the fact that rusting occurs much more rapidly in
moist conditions as compared to a dry environment such as a desert. Many other factors
affect the rate of corrosion. For example the presence of salt greatly enhances the rusting
of metals. This is due to the fact that the dissolved salt increases the conductivity of the
aqueous solution formed at the surface of the metal and enhances the rate of
electrochemical corrosion. This is one reason why iron or steel tend to corrode much
more quickly when exposed to salt (such as that used to melt snow or ice on roads) or
moist salty air near the ocean.
A piece of bare iron left outside where it is exposed to moisture will rust quickly. It will
do so even more quickly if the moisture is salt water. The corrosion rate is enhanced by
an electrochemical process in which a water droplet becomes a voltaic cell in contact
with the metal, oxidizing the iron.
The rusting of unprotected iron in the presence of air and water is then inevitable because
it is driven by an electrochemical process. However, other electrochemical processes can
offer some protection against corrosion. For magnesium rods can be used to protect
underground steel pipes by a process called cathodic protection.
13.3 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion
• In oilfield situations we are generally faced with corrosion attacks in aqueous

environments
• Basically all attacks in aqueous solutions are electrochemical in nature.
• Besides the chemical reaction there will also be a flow of electrons, resulting in a
flow of current.
• The current flows from a higher potential to a lower one.
Cathodic Protection against Corrosion
Underground steel pipes offer the strength to transport fluids at high pressures, but they
are vulnerable to corrosion driven by electrochemical processes. A measure of protection
can be offered by driving a magnesium rod into the ground near the pipe and providing
an electrical connection to the pipe. Since the magnesium has a standard potential of -
2.38 volts compared to -.41 volts for iron, it can act as a anode of a voltaic cell with the
steel pipe acting as the cathode. With damp soil serving as the electrolyte, a small current
can flow in the wire connected to the pipe. The magnesium rod will be eventually
consumed by the reaction
Mg(s) -> + Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
while the steel pipe as the cathode will be protected by the rea
Polarisation
• An electrochemical reaction is said to be polarized or retarded when it is limited
by various physical and chemical factors.
• The reduction in potential difference in volts due to net current flow between the
two electrodes of the corrosion cell is termed polarization.
• The overall reaction is controlled by the slowest reaction, anodic or cathodic.
• If the slower reaction is anodic or the polarization occurs mostly at the anode the
corrosion reaction is said to be “anodically controlled”
• When the slower reaction is cathodic and polarization occurs mostly at the
cathode, the corrosion rate is “cathodically controlled”
• Polarization can be divided into
• Activation polarization
• Concentrationpolarization
• Activation polarization is an electrochemical reaction that is controlled by the
reaction occurring on the metal-electrolyte interface
• Concentration polarization is an electrochemical process controlled by the
diffusion within the electrolyte.
Passivity
Passivity is the loss of chemical reactivity of certain metals and alloys under specific
environmental conditions.
Oxide film theory
• States that the passive film is a diffusion-barrier layer of reaction products(i.e.,
metal oxides or other compounds).
• The barriers separate the metal from the hostile environment and thereby slow the
rate of reaction.
Adsorption theory of passivity

• This states that the film is simply adsorbed gas that forms a barrier to diffusion of
metal ions from the substrata.
• Metals that exhibit passivity can be used in moderately to strongly oxidizing
environments.
• In highly oxidizing environments they will lose their corrosion-resistant
properties and, therefore,cannot be used.
13.4 Forms of corrosion attack
Uniform Corrosion
• All homogeneous metals without differences in potential between any points on
their surfaces are subject to this type of general attack under some conditions.
• Uniform corrosion is usually characterized by a chemical or electrochemical
attack over the entire exposed surface
• Metal corrodes in an even and regular manner becoming thinner, and
consequently leads to failure due to reduction of the material's load-carrying
capabilities
• The rate of penetration or the thinning of a structural member can be used directly
to predict the service life of a given component.
• The expression mils penetration per year (mpy) is used to express corrosion
resistance directly in terms of penetration.
Galvanic Corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals electrically contact each
other and are immersed in an electrolyte.
• In order for galvanic corrosion to occur, an electrically conductive path and an
ionically conductive path are necessary. This effects a galvanic couple where the
more active metal corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal
corrodes at a retarded rate.
• When immersed, neither metal would normally corrode as quickly without the
electrically conductive connection (usually via a wire or direct contact). Galvanic
corrosion is often utilised in sacrificial anodes.
• What type of metal(s) to use is readily determined by following the galvanic
series. For example, zinc is often used as a sacrificial anode for steel structures,
such as pipelines or docked naval ships.
• Galvanic corrosion is of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere
water can contact pipes or metal structures.
Factors such as relative size of anode (smaller is generally less desirable), types of metal,
and operating conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.) will affect galvanic
corrosion. The surface area ratio of the anode and cathode will directly affect the
corrosion rates of the materials
To prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion we can employ several techniques:

• If a metal or alloy combination is to be selected, choose combination of metals as
close together in the galvanic series as possible.
• Choose the metal or alloy so that the anode area is larger than the cathode area.
• If any dissimilar metals are in contact with each other, isolate them electrically so
that no electricity flows between them.
• Apply proper coatings with caution, and keep the coatings in good repair.
• Add proper inhibitors with appropriate practices.
• Avoid threaded joints for materials that are far apart in galvanic series.
• Anodic parts should be designed so that they are easily replaceable. They may
also be designed thicker than what is required to extend their service life
Pitting corrosion
Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high concentrations of

species such as chloride which compete as anions, can interfere with a given alloy's
ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will
remain protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical
points. Corrosion at these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause corrosion pits of
several types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only nucleate under
fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when conditions return to
normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of oxygen and locally the pH
decreases to very low values and the corrosion rate increases due to an auto-catalytic
process. In extreme cases, the sharp tips of extremely long and narrow can cause stress
concentration to the point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter, or a thin film pierced
by an invisibly small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are
especially dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure fails.
Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in passivated
alloys, but it can be prevented by control of the alloy's environment, which often includes
ensuring that the material is exposed to oxygen uniformly (i.e., eliminating crevices).
Microbial corrosion
Microbial corrosion, or bacterial corrosion, is a corrosion caused or promoted by

microorganisms, usually chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metals and non-metallic
materials, in both the presence and lack of oxygen. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are common
in lack of oxygen; they produce hydrogen sulfide, causing sulfide stress cracking. In
presence of oxygen, some bacteria directly oxidize iron to iron oxides and hydroxides,
other bacteria oxidize sulfur and produce sulfuric acid causing biogenic sulfide corrosion.
Concentration cells can form in the deposits of corrosion products, causing and
enhancing galvanic corrosion.
Inter-Grannular Corrosion
• Inter-granular corrosion is a localized type of attack at the grain boundaries, with

relatively little corrosion of the grains.
• The metal or the alloys lose their strength, ductility and eventually disintegrate
• Relatively small areas of grain-boundary material act as anodes, and are in contact
with larger areas of grain material, the cathodes.
• The attack can be caused by impurities at the grain boundaries, enrichment of one
of the alloying elements, or depletion of one of these elements in the grain-
boundary areas. Inter-granular corrosion can be prevented or minimized by the
following
considerations:
• Choose proper treatment for the environmental conditions of service.

• Use properly heat-treated metals and alloys.
• Use materials that contain strong carbide-formers, the stabilizers.
• Use low-carbon grade materials.
• Avoid high-strength aluminum alloys
Cavitation Corrosion
• Cavitation is a special form of erosion corrosion results from formation and

collapse of vapour bubbles in a liquid near a metal surface
• Collapsing bubbles destroy the protective surface film, thereby exposing the metal
to increased corrosion attack.
• Cavitation damage is often seen in high-velocity, turbulent, liquid-flow areas such
as drilling-mud pumps.
• Titanium and corrosion-resistant, cobalt-base alloys appear to be suitable for a
wide range of environments causing cavitation erosion.
Erosion Corrosion
• Most metals and their alloys are susceptible to erosion corrosion

• Erosion corrosion occurs when the protective films or deposits are removed by
mechanical wear effects of abrasion.
• Once the protective surface is damaged, accelerated corrosive attack occurs at the
fresh metal surface.
• The damage done by this form of corrosion appears as grooves, gullies, waves,
rounded holes, pits and valleys, and generally, exhibits a directional pattern
There are basically five ways to reduce or prevent erosion corrosion:
• Choose materials with a high resistance to erosion and wear.

• Keep erosion corrosion in mind while designing the equipment.
• Use proper coatings.
• Alter environment-add inhibitors, remove abrasives as soon as possible.
• Use cathodic protection wherever possible. This does not affect the erosion part of
the attack, but it may reduce the corrosive attack.
Hydrogen Damage
• In general corrosion, hydrogen ions (H) are reduced to atomic hydrogen (HO)
• These hydrogen atoms combine with each other and form molecular hydrogen
• 2H. + 2e- -> 2H0 ->H2
• Sulphide ions, phosphorus and arsenic compounds reduce the rate at which
hydrogen combines to form molecules.
• Atomic hydrogen can diffuse through metal matrix and cause mechanical damage
Therefore, hydrogen damage is a mechanical damage of metal caused by the
presence of atomic hydrogen
• Some of the forms of hydrogen damage are as follows:
• Hydrogen Blistering
• Penetration of hydrogen in low-strength steel with any discontinuities in the steel
such as laminations, inclusions or voids may result in hydrogen blistering
• Hydrogen produced on the surface of the metal evolves in part as gas bubbles and
the rest diffuses through the metal.
• The different hydrogen atoms collect in the void, and combine to form hydrogen
gas molecules
• Hydrogen gas molecules are too large to diffuse back through the metal.
• The gas pressure increases to sufficient levels to burst out to the metal surface.
Sress Corrosion
• Stress-corrosion cracking occurs when a metal is under constant tensile stress and
exposed simultaneously to a corrosive environment.
• The source of this stress can be external (caused by slip or tong notch, etc., on
drill pipes, collars and tool joints, and the weight of the drill stem) or it can be
residual in the metal from heat treatment or cold working.
• The area damaged by the slips becomes stressed and undergoes accelerated
corrosion as it becomes anodic to the rest of the unstressed area of the pipe.
• The area damaged by the slips becomes stressed and undergoes accelerated
corrosion as it becomes anodic to the rest of the unstressed area of the pipe.
• The appearance of damage is of a brittle mechanical fracture, but it results from
local corrosion attack
• The cracks are inter-granular or trans-granular depending on the metal structure
and the corrosive environment.
• Cracks generally develop perpendicular to the applied stresses.
• They are randomly oriented and can vary in degree of branching depending on the
metal structure and composition, the nature of stress and the corrosive
environment.
• Cracks vary from being totally branchless to extremely branched like the “river
delta.”
• As the stress increases, the time before failure decreases.
• The minimum stress may vary from 10% of the yield stress to 70% of the yield
stress.
• As stress corrosion proceeds, the cross-sectional area is reduced, resulting in a
cracking failure due to mechanical action.
• At first, the crack propagation rate is roughly constant; but as cracking progresses,
the cross-sectional area decreases.
13.5 Factors Influencing Corrosion Rate
1) PH
• pH = -log[H+]
• The time to failure increases as the pH rises
• Below pH 7, failure occurs in less than an hour in the presence of hydrogen
sulfide
• As the pH rises above 7, time to failure rapidly increases.
• Both carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide lower the pH level to acidic regions
and , consequently, increase the corrosion rate.
• The corrosion rate is dependent upon the diffusion rate of oxygen through the
protective layer to the metal surface
• The corrosion rate increases with increasing oxygen concentration and with
erosion of the protective layer in the presence of high-velocity turbulent flow,
which is often imposed on the drill-string
2) Temperature
• The effect of temperature on corrosion rate is influenced by the following:

• 1. Increase in temperature increases the redox reaction.
• 2. Solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.
• 3. Change in viscosity may affect the circulation, diffusion and other properties
pertinent to the corrosion process.
• 4. Solubility of some reaction products can be affected by temperature variation.
• When corrosion is due to the presence of mineral acids dissolved in water,
resulting in hydrogen evolution, the corrosion rate generally increases with
increasing temperatures
• If the corrosion is due to dissolved oxygen in water, the rate decreases with
increased temperature. This is due to the increased solubility of oxygen with rise
in temperature
• In a closed system, where oxygen coming out of solution cannot escape, the rate
of corrosion increases with increase in temperature
3) Velocity
• The velocity of fluids over the metal surface has an effect on the corrosion rate
through influencing other factors responsible for corrosion
• High velocity may increase erosion corrosion by either washing away the
protective film or by mechanically agitating the metal surface
• On the other hand, stagnant systems where the fluid velocity is zero may
experience deposition of sludge and other suspended solids
• This deposition may create
CHAPTER XIV
PRESSURE AND LEAK TESTING OF PIPING SYSTEMS
14.1 Inspection and Testing
The inspection, examination, and testing of piping systems is covered in Chapter VI of

B31.3. Inspection (the ASME B31.3 code distinguishes between examination and
inspection)
• Examination applies to quality control functions performed by the manufacturer
of piping components for the fabricator or erector.
• Inspection applies to functions performed for the owner by the owner’s inspector
or the inspector’s delegates.
14.2 Types of Examination
Any examination method specified by the code, the owners inspector, or the engineering
design must be performed in accordance with one of the methods specified in the
following list. The following terms apply to the extent of any type of examination:
• 100% examination. This means the complete examination of all of a specified
kind of item in a designated lot of piping components or fabrication work.
• Random examination. This is a complete examination of a percentage of a
specified kind of item in a designated lot of piping.
• Spot examination. This is a specified partial examination of each of a specified
kind of item in a designated lot of piping, such as part of the length of all shop-
fabricated welds in a lot of jacketed piping.
• Random spot examination. This means a specified partial examination of a
percentage of a specified kind of item in a designated lot of piping.
Visual Examination
The visual examination of all or part of a piping system must be performed in accordance
with the code, such as referenced in BPV Code, Section V, Article 9. Visual examination
is carried out by the naked eye and refers to defects in components and workmanship
without the aid of measuring or recording equipment. Visual inspection the first option
and most commonly used method of nondestructive testing.
Visual examination is used for the following applications:
• Correct weld preparation.
• Surface defects, such as undercuts and cracks.
• Weld profile (cap, root).
• Measurement of component geometry.
• Measurement of surface roughness.
• Detection of corrosion.
• Detection of defects and cracks.
• Detection of excess grinding defects.
Liquid Penetrant Examination

After visual inspection, liquid penetrant testing is probably the oldest and the second
most commonly used method of NDT. It can be used on any nonporous material,
however, its use is restricted to the detection of surface defects.
A colored or fluorescent dye is applied to a cleaned surface of the work piece and
allowed to settle for between 10 and 20 minutes. This dye is drawn into the discontinuity
by capillary pressure and penetrates the surface. This capillary pressure is determined by
the width of discontinuity, surface tension, and contact angle of the dye on the surface.
Excess dye is then removed from the surface and a developer applied, which draws out
the dye and gives good visual contrast to the defect. The work piece to be inspected is left
for approximately 10 minutes, then the surfaces are visually inspected, using a white light
for red dyes and ultraviolet light for fluorescent dyes.
Magnetic Particle Examination
Magnetic Particle Examination(MPE) is a very effective method for the detection of
surface and close to- the-surface discontinuities in any ferromagnetic material. It relies on
the principle that a magnetic field is uniform through a component unless disturbed by
the presence of a flaw. A flaw generates a local stronger field, known as a leakage field.
It attracts finely ground magnetic particles, either as an ink or dry powder, which are
applied to the component, providing a visual indication, making the defect visible.
The advantages to this method are
• Simple examination.
• Ability to detect surface and near-surface flaws.
• Ability to detect flaws filled with contaminants, such as oxide or nonmetallic
inclusions.
The disadvantages are
• Application limited to ferromagnetic materials.
• Inability to detect deep internal flaws.
• Possibility of damage due to high currents applied to the component.
• Components usually have to be demagnetized.
Radiographic Examination
Radiography is an accurate examination method that uses X-ray equipment in the
laboratory and radioisotopes on site. It is the most costly of all of the examinations and
produces a permanent record of the work piece being examined. Radiography is used for
subsurface defect detection, and the film produced by the radiography method shows
density changes.
The main limitations with radiography are that inspection personnel have to be protected
from the harmful rays and the areas have to be cleared of non-inspection personnel,
which means that construction has to stop. The extent of the level or amount of
radiography carried out on a piping system is defined as follows:
• 100% radiography. This applies only to girth and miter groove welds and
fabricated branch connection welds.
• Random radiography. This applies only to girth and miter groove welds.
• Spot radiography. This requires a single exposure to radiography at a specified
location.
Ultrasonic Examination
Ultrasonic examination uses a high-frequency (100 kHz-10 MHz) sound wave
transmitted as a beam through the work piece. When the beam meets a defect it is
reflected back to the source. In certain cases, ultrasonic testing can be used if radiography
is not an option and it can be used to support MPE or LPE.
14.3 Testing of Piping Systems
Before a piping system can be commissioned for plant startup and after all the required
NDE activities have been completed, each piping system must be tested to ensure the
integrity of its pressure containing capabilities. This test usually is a hydrostatic leak test,
unless for special reasons this is not an option.
There are a number of methods for pressure and leak testing process piping systems, and
the industry tests most commonly used are
• Hydrostatic testing, which uses water or another liquid under pressure.
• Pneumatic or gaseous-fluid testing, which uses air or another gas under pressure.
• A combination of pneumatic and hydrostatic testing, where low-pressure air is
first used to detect leaks.
• Initial service testing, which involves a leakage inspection when the system is
first put into operation.
• Vacuum testing, which uses negative pressure to check for the existence of a leak.
Where the owner of the plant considers that hydrostatic testing might damage or
contaminate the internal components of the piping system or that a pneumatic test is too
hazardous, a 100% radiography or ultrasonic testing of all welds in the piping system is
an option. This is a costly exercise, but sometimes there is no alternative.
Special Provisions for Testing
Piping subassemblies or sections of a complete piping system can be tested separately, if
testing a system in its entirety is not possible or logistically difficult. The final weld, or
closure weld that joins two connecting piping systems that have been successfully leak
tested, need not be part of a leak test, if it is 100% circumferentially radiographed.
Preparation for Leak Test

All joints and welds on the piping system, including structural attachment welds, such as
pipe supports to pressure-containing components, and bonds should be left uninsulated
and exposed for examination during leak testing. Piping systems designed for vapor or
gas should be provided with additional temporary supports, if required, to support the
weight of liquid during the leak test.
A piping system that has expansion joints that depend on external main anchors to
restrain pressure-end loads should be tested in place. A system that has self-restrained
expansion joints, which have been previously shop tested by the manufacturer, can be
excluded from the system being tested. Bellows-type expansion joints must not be
subjected to a leak-test pressure greater than the manufacturer’s test pressure. Items of
equipment that are not subjected to a leak test can be disconnected from the piping
system to be tested by isolating, using line blinds or a valve suitable for the test pressure
of the system it is isolating.
14.4 Leak-Testing Methods
Hydrostatic Leak Test

Hydrostatic testing is the most commonly used method of leak testing and a safer method
than pneumatic testing. Water is almost non-compressible and there is a limited amount
of stored energy; however, gaseous test mediums used for pneumatic testing are highly
compressible. This means that stored energy is contained within the piping system during
the test period could be released suddenly in the event of a failure, causing local damage
to personnel and equipment.
The potential damage possible during a pneumatic test is far greater than in a hydrotest;
however, trapped air pockets in a hydrotest also can have a disastrous effect if there is a
failure. That is why it is essential that all high points in piping systems have vents to
allow air to escape as the piping system is filled with water.
According to ASME B31.3, the hydrostatic test pressure at any point in a metallic piping
system should be as follows: no less than 1.5 times the design pressure
Pneumatic Leak Test

The fluids most commonly used for a pneumatic test are air or nitrogen; however, gas
testing involves the hazard of the piping system retaining stored energy that could have a
very damaging effect if there is a failure. Great care must be taken to minimize the
chance of a failure during a pneumatic leak test. ASME B31.3 quotes a pneumatic test
pressure of 110% of design pressure and a pressure relief device must be installed.
Combination Hydrostatic-Pneumatic Leak Test

For a combined hydrotest-pneumatic test of a piping system, first, a low air pressure, of
approximately 25 psig, is introduced to see if there are any major leaks. This low pressure
is less dangerous than a full pneumatic test, and major leaks can be detected easily by the
soapy water bubble test. Necessary repairs can be carried out before advancing to the
hydrotest.
CHAPTER XV
MARINE AND OFFSHORE PIPING SYSTEMS
Marine and Offshore Piping Systems
a. Offshore Production Platforms

b. Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
c. Floating Production Storage and Offloading systems
Offshore Production Platforms
Wellhead / Production Platform

Production platform is often called well head platform.
Each oil production wellhead platform has the following facilities:

• Xmas Trees
• Test Separator
• Production Manifold
• Test Manifold
• Drain Sump Tank- process drains
• Deck Sump Tank-
• Chemical Injection Unit
• Manual Hoist 2 tons
• Pig Launcher
• Wellhead Control Panel
• Fire and Gas Panel
• Back-up battery supply for navaids, F&G panel, wellhead control panel, and
polling radio.
Well head platform:
Typically about 12 well slots each are having a X-mas tree. The oil from each well on a
well head platform passes through a manual choke valve to the wellhead production
manifold. This manifold collects fluid from all producing wells on the platform. Each
string is connected to the production and test manifold through a corresponding diverting
valve. Each manifold is equipped with pressure indicator, pressure transmitter to
telemetry system, thermal safety valve and connected to closed drain. A line equipped
with a spectacle blind goes from the test manifold to the test separator inlet.
Note: Platforms without a test separator have a connection with block valves provided on
one side of the test manifold and production manifold, for connection to a mobile flow
testing vessel.
Spare connections (on both headers) with blind flanges are available on the manifold for
future wells.
The fluids are routed from the WHP to the Production platform via subsea line.
Facilities are provided to pig the subsea line from the WHP to the PMP.
WHP-01 well testing is carried out periodically to a temporary test barge. 7-day pressure
recorders are installed upstream and downstream of the choke valve.
The purpose and objectives of well testing are to obtain all necessary data in all wells to
optimize the well and field development and minimize costs. Well capacity must be
determined for each productive horizon. Based on this data, well and field development
must be planned for optimum well spacing, well design, flow line sizes and design of
production facilities.
Well testing also provides accurate reservoir data, which is critical to assess the needs for
pressure maintenance, future need to artificial lift or secondary recovery.
The following are typical data collected from samples from test separator.
• Gas production rate in MMscf/d.
• Oil or condensate production rate in bbl/d.
• BS&W (Basic sediment & water) percentage of crude.
• Water production rate in bbl/d
• Gravity of oil, gas, and water
• Salinity of water
• H2S content
• Accurate recording of surface pressures, temperatures, and flow data versus time
Corrosion monitoring coupons and probes are installed downstream of the production
manifold.
Corrosion inhibitor is injected downstream of the wellheads into the production and test
manifolds.
Closed drainage systems are provided for the draining of all piping and instruments to the
Drains Sump Tank.
Purging connections are also provided for inerting all associated piping and equipment.
Production platform:
Facilities are more or less similar to well head platform.
Oil from various well head platforms in the region will come into the production
platform. The lines from each WHP will be subsea line. For each subsea line, there will
be a pig receiver on the production platform.
Then all these lines will be combined in a production manifold.
There will be test separator here also.
In addition to this, depending on the process requirement and philosophy, a production
separator will also be here for first stage separation of oil/water and gas.
Then the oil is sent to onshore crude treatment facilities for further treatment.

Untitled

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Untitled

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Untitled

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POST GRADUATE COURSE IN PIPING ENGINEERING – PROGRAM PLAN

Module No. Module Description

4 Piping Codes and Standards

5 Fabrication and Installation of Piping

6 Valves & Flanges

8 Piping Design Base

9 Stress Analysis of Piping

11 Heat tracing and Thermal Insulation

13 Corrosion resistance and Protection

14 Pressure and Leak Testing of Piping systems

15 Marine and Offshore Piping Systems

b. Mobile Offshore Drilling Units

c. Floating Production Storage and Offloading systems

1.1 TYPICAL APPLICATION OF PIPING SYSTEM

TYPICAL SERVICE CONDITIONS

Piping Network is subjected to various server conditions such as:-

DIFFRENCE BETWEEN PIPING & PIPLINES

WHAT A PIPING ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW ABOUT?

1.2 IMPACT OF PIPING ON PLANT INVESTMENT

(TYPICAL FOR REFINERY, PETROCHEMICALS,

1.3 RESPONSIBILITY OF A PIPING ENGINEER

Piping Engineer is responsible for substantial part of total project cost.

Carbon steel pipe

2. SCREWED OR THREADED CONNECTION

2.3. JOINING OF CAST IRON PIPES:

3. HUBLESS PIPE COUPLING

2.5 PIPE NOTATION

2.6. PIPE ENDS

3. THE STUB-IN CONNECTINS

7. SCREWED AND SOCKET-WELD FITTINGS

Center-to-end dimension of the long radius elbow

Center-to-end dimension of the short radius elbow

900Short-radius elbow drafting symbol

90° Elbow Rolled at 45°

900 elbow rolled at 450 symbols

Welded Fittings-Flanges Chart

It is a three-way fitting used to make perpendicular connections to a pipe. Lines that

Header and branch connections

Welded Fittings-Flanges Chart

4. The Stub –in

Reinforcing pad Reinforcing pads and saddles

6.2 Eccentric Reducer

Eccentric and concentric reducer

Concentric and eccentric drawing symbols

Weld Cap Weld Cap drawing symbols

Screwed fittings dimensioning chart

Internal and external threads

3.1 .PIPING MATERIAL SELECTION

WHAT IS A PIPING MATERIAL ENGINEER?

3. The Piping Material Engineer’s Responsibilities

1. Development of the Project Piping Classes

Basic Material Classification given below;

Low-Carbon (Mild) Steel

Chromium (Cr):- Chromium increases steel's response to heat treatment. It also

Manganese (Mn):- Next in importance to carbon is manganese. It normally is present in

Super Stainless Steels

Cupro Nickel (90% Cu+ 10% Ni)

Monel (30% Cu + 67% Ni)

3.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

American Society for Testing and Materials