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CHAPTER 1: THE ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1. Meaning and Definition of Psychology

The word psychology is derived from two Greek words “psyche” and “logos”. Psyche means
soul and logos means the study. Thus, originally psychology was defined as the study of “soul”
or “spirit.” But later on, philosophers defined psyche as mind. Because of this, psychology began
to be regarded as the study of an individual’s mind or mental process. Through time, this later
definition of psychology was given up because the mind as an object does not exist and cannot
be observed and measured objectively. The most widely accepted definition of psychology is:
the science of behavior and mental processes of both humans and animals.
So, there are three important concepts in the definition of psychology which needs further
explanation: science, behavior, and mental processes.
a. Science is a group of related facts and principles of a particular subject. In science we
collect related facts by the use of objective methods to develop a theory to explain those
facts. From a given set of conditions, science helps us to predict future happenings.
Psychology as a science deals systematically with human behavior and mental processes
(motives, feelings, emotions, thoughts). Science is a method: It’s not what you study, but
how you study it.
b. Behavior is any action or reaction of human and animal that can be measured and
observed. Behavior is also the organism’s reaction to a particular stimulus in the
environment. The human behavior consists of physical response (e.g. movement), mental
or internal response (e.g. feelings and emotions), and intellectual responses (e.g. thinking,
remembering and perceiving).
There are four characteristics of behavior. These are:-
- Behavior has a bodily basis.
- Behavior is dynamic.
- Behavior is social.
- Behavior varies from person to person.

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Behavior shows growth and development from the early years of infancy to maturity and old age.
Psychology as a science systematically studies how behavior grows and develops from infancy
to old age and also studies behavioral differences between people.

Psychologists collect facts of behavior by means of objective methods such as observation and
experiment and predict human behavior.
Why psychologists study animal behavior? The reasons includes:
 The study of animal behavior helps to develop general laws of behavior that apply to all
organisms.
 The study of animal behavior provides important clues to answering questions about
human behavior.
 There are certain similarities between the behavior of human and other animal.
 For ethical reasons: it is sometimes difficult and unethical to conduct psychological
experiments on human beings in laboratory setting.
c. Mental processes are experiences that cannot be observed directly, such as thoughts and
feelings. It is also internal mental processes i.e. thoughts, feelings and motives that each of
us experiences privately.
1.2. Goals of Psychology
Psychologists study human and animal by using scientific methods. The goals of scientific
enterprises includes:

1. Description: - is the 1st basic goal of psychology. It is giving a clear account about
something. This differs from every day descriptions in the precision of the methods used.
Scientific description should be as free as possible from the biases arising from personal
values and interests.
2. Explanation: - It refers telling us the why (cause) of a certain phenomenon. If predication
turns out to be unreliable, the scientists can go on to study the relationship between cause and
effect. We understand behavior and mental processes when we can explain why they happen.
Because there is still much more to learn; however, our current explanations are always
tentative (because there is nothing ultimate in science). In other words, our explanations are
theories, not truths. Theories are tentative explanations of facts and relationship in science.

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As the science of psychology progresses through research, our theories are always subject to
revision then needs another explanation.
3. Prediction: - it is telling what some thing would be like in the future. It shows the current as
well as the future events. It arises from good objective description, which reveals patterns
and thus makes prediction. If scientists can make accurate predictions, the status and
credibility of their knowledge is enhanced.
4. Control/modify, manage, influence behavior: - Psychologists hope to go beyond
description, understanding and perdition to influence behavior in beneficial ways. What can
we do to help a teenage boy climb out of a period of severe depression?
-It is an accurate prediction and thorough understanding that put the scientists in the
position of being able to arrange for an event to happen, and thus control it. When enough
understanding and ability to predict has been acquire, we can sometimes intentionally
influence people in ways that improve and enrich their lives.
1.3. The beginnings of psychology as a science

Psychology broke away from philosophy and physiology and emerged as a separate discipline
over 100 years ago. In the last century, this young and fertile discipline went through a series of
changes and expansions in both subject matter and research methods.

Until the 19th century, psychology was not a formal discipline. Of course most of the great
thinkers of history raised questions that today would be called psychology. For instance, the
early Greek philosophers Socrates and Aristotle urged us to know ourselves, to use logic to make
inferences about mind, and to systematically observe behavior. It was Aristotle who argued that
an empirical approach, rather than dialogue, was the best route to knowledge. Direct observation
remains an important dimension of psychology today.

For centuries, philosophers enjoyed arguing and debating questions like these: How do we
acquire knowledge? Does information come to us through our senses and our experiences with
the environment, or is it born? However, these scholars of the past did not rely heavily on
empirical evidence. Often their observations were based simply on anecdotes or descriptions of
individual cases. Although such speculation fueled a great deal of intellectual passion, it didn’t
yield much in the way of concrete answers. It wasn’t until the 19th century, in Germany, that
psychology emerged as a science. Hence, credit for the establishment of psychology as a science

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usually goes to Wilhelm Wundt [VIL-helm-voont), who formally founded the first Psychological
laboratory in 1879, in Leipzig, Germany.

With Wundt (the father of scientific psychology), Psychology began as the science of mental life.
His focus was on understanding mental processes, focusing on inner sensations, feelings and
thoughts. Until the 1920’s, psychology remained as the science of mental life. From 1920’s to
1960’s, American psychologists led by J.B. Watson refined psychology as the science of
observable behavior. They focused only on observable and measurable behavior.

After the 1960’s, psychology is considered to be concerned both with mental processes and outer
behavior. During the first decades of psychology’s existence as a formal discipline, psychologists
came to hold quite different views about the nature of the mind and the best ways to study it.
About the same time fundamental questions were raised about what should be studied in
Psychology: Should Psychology be the study of the mind, should it study Behavior, or should
both mind and Behavior be included? Different influential psychologists of the time held quite
different views on the nature of mind and the proper subject matter for psychology. Schools of
thought formed around these leaders as their students adopted their ideas. These schools of
thought are known as the schools of Psychology.

Historians acknowledge that three German scientists—Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner, and
Hermann von Helmholtz—were the first to systematically study behavior and mental processes.
But it is Wilhelm Wundt (1832– 1920) who is generally thought of as the “father” of
psychology. Wundt is credited with making psychology an independent science, and he was the
first to launch psychological laboratory in 1879 at the university of Leipzig Germany.

1.4. Major perspectives in psychology

The growth of Psychology was marked by the emergency of different perspectives or schools of
thought in psychology. Generally speaking, there are two broader perspectives/theories or
schools of thoughts in psychology:
 Early Schools of Thoughts/perspectives
 Modern Schools of Thoughts
I. Early Schools of Thoughts/perspectives

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There are five early schools of thoughts in psychology. These are structuralism, functionalism,
Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis and behaviorism. These schools of thoughts differ in three
significant ways:
1. In the object of study (what psychology should study like conscious mind, unconscious
mind or overt behavior).
2. In the goal of study (analyzing the contents of mind, examining the function of mind or
behavior, considering the effect of environment on behavior.)
3. In the methods of study like introspection, observation, dream analysis and so forth.

A. Structuralism
Structuralism is (Study conscious mind) the 19th C school of psychology that sought to determine
the structure of the mind through controlled introspection. Wundt and Tichener were interested
in the basic elements of the conscious experience and how those elements are organized. It is the
study of the building elements of the mind (i.e. their goals was to find the unit elements
separately that make up the mind). The elements of the mind are image, sensation, and emotions
(feelings).
Perhaps the most important contribution of the Leipzig laboratory was its students. They took
ideas of Wundt to universities around the world & popularized it. One of such student was
Edward Bradford Tichener, who gave Wundt’s approach the name structuralism.
Structuralists want to strip perception of its associations in order to find the very atoms of
thought. The main method used by them to discover the elementary units of the mind was
introspection (in ward looking). Subjects were tried to report their own sensations, mental
images & emotional reactions disregarding the meaning they had come to associate the stimulus.
Although Wundt hoped that his method of introspection would produce reliable and verifiable
results, most psychologists eventually rejected it as too subjective.
B. Functionalism
It is a school of thought that argued against the structuralism. Functionalists emphasized the
functions of metal life rather than the contents; were more interested in what mental life does
than in what it is. Functionalists such as William James (founder & most known), John Dewey,
James R. Angel & Harvey Carry emphasized the function (purpose) of behavior as opposed to
its analysis and description. They were interested in the fact that mind and behavior are adaptive-
they enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment. They did an experiments on the

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ways in which learning, memory, problem solving and motivation help people and animal adapt
to their environments. The functionalists developed many research methods than introspection,
like questionnaires, mental tests, and objective descriptions of behavior, experimentation &
observation.
C. Gestalt psychology
Gestalts felt that perception (consciousness) has meaning only when it has seen as a whole,
rather than as a simple collection of elements, as the Structuralists implied. This school of
psychology was found in Germany in the early 20th C by Max Wertheimer, and his colleagues
Kurt Koffka & Wolfgang Kohler. These psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of a
combination of elements. The German word Gestalt refers to form, whole, configuration or
pattern. Accordingly, the Gestaltists argued that the mind should be thought of as resulting from
the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationship & organizations with in this pattern. In
brief, Gestalists acknowledge consciousness; they just refuse to look at it in little pieces. They
run the basic assumption that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Image

They said, Mind > + Sensation

Emotion

D. Behaviorism:
Behaviorism started in Russia and still exists as a school of thought. Their emphasis was on
learning from experience. It arose as a protest against the study of consciousness as developed by
Wundt, because of its subjectivity. For them, overt behavior is the only suitable topic for
psychology. This school of psychology comes in to being with John B. Watson (the 1st person
who got degree in psychology in Chicago University, America). For Watson, psychology was the
study of observable, measurable behavior. According to Watson, we cannot define
consciousness any more than we can define soul, we cannot locate it, cannot measure it; and
therefore, it cannot be the object of scientific study. So, according to him, psychology is the
study of observable and measurable behavior.
E. Psychoanalysis:

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While most of the founders of psychology were focusing on either conscious mental processes or
overt behavior, others were moving in a very different direction. They believed that the most
important aspect of human psychology was neither the mental processes nor the behavior that we
are aware of, but rather the mental processes that we are unaware of. So, this group of
psychologist focused on the so-called unconscious mind.

While researchers in Europe and America were working in their laboratories struggling to make
psychology more scientific, Sigmund Freud (most popular & most controversial psychologist
and unobscure neurologist) was in his office listening to his patients reports of depression,
nervousness and obsessive habits. Freud becomes convinced that many of his patients’
symptoms had mental, not bodily causes. Their distress was due to conflicts and emotional
traumas that had occurred in early child hood ages that were too threatening to be remembered.
He argued that conscious awareness is merely the tip of the mental iceberg. Beneath the visible
tip lies the unconscious part of the mind containing hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets,
unspeakable yearnings and conflicts between desires and duty. Hence, according to Freud,
psychology should be the study of these contents of the unconsciousness. According to him, our
mind is divided in to three parts.

Conscious- all things that can aware in every time activity

Preconscious- things aware when needed. E.g. telling mobile

number.

Unconscious (large part) - all things that can not aware of

So, Freud said, psychologist should help people by finding the large unconscious part of the
mind. According to him, psychology is the study of the unconscious part of the mind. Freud used
the methods hypnosis, dream analysis, free association and sleep of tongue in his study.

II. Modern approaches/perspectives

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First and foremost, when we say modern, it does not mean that all the early views discussed
above are outdated and new ones have emerged. Some of the earlier schools, such as
structuralism, functionalism and gestalt are not being practiced today; though most of their
discoveries have now become part of the present day general psychological knowledge.
Behaviorism and psychoanalysis, on the other hand, are still active among the current
perspectives with some modifications. Some of the new approaches that have emerged out of the
old ones include the humanistic, cognitive, biological/physiological and socio-cultural
perspectives.

A. Humanistic Perspective

Faced with a choice between psychoanalysis and behaviorism, many psychologists in the 1950s
and 1960s sensed a void in psychology's conception of human nature. Freud had drawn attention
to the darker forces of the unconscious, and Skinner was interested only in the effects of
reinforcement on observable behavior.

Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire to understand the conscious mind, free will,
human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and growth. An alternative to
psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology became known as the third force.
Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice,
growth, and psychological health. Abraham Maslow and other early humanists, such as Carl
Rogers (1902–1987), pointed out that Freud based his theory primarily on data from his
disturbed patients. By contrast, the humanists emphasize a much more positive view of human
nature. They maintain that people are innately good and that they possess free will. The
humanists believe that people are capable of making conscious, rational choices, which can lead
to personal growth and psychological health.

B. Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive psychology grew and developed partly in response to strict behaviorism, especially in
the United States. Cognition is defined as mental processing in making relationships,
comparisons & contrasts, reasoning & logic, inferences and judgments, conclusion, etc.
Cognitive psychology sees humans not as passive recipients who are pushed and pulled by

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environmental forces but as active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape
those experiences, and who use mental processes to transform information in the course of their
own cognitive development. It studies mental processes such as memory, problem solving,
reasoning, decision making, perception, language, and other forms of cognition.

C. Biological (Physiological) Perspective

It states that behavior has a biological basis. The behavior of both people and animals should be
considered in terms of biological functioning. Topics that are discussed in this perspective
include:
 How the individual nerve cells are joined together?
 How heredity influences behavior?
 What are the physiological responses when a baby confronts a stranger?

Biological psychologists look for links between specific behaviors and particular biological
factors that often help explain individual differences. They study the structures of the brain and
central nervous system, the functioning of neurons, and the effects of heredity to look for links
between these biological factors and behavior.

D. Social-Cultural Psychology
A final school, which takes a higher level of analysis and which has had substantial impact on
psychology, can be broadly referred to as the social-cultural approach. The field of social-
cultural psychology is the study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people
find themselves influence thinking and behavior. An important aspect of social-cultural
psychology are social norms—the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by
group members and perceived by them as appropriate. Norms include customs, traditions,
standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group. Many of the most important
social norms are determined by the culture in which we live, and these cultures are studied by
cross-cultural psychologists. A culture represents the common set of social norms, including
religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a
geographical region.

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 Generally, this approach seeks to understand behavior within a particular social and cultural
context, and make comparisons between different cultures or social groups looking for
similarities and differences in behavior, with the aim of examining how a culture influences
psychological processes.
1.5. Subfields in psychology
As we tried to highlight earlier in the introductory part of this chapter, psychology is not a single
enterprise. Rather, it is a combination of specialties, each identified by the adjective that
precedes the word ‘psychology’. Psychology can be likened to a large extended family. Each of
the branches of psychology can be considered as nephews, aunts, uncles, and cousins who may
not interact on- day- to- day basis, but have blood relationship. Some of the branches are:
 Clinical psychology: - deals with the diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavioral
disorders, such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia. Some professionals may also
conduct research in these areas.
 School psychology: - studies about the diagnosis and treatment of learning and behavioral
problems that interfere with learning.
 Forensic psychology: - is applied in clinical psychology to issues involving psychology
and law.
 Counseling psychology: - deals with how to help people who have adjustment problems
(marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical
psychologists.
 Physiological psychology (Biological psychology or Neuropsychology): - studies the
relationship between physiological processes and behavior.
 Experimental psychology: - conducts experiments in most areas of psychology—learning,
memory, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion, and others.
 Developmental psychology: - studies how people grow, develop, and change throughout
the life span.
 Educational psychology: - studies about teaching and learning. (Note: Do not confuse
educational psychology with school psychology. Recall that school psychology is the
subfield of clinical psychology that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of learning
problems. Educational psychologists study learning in typically developing people. As

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such, they are trained in theory and research methods but not in the diagnosis and
treatment of learning problems.)
 Social psychology: - investigates how the individual feels, thinks, and behaves in a social
setting—in the presence of others.
 Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology: - studies behavior in the workplace. It deals
with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational
communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within
an organization.
 Personality Psychology: - focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and
the traits that differentiate one person from the other.
 Health psychology: - Studies the relationship between psychological factors (such as
stress) and physical illness.
OTHERS: Sport psychology, environmental psychology, military psychology, cross-cultural
psychology, evolutionary psychology, program evaluation, psychology of women, etc.

1.6. Research Methods in Psychology

 What is Research?

Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of

data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore. Research is also a
systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observable phenomena.
Psychologists use research to study human and animal behavior and mental processes
scientifically. A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and
interpret data. The goal of psychological research is to discover, describe, explain and change
the causes of behavior. To do this, we need to describe behaviors and the events that are
responsible for their occurrence in a language that is both precise enough to be understood by
others and general enough to apply to a wide variety of situations. Psychologists use three major
types of research designs in their research, and each provides an essential avenue for scientific
investigation.

1. Descriptive research: - is a research designed to provide a snapshot/portrait of the current

state of affairs.

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2. Correlational research: - is research designed to discover relationships among variables

and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge.

3. Experimental research: - is research in which initial equivalence among research

participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given
experience for these groups and a measurement of the influence of the manipulation.

Each of the three research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations, and it is
important to understand how each differs.

1.6.1. Descriptive research

Descriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or
behavior of individuals. It yields descriptions of behavior. The results of descriptive research
projects are analyzed using descriptive statistics—numbers that summarize the distribution of
scores on a measured variable. This section reviews three types of descriptive research: case
studies, surveys, and observation.
A. Case study

In a case study, a single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth,
usually over an extended period of time. A case study involves the use of observations,
interviews, and sometimes psychological testing. Like observational studies, case studies are
exploratory in nature. Their purpose is to provide a detailed description of some behavior or
disorder. This method is particularly appropriate for studying people who have uncommon
psychological or physiological disorders or brain injuries.
Sometimes case studies involve ordinary individuals, as when developmental psychologist Jean
Piaget used his observation of his own children to develop his stage theory of cognitive
development. More frequently, case studies are conducted on individuals who have unusual or
abnormal experiences or characteristics or who find themselves in particularly difficult or
stressful situations. The assumption is that by carefully studying individuals who are socially
marginal, who are experiencing unusual situations, or who are going through a difficult phase in
their lives, we can learn something about human nature.
Sigmund Freud was a master of using the psychological difficulties of individuals to draw
conclusions about basic psychological processes. Freud wrote case studies of some of his most

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interesting patients and used these careful examinations to develop his important theories of
personality. One classic example is Freud’s description of “Little Hans,‖ a child whose fear of
horses the psychoanalyst interpreted in terms of repressed sexual impulses and the Oedipus
complex (Freud (1909/1964).
Case study method is useful when trying to learn about phenomena that are not yet well
understood and thus require exploration or complex psychological phenomena that are difficult
to produce experimentally. Case study is useful when large numbers of subjects are not available
either because they do not exist or obtaining them would be extremely difficult.

Although the case study has proven useful in advancing knowledge in several areas of
psychology, it has certain limitations. Researchers cannot establish the cause of behavior
observed in a case study, and observer bias is a potential problem. Moreover, because so few
individuals are studied, generalization of their findings to other larger groups or to different
cultures is not applicable. There are also other limitations like vital information are missing in
case study, it is hard to interpret, it is potential for subjective observer bias, it has poor sampling
techniques that often limit generalization of findings to other people and memories may be
selective or inaccurate: Tendency for subjects to report earlier experiences inaccurately.

B. Survey

The survey is a descriptive research method in which researchers use standardized instruments
like standardized interviews and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes,
beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people. The results of carefully conducted
surveys have provided valuable information about problems under study.
In survey, we take samples and can make generalization of the whole opinion of the people using
the sample size. It has many advantages. It can yield rigorous quantitative findings by attaching
numbers to subjects’ responses/use statistics to summarize surveys rather than case study. A
large amount of data can be gathered with relative ease (simple). It is quick ways of gathering
data within short period of time from large sample. Thus, survey studies save time.
The limitations of survey research is that it rely on subjects to report about themselves truthfully
and accurately, unfortunately people tend to describe their behavior and attitudes in more
flattering terms than others would use to describe their behavior and attitudes. Additionally,
respondents distort their responses as the result their answers may be biased by their conscious

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efforts to present themselves in the best possible light. They may also unconsciously distort it
(naturally shade the truth), because they want to act as intelligent. Some participants may also
honestly and modestly misjudge themselves. This method also don’t show the cause-effect
relationship between variables.
Note that; Sample is subset of a population selected to participate in the research. Population is
the entire group of people or animal in which the researcher is interested or the finding to be
generalized.

C. Observation

Is a descriptive research in which a researcher observe, measure & record behavior carefully not
to interrupt. Observation research can be divided in to two parts; naturalistic observation and
participant observation.

Naturalistic: - is observational study in which the behavior of human or animals in their natural
environments like schools, on playground, on the street, in the offices, etc is observed, recorded
and measured without attempting to influence or control it. In naturalistic observation,
participants/subjects are not aware that they are being observed and observation can be
accomplished by means of one-way mirrors.

Some advantages of this method are: It gives the opportunity to study behavior in natural
settings, Allows description of behavior as it occurs in real life, Behavior occurs more naturally
and spontaneously than it would under artificial and contrived laboratory conditions and
Sometimes it is the only feasible way to study certain phenomena that would be either
impossible or unethical to set up in an experiment.

As another methods, there are also the limitations of naturalistic observation. These limitations
includes: Researchers must wait for events to occur; they cannot speed the process up or slow it
down, Since researchers have no control over the situation, the researchers cannot reach
conclusions about cause effect relationships, observer bias - tendency of observers to see what
they expect to see and observer Effect - tendency for people and animals to act differently from
normal when they know they are being observed.

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Participant observation: is a descriptive research in which the observer becomes a participant

in certain activity/phenomenon that have been performing by the observant group.

The advantages of participant observation includes that participants behave as they normally do,
so evidence is valid, it takes the viewpoint of the participants rather than the researcher and the
researcher is open to new insights (the questions are not fixed in advance).

It limitation includes; it studies small groups so may not be representative, it cannot be checked
or repeated for reliability, it is time-consuming in relation to the amount of data collected, the
researcher's presence may change the behavior of the group, the researcher may be biased, it
can raise serious ethical issues as there is no consent and the researcher may be at risk.

1.6.2. Correlation Studies

In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures,

correlational research involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an
assessment of the relationship between or among those variables. For instance, the variables of
height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people generally weigh
more than shorter people. In the same way, study time and memory errors are also related,
because the more time a person is given to study a list of words, the fewer errors he or she will
make. When there are two variables in the research design, one of them is called the predictor
variable/independent variable and the other the outcome variable/dependent variable.

In correlation research, researchers are interested in two properties of correlations: their

direction (positive, negative, or zero); their strengths. In correlation research psychologist often
want to know whether two or more phenomena are related, if so how much. The aim of
correlation research is to determine the degree to which two or more variables are related.

The statistic numerical expression used to express a correlation is called the coefficient of
correlation denoted by r. The coefficient of correlation can range from -1.00 through zero to
+1.00. A correlation confident of zero means that there is no relationship between the two
variables at all. A confident of +1.00 that there is a perfect positive correlation between the two

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variables and a coefficient of -1.00 means that there is a perfect negative correlation between the
two variables. What does it mean?

ᴪ If two variables are positively correlated, it implies that participants who have high scores
(high values) of one variable are associated with high value of the other variable; and
participants that have low values of one variable are associated with low values of the other
variable. A negative correlation means participants that have high values of one variable are
associated with low values of the other variable and vice versa. If there is absolutely no
relationship between two variables, we say that they are uncorrelated (i.e. correlation
coefficient is zero).
ᴪ Correlations can be used in natural setting as well as in laboratory and it is highly efficient
and can yield a large amount of data relatively quickly (it saves time). It can be extended to
many variables at once. It provides the basis for prediction. On the other hand, it has
limitations like; findings from correlation studies are not conducive with respect to cause
and effect relationship - does not show cause-effect relationship, Other variables cannot
be controlled in correlation research, and it is not effective to study qualitative variables
like attitudes, beliefs, etc. 

1.6.3. Experimental studies

The experimental method, or the experiment, is the only research method that can be used to
identify cause–effect relationships. An experiment is designed to test a causal hypothesis; a
prediction about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables. It is a research
method that allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable to study its effect on
the dependent variable. A variable is any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled,
or measured. Examples of such hypotheses include “Studying causes good grades”. Note that
each hypothesis involves two variables: One is thought to be the cause (studying), and the other
is thought to be affected (grade) by the cause. These two kinds of variables are found in all
experiments.
An experiment has at least one independent variable—a variable that the researcher believes
causes a change in some other variable. The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent
variable (hypothesized cause) to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or

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condition. Sometimes the independent variable is referred to as the treatment. The second type
of variable found in all experiments affected by the independent variable is the dependent
variable. It is measured at the end of the experiment and is presumed to vary (increase or
decrease) as a result of the manipulations of the independent variable(s). There also another
variable, Extraneous variables - confounding variable or secondary variable or nuisance
variable. They are independent variables, but the researcher did not need them in his/her research
and they affect the experiment unnecessarily. These variables are not the focus of the study.
Additionally, when you carry out some experiment, you need to have two groups: experimental
and control groups.
As presented earlier, most experiments are conducted using two or more groups of participants.
There must always be at least one experimental group - a group of participants who are exposed
to the independent variable, or the treatment. And a control group - a group that is similar to the
experimental group and is also measured on the dependent variable at the end of the experiment,
for purposes of comparison. The control group is exposed to the same experimental environment
as the experimental group but is not given the treatment.

The advantage of experiment is that experimental method allows conclusion of cause and effect
relationship. Additionally, in experimental study, there is better control of extraneous variables.
In contrast, artificial nature of the laboratory condition may influence subjects' behaviors- the
findings from experimental studies may sometimes become artificial (experiments may be given
outside the experiment room/laboratory). Findings may not be generalized to the real world.
Experimental research is costly and there is also experimenter effects on finding. Moreover, the
study may not be always conducted for ethical or practical reasons.

1.6.3.1. Research Biases in an Experiment

Now we’ve got a hypothesis which is the first step in doing an experiment. Before we can
continue, however, we need to be aware of some aspects of research that can contaminate our
results. In other words, what could get in the way of our results in this study being accurate?
These aspects are called research biases, and there are basically three main biases we need to be
concerned with.

 Selection Bias – occurs when differences between groups are present at the beginning

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of the experiment.

 Placebo Effect – involves the influencing of performance due to the subject’s belief
about the results. In other words, if I believe the new medication will help me feel better,
I may feel better even if the new medication is only a sugar pill. This demonstrates the
power of the mind to change a person’s perceptions of reality.

 Experimenter Bias – The same way a person’s belief’s can influence his or her
perception, so can the belief of the experimenter. If I’m doing an experiment, and really
believe my treatment works, or I really want the treatment to work because it will mean
big bucks for me, I might behave in a manner that will influence the subject.

1.6.3.2. Controlling for Biases

After carefully reviewing our study and determining what might affect our results that are not
part of the experiment, we need to control for these biases. To control for selection bias, most
experiments use what’s called Random Assignment, which means assigning the subjects to each
group based on chance rather than human decision. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are
often not informed of the purpose of the experiment. This is called a Single-blind study, because
the subjects are blind to the expected results. To control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a
Double-blind study, which means that both the experimenter and the subjects are blind to the
purpose and anticipated results of the study.

ᴪ What we’ve focused on what is called Experimental Methods, the true experiment. It
involves randomized assignment of subjects, standardized instructions, and at least one IV
and one DV.
1.6.4. Ethics of Psychological Research When working with human being
 Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the study’s value to science.
 Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.
 Deception must be justified.
 Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.
 Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks.
 Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectation of
results.

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 Data must remain confidential.

 Etc.

Summary of research methods

Methods Description Advantages Limitations

Naturalistic Observation and recording Behavior studied in everyday Researcher’s expectations can
observation of behavior in its natural setting is more natural. Can provide distort observations (observer
setting. basis for hypotheses to be tested bias). In a natural setting the
later. Sometimes it is the only researcher has little or no control
feasible to study certain phenomena over conditions.
that would be either impossible or
unethical to set up in an experiment.
Participant Participants behave as they It studies small groups so may
The observer/researcher
observation normally do, so evidence is not be representative, cannot be
becomes a participated in
valid. It takes the viewpoint of checked or repeated for
certain activity/phenomenon
reliability, is time-consuming in
that have been performing
the participants rather than the
relation to the amount of data
by the observant group. researcher. The researcher is
collected, The researcher's
open to new insights (the
presence may change the
questions are not fixed in
behavior of the group, the
advance). researcher may be biased, it can
raise serious ethical issues as

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there is no consent and the

researcher may be at risk.

Case study In-depth study of one or a Source of information for rare or May not be generalizable. Does
few individuals using unusual conditions or events. Can not establish cause of behavior.
observation, interview, provide basis for hypotheses to be Subject to misinterpretation by
and/or psychological testing. tested later. the researcher.

Survey Interviews and/or Can provide accurate information Responses may be in accurate.
questionnaires used to gather about large numbers of people. Can Sample may not be
information about attitudes, track changes in attitudes and representative. Characteristics of
beliefs, experiences, or behavior over time. the interviewer may influence
behaviors of a group of responses. Can be costly and
people. time consuming.

Correlation Method used to determine Can assess strength of the Does not demonstrate cause and
method the relationship (correlation) relationship between variables and effect.
between two events, can often be done quickly. Provides
characteristics, or behaviors. basis for prediction.

Experiment Random assignment of Enables identification of cause– Laboratory setting may inhibit
al method participants to groups. effect relationships. natural behavior of participants
Manipulation of the Findings may not be
independent variable(s) and generalizable to the real world.
measurement of the effect on In some cases, experiment is
the dependent variable. unethical or impossible.

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CHAPTER TWO: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

II.1. Introduction
Human beings undergo a series of changes from conception through birth to death. That means
life starts at conception in the womb of the mother, and from this time on individual under goes
change in various dimensions. Human development is a progressive series of changes that occur
in orderly and predictable pattern.

II.2. Concepts and terms related with development

As development is a life-span process, terms related with development should be technically defined.
To understand the meaning of development very clearly, first we have to understand the building
blocks that constitute development; these are maturation, growth and learning.

Growth: Some scholars use the term growth and development interchangeably. But they are
different. Thus, growth refers to the physical or quantitative changes. This involves physical or
structural change, which is increasing size of the body structure and body organ such as an increase
in size, weight, height, changes in our limbs (legs and arms become longer), and the head gets larger,
body proportion increases, and others.

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Maturation: refers to the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in
the genes (the hereditary materials or traits passed from parents to their child at conception). As
the child grows, his/her mind and body mature and he/she is able to function at higher level.
Maturation is partly responsible for some psychological changes such as our increasing ability in
thinking or feeling. So, one reason that we human beings are similar in many important aspects is
that our common species heredity or maturational blueprints guide all of us through many of the
same periods in our lives. Example: A girl sees their first menstruation (menarche) at puberty
regardless of what happen in the environment and growth of hair on same parts of the body
during puberty in both sexes.

Learning: is the process through which our experiences and practices produce relatively
permanent changes in our feelings, thoughts and behaviors.

N.B; Changes that brought by maturation and change such as result of anger due to
hormonal change or change from fatigue are not examples of learning.

Most of our abilities and habits do not simply emerge; we often learn to feel, think and behave in
new ways that we observe from and interact with parents, teachers, and other important people in
our life’s as well as from events that we experience.
Development: It is the interplay (product) of maturation, growth and learning (D = G+M+L).
In other words, development is the overall changes in human body that embraces the time from
conception up to life span. Development is a progressive sequence of change that proceeds in an
orderly and predictable pattern. The changes could be small or large, low or rapid, overt or
covert. It is progressive in that it adds to what we already have, resulting in more capacity,
achievement, mastery, strength or maturity. By orderly it implies that the change is sequential
and each change at each stage is dependent up on what preceded it and affects what will come
after it.
II.3. Aspects of Development
Developmental change is a basic fact of human existence and each person is developmentally unique.
Although there are universally accepted assumptions or principles of human development, no two
children are alike.

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Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth patterns. They also differ in the
ways they interact with and respond to their environment as well as play, affection, and other factors.
Some children may appear to be happy and energetic all the time while other children may not seem
as pleasant in personality. Some children are active while others are typically quiet.

We defined development at the beginning of this course as the pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues through the lifespan. The pattern of development is complex
because it is the product of physical, cognitive, socio-emotional and moral development.

There are three major aspects or domains of development in studying humans in the field of
Psychology. These are Physical, Cognitive, and Psychosocial.
ᴪ Physical Development: Physical development includes all growth and changes in a person's
body. Changes in height, weight, bone thickness, muscles, and brain organs, motor skills (such as
learning to walk) can be example.

ᴪ Cognitive development includes all mental processes used in order to obtain knowledge or
become aware of the environment. Perception, imagination, memory, learning, thinking,
language development can be examples
ᴪ Psychosocial development deals with personality development (such as self- concept), social
development (such as attitudes and relations with others), and emotional development (feelings
such as anger, joy, disgust).
 All the three domains are important and present for every individual at every age and in studying
human development.

II.4. Determinants of Development

Psychologists argue that there are common determinants and influencing factor of human
development.
A. Heredity is inborn characteristics or genetic endowment inherited from a person`s biological
parents at conception. For example, an individual who inherited greater IQ from his /her parents
performs better than others.

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B. Maturation: - in the unfolding physical and mental changes of an individual that comes in a
natural sequence. For instance, readiness to master new abilities such as crawling, walking and
talking.

C. Health status: Achievement of developmental milestones can be delayed by illness or disability.

D. Life experiences: A child whose family has few resources for food, shelter, and health care has a
higher risk of lagging in physical and mental growth and development than a child whose family has
plenty of resources.

E. Environment: is the totality of non-hereditary or experiential factors. These influences involve

both the inner and the outer environment. The inner environment such as the socio-economic status,
education and others directly or indirectly affects the developing child. The outer environment
including the peer groups, the school, community, the curriculum exerts pressure on human
development either positively or negatively.
Besides, human development is influenced by contextual factors that originate from their social
nature.
Activity: Mention some of the contextual/social factors that affect human development.

II.5. Principles of Development

 Development Proceeds from the head downward: This is called Cephalocaudal principle.
This principle describes the direction of growth and development. According to this principle, the
child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs. Infants develop control of the
head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they are
able to lift themselves up by using their arms.
 Development proceeds from the center of the body outward: This is the principle of
proximodistal development that also describes the direction of development. This means that the
spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and
feet develop before the finger and toes. Finger and toe muscles (Used in fine motor dexterity) are the
last to develop in physical development.
 Development depends on maturation and learning: Maturation refers to the sequential
characteristics of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential

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order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for
maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system help children to improve in thinking
(Cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also children most mature to a certain point before they can
progress to new skill (readiness).
 Development Proceeds from the simple (Concrete) to the more complex: Children use their
cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships
between things (how things are similar), or classification is an important ability in cognitive
development. The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are alike beginning with
the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two. Seeing no relationship, a preschool
child will describe the objects according to some property of the object, such as color; such a
response would be, “An orange is orange”.
 Development is a Continuous Process: As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills
already acquired and the new skill becomes the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.
Most children follow a simple pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for next
stage of development.
 Development proceed from the general to specific: In motor development, the infant will be
able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infants’
first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking
before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Development occurs from large muscle
movements to more refined (Smaller) muscle movements.
An understanding of the principles of development helps us to plan appropriate activities and
stimulating and enriching experiences for children, and provides a basis for understanding how to
encourage and support young children’s learning.
II.6. Issues or Controversies in Development
Nature vs. Nurture Controversy
Activity: How much of our abilities, personalities, and behaviors are result of genetics or
environment?
The nature–nurture controversy asks whether genetic or environmental factors are more important
underlying causes of development. Nature means the hereditary information we receive from our
parents at the moment of conception that signals the body to grow and affects all our characteristics
and skills. Nurture means the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our
biological makeup and psychological experiences. All theories grant some role to both nature and

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nurture but vary in the emphasis placed on each. Some theorists emphasize stability—children who
are high or low in a characteristic will remain so at later ages. These theorists typically stress the
importance of heredity, or nature.

Theorists who emphasize environment point to early experiences as establishing a lifelong pattern of
behavior. Modern theories tend to recognize the merits of both sides. Researchers have moved away
from asking which is more important, heredity or environment. Instead, they want to know how
nature and nurture work together to influence change.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity Controversy
Activity: Do you think that human development is continuous or discontinuous?
Continuous development is a process that consists of gradually adding on more of the same types of
skills that were there to begin with.

Discontinuous development is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the
world emerge at particular periods. Theories that accept the discontinuous perspective regard
development as taking place in stages—qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that
characterize particular time periods of development .

II.7. Theories on Human Development

Theory is a set of assumptions, propositions or accepted facts that attempts to provide a rational
explanation of a certain phenomenon. A theory of development is an attempt to explain and
predict how and why changes in behavior, thinking, and affect (emotions) occur. There are
different theories in the study of human development. Some theories view human beings as
basically passive and reactive, and ultimately responsive to the impact of environment
stimulation. Others view the human organism as inherently active and responsible for shaping or
constructing the environment rather than being shaped by it. No theory fully explains human
development. As each approach focuses on different aspects of development, it highlights

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dimensions of functioning neglected by the others. Because the basic assumptions of each theory
differ, we cannot simply combine particularly useful parts of the various theories to produce a
comprehensive explanation of human development.

In this section a discussion will be made on the basic theories of cognitive development,
psychosocial development, and moral development.

2.8.1. Cognitive Theory of Development

Cognitive development literally known as intellectual development, deals with abilities such as
processing information which include thinking, imagination, memory, learning, reasoning , decision
making, and so forth. Studied by Jean Piaget, a Swiss scientist/ Psychologist and Lev Semanovich
Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist. Piaget divided cognitive development into four stages
(Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages) and believed that
all humans pass through these stages in order and that no child can skip a stage.
N.B; Different children pass through the stages at somewhat different rates, and also that same
individuals may perform at different tasks at different times, particularly at points of transition into a
new stage (such as from Infancy to Early childhood, from Early childhood to Late childhood, from
Childhood to Adolescence etc.).

1. Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development (0 – 2 years)

In this earliest stage, infants explore their world by using their senses (vision, hearing,
touching…) and their motor skills (such as grasping). All infants have inborn behaviors, which
are often called reflexes. Touch a new born's lips and the baby will begin to suck; place your
finger in the palm of an infant's hand and the infant will grasp it. During this stage, infants
develop the notion of object permanence, i.e., they realize that things exist out of sight; they can
start using symbols to represent these things in their minds so that they think about them. The
other characteristic of sensorimotor stage is the emergence of trial- and error learning. Toward
the end of the sensorimotor stage, infants progress from their earlier trial- and error approach to
problem solving to a more planned approach. For the first time they can mentally represent
objects and events. It is at this time that most of us would call thinking appears. This is a major

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advance because the infant can think through and plan behavior. Stranger anxiety is also
another developmental phenomena of this stage.

2. Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development (2 – 7 years)

The infants in the preoperational stage can learn about and understand the world only by physically
manipulating objects, the preschooler (a child before school age) has greater ability to think about
things, and can use symbols to mentally represent objects. During this stage children's language
and concepts develop at an incredible rate. Yet, much of their thinking remains surprisingly
primitive. Children of this stage lack the following abilities:
 Conservation: lack of change in measurable object. Children of this stage lack the concept that
certain properties of an object (such as volume, weight) remain the same regardless of changes in
other properties (such as length or height). For example
 Pour water from a tall, narrow bottle into a short, wide one in the presence of a
preoperational child, the child will firmly believe that the tall bottle has more water.
 Similarly, a preoperational child is likely to believe that a bread cut into four pieces is more
bread, even after being shown that the number of (pieces) breads is identical or make up
one.
 Centration: concerning on size despite the amount is equal. In above example, they centered on
the height of the bottle, ignoring the volume of water. The child of this stage is focusing on one
aspect of the problem (the length or number) and ignoring another equally important aspects (the
density or content).
 Irreversibility: Reversibility refers to thinking through which one has the ability to change
direction in one's thinking so that one can return to a starting point. Children in this stage lack the
ability to move forth and back in train of thought.
For example: As adolescent, you know that 7+5 = 12 & 12-5 = 7 are the same but preoperational
children cannot.
 Egocentrism: inability to take others point of view. Children believe that everyone sees the
world exactly as they do.
 Realism - It is the tendency of preoperational children to see psychological events like dreams
and thoughts as physical events. They believe that whatever they dream could happen to them in
actual life.
 Animism: is the tendency of preoperational children to give psychological attributes for physical
objects and events. They believe that inanimate objects are alive.

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 Artificialism: Is the tendency to interpret all phenomena, including natural phenomena as made
by human beings.
3. Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (7-11 years)
 called Elementary School years.
 The cognitive abilities of the children undergo dramatic changes in this stage. Their thinking
is quite different from that of a preschooler.
 The children can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different
sets. They understand and answer the question like " If I had three bananas and you had two,
how many would we have all together?“
 They can form concepts and relationships between things.
 They are not much egocentric, are being able to see things from others' perspective.
There are important tasks learned during concrete operational stage.
 Seriation: refers to ability of children to arrange things in order (descending or ascending)
according to one attribute or character. The common exercises are arranging things in size,
weight, etc.
 Transitivity: refers to transforming or changing ability of children. This ability requires the
mental arrangement and comparison of objects.
 For example, if you tell this stage child that Hosaena is taller than Zelalem and Zelalem is
taller than Girma, then they can see that Hosaena is taller than Girma.
 Logical inferences (i.e., If ......., then... E.g. if study hard…, high scoring) are possible for
children at this stage.
 Inversion: reversibility of thought. E.g. 10 is greater than 9 reciprocated as 9 is less than 10.
 Elementary school children decenter (i.e., think objectively).
 Children of this stage see that others can have different view from theirs'.
 For example, they understand different children have different abilities, disabilities, interests.
4. Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (11 - adulthood)
 Sometime around the onset of puberty, children's thinking begins to develop into the form
characteristic of adults.
 The preadolescent begins to be able to think abstractly and to see possibilities beyond here-
and -now (immediate and concrete environment) and these abilities continue to develop into
adulthood.
 Young adolescents have the ability to reason about hypothetical conditions/situations and
conditions that have not been experienced.

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 For instance, the adolescents can accept conditions that are illogical, that are known to be
contrary to fact for the sake of argument or discussion.
 They are not bound to their own experiences of reality, so they can apply logic to any given set of
conditions.

Lev Semanovich Vygotsky is a contemporary of Piaget on cognitive development. His contributions

to cognitive development includes:
 The idea of zone of proximal development: describes about the tasks that a child has not yet
learned but is capable of learning at a given time with the assistance of peers or adults.
 Scaffolding: providing a child with a great deal of support during early stages of learning and
then diminishing support and having the child take an increasing responsibility as soon as he or
she is able.
Contribution and Criticism of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
 Contribution- Piaget's theory has made a substantial and lasting contribution to developmental
psychology. His contributions include the idea that children are not merely passive receptacles of
information but rather actively engage in acquiring new knowledge and making sense of the
world around them.
 Criticism- he underestimated the impact of culture on mental development

Key concepts in Piaget’s Theory

 Schemas - are the cognitive structure of children.
 Assimilation - involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema).
 Accommodation - the process of adjusting a schema and modifying it.
 Equilibration - the balance b/n assimilation & accommodation.

2.6.2. Psychosocial Development Theory

Psychosocial development was studied by Erik Erikson. Psychosocial development includes
personal, social, and emotional development of the individual.
 Personal development: development of self-concept/understanding (i.e., how an individual
understands and differentiates himself from others).

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 Social development: development of understanding and attitude towards other members of

society.
 Emotional development: development of awareness/understanding of one’s own feelings and
the feeling of others.
As children improve their cognitive skills through stage for Piaget, they improve their personal,
social and emotional skills for Erikson. According to Erikson, people pass through eight
psychosocial stages in their lifetimes. At each stage, there are crises or critical issues to be
resolved. Some people resolve each crisis satisfactorily and put it behind them to take on new
challenges, other people do not completely resolve these crises and must continue to deal with them
later in life. The 8 stages are:
Stage I: Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 8 months/infancy)
 The goal of infancy here is developing a basic trust in the world.
 Basic trust: an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own
trustworthiness. This shows the dual nature of the crisis: infants not only have their needs
met, but they also help in the meeting of the mother's needs.
 The mother is the first important person in the child's world especially at this stage. She is the
one who must satisfy the infant's need for food and affection. If the mother is inconsistent or
rejecting, she becomes a source of frustration for the infant. This creates in the infant a sense
of mistrust for his/ her world that may persist throughout childhood and into adulthood.
 Children who are well fed, cared, cleaned, and so forth develop trust in the world while
others who are rejected or neglected mistrust the world.
 This period is characterized by the conviction that I am what I am given.

Stage II: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (8 months – 3 years)

 By age two, most babies engage themselves in exploring their abilities and environment;
they can walk and have learned enough about language to communicate with other people.
They no longer want to depend totally on others. Instead they strive toward autonomy - the
ability to do things for themselves. The child's desires for power and independence often
clash with those of the parents.
 The crisis is usually a result of toilet training.
 Proper toilet training may positively affect children's psychosocial development.

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 Parents who are too strict in toilet training to babies in this stage make children over-
compulsive adults.
 Parents who are flexible enough to permit their babies to explore freely and do things for
themselves and present guiding hand, encourage the establishment of a sense of autonomy.
 Parents who are overly restrictive and harsh, develop a sense of powerlessness and
incompetence on their babies. This can lead babies develop shame and doubt in one's
abilities.
 This stage is characterized by the conviction that I am what I will.
Stage III: Initiative versus Guilt (3 – 6 years)
 Children become mature in motor skills and language skills, and these leads them to be
aggressive and vigorous in the exploration of personal, social and physical environment.
 Accordingly, children show a growing sense of initiative in exploring immediate
environment.
 As this stage is characterized by the conviction that I am what I can imagine I will be,
children are busy in playing and exercising at any moment of their time.
 Parents who encourage children to explore permit children to develop initiative to learn and
know more about their physical environment.
 Parents who severely punish children's attempts will make them feel guilty and doubt about
their natural urges and abilities both during this stage and later in life.

Stage IV: Industry versus Inferiority (6 – 12 years)

 This stage is characterized by the conviction "I am what I learn."
 In this stage, the child moves out of family and immediate environment to school and
community.
 As a result, teachers and peers take on increasing importance for the child, while the
influence of parents decreases.
 Consequently, Children now want to make things successfully to compete with peers.
 Success in making things, especially school skills like writing, drawing, arithmetic, crafting,
brings with it a sense of industry, a good feeling about oneself and one's abilities.
 Failure, on the other hand, creates a negative self image; a sense of inadequacy that fosters
feelings of inferiority. Such feeling may hinder future learning.
Stage V: Identity versus Role Confusion (12 – 18 years)

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 This is usually the age of secondary school.

 This stage is referred to as adolescence, the basic question of this stage is “Who am I?”. To
answer this question, adolescents increasingly turn away from parents toward peer groups.
 It is believed that during adolescence, individual's physiology rapidly changes. This rapid
physiological change, coupled with pressures to make decisions about future education,
career, and friendships creates the need to question and redefine the psychosocial identity
established during the earlier stages.
 Adolescents who gained the intended and satisfying education, career and r/ship with others
develop a sense of good identity, others who doesn’t achieved them properly develops a
sense of role confusion.
Stage VI: Intimacy versus Isolation (20 – 40 years, young adult)
 This stage is a time of marriage, becoming parent (i.e., having children), and carrying
familial and social responsibility.
 The young adult is now ready to form a new relationship of trust and intimacy with another
individual, a partner in friendship, sex, competition, and cooperation.
 This relationship should enhance the identity of both partners without stifling the growth of
either.
 The stage is also set for the sharing of their life with another.
 The theme of this stage is best expressed as “to lose and find oneself in another”.
 The young adult who does not seek out such intimacy or whose repeated tries fail, may led
to isolation, while a person successful in forming relationship and/or love creates intimacy.
Stage VII: Generativity versus Stagnation (40 – 60 years)
 Generativity: the interest in establishing and guiding the next generation.
 Accomplishing social responsibility (such as leading family, society in the Kebele, Edir,
Government organizations etc.) becomes a basic concern.
 However, the crisis of this stage can also be successfully resolved through other forms of
productivity, such as teaching.
 During this stage people should continue to grow; if they don’t, a sense of stagnation and
interpersonal impoverishment develops.
Stage VIII: Integrity versus Despair (60/65 – 90/95 years)
 In this final stage, people look back over their lifetime (their accomplishments or achievements)
and resolve their final identity crisis.

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 Acceptance of accomplishments, failures, and ultimate limitations brings with it a sense of

integrity; a realization that one's life and one's own responsibility has been successfully
accomplished.
 The finality of death must be faced and accepted by those who have successfully accomplished
life tasks.
 Despair can occur in those who regret the way they have led their life and how it has turned out.
2.6.3. Lawrence Kohlberg‘s Stages of Moral Development
Morality: set of guiding principles helping individual to distinguish right from wrong act. The phrase
moral development is concerned with the ability to understand and act upon codes of conducts,
starting from simple rules of a game to universal ethics that govern all human behavior. Moral
development also refers to the knowledge of what is right and what is wrong. Moral development
concerned with the development of moral values and behavior. As Piaget believed that children
cognitive development follows specific patterns, Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) argued that children
learn their moral values through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a
series of stages. To study moral development, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to children,
teenagers, and adults as follows:
A man’s wife is dying of cancer and there is only one drug that can save her. The only
place to get the drug is at the store of a pharmacist who is known to overcharge people
for drugs. The man can only pay $1,000, but the pharmacist wants $2,000, and refuses to
sell it to him for less, or to let him pay later. Desperate, the man later breaks into the
pharmacy and steals the medicine. Should he have done that? Was it right or wrong?
Why? (Kohlberg, 1984).
Kohlberg concluded on the basis of their responses to the moral questions, that, as children develop
intellectually, they pass through three stages of moral thinking:
Level 1: Preconvention Morality (4 to 10 years)
 Guiding questions: What's in it for me? What must I do to avoid pain, gain pleasure?
 Here, children Judge the morality of an action by its direct consequence. This means, at this
stage children’s moral reasoning is controlled by external reward and punishment.
 They emphasize on avoiding punishment and getting rewards.
 This level is divided into two stages.
Stage 1:- Punishment & Obedience Orientation
 The child avoids breaking rules because it might lead to punishment.

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 The child shows complete deference/respect to rules.

 The interests of others are not considered.
 Therefore, the most important value at this stage is obedience to authority in order to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
 In stage two, right behavior is what is defined as, ‘what is in one's own best interest’.
 The right action consists of behavior that satisfies child’s own needs.
 Limited or little interest is shown about other’s needs.
 Concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, it is Pleasure seeking interest.
 At this stage, children obey rules but only for pure self-interest.
 The reason to be nice to others is so they will be nice to him/her. In other words, “you scratch
my back and I will scratch yours”. Not of loyalty, gratitude or justice.

Level 2: Conventional Morality (10-13 years)

 Guiding question: What must I do to be seen as a good boy/girl (socially acceptable)?
 At the conventional level, maintaining the expectation of the child’s family, group, or nation
is perceived as valuable in its own right, regardless of consequences.
 Children emphasize on social rules & conformity is the most important factor.
 The level has two stages:
 Stage 3: Good Boy - Nice Girl Orientation
 Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

Stage 3: Good Boy - Nice Girl Orientation

 This stage is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.
 The child tries to please others to obtain their approval: good boy or nice girl.
 Good moral behaviors are those satisfying others.
 Thus, there is an emphasis on gaining approval from others by being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
 A child in stage four is oriented toward authority and toward maintaining the social order.
 The emphasis is on doing one’s duty and showing respect for authority.
 Hence, at this stage right behavior means obeying the laws set down by those in power,
being a dutiful citizen.

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Level 3: Post Conventional Morality (>13 years)

 Post-conventional level is also known as the principled level.
 At this level, moral reasoning is completely internalized and not based on others standards.
 At this level, an individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that
have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups/persons holding these
principles, and apart from the individual’s own identification with these groups.
 Contemporary theorists often speculate that many people may never reach this level of abstract
moral reasoning.
 This level has also two stages.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation
 In stage five, correct behavior is defined in terms of individual rights and the consensus of
society.
 The rules of society exist for the benefit of all, and are established by mutual agreement.
 If the rules become destructive, or if one party doesn’t live up to agreement, the contract is no
longer binding.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation
 In this highest stage, moral reasoning is based on the use of ‘ abstract reasoning’ & using of
‘universal ethical principles’.
 In this stage, the correct behavior is defined as a decision of conscience in accordance with self-
chosen ethical principles that are logical, universal, and consistent.
 At this stage, the individual keeps not only the norms of society in mind but also the universal
moral principles.
 An individual may be prepared to sacrifice his/her all, including life for upholding (continuation)
of these principles.
N.B; conscience: is the sense of what is right and wrong that governs somebody’s thought and
actions, urging him/her to do right rather than wrong. It is different from consciousness.

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CHAPTER THREE: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

2.1 The Meaning and Nature of Sensation and Perception

 Sensation is a process of detecting, converting, & transmitting raw sensory information
from the external & internal environments to the brain by using our sense organs.
 Basic terms and concepts related to sensation and perception : To have a better
understanding of the subject matter of sensation and perception, we need to define related
basic terms
 Stimulus: It is a source of physical energy that produces a response in the sense organs.
The energy could be sound waves, light waves, and heat pressure to which an organism is

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capable of responding. A sensation is a response to that energy by a sensory system.

Stimulus and sensation have cause and effect relationship. A stimulus is detected and
transmitted to the brain by specialized receptor cells in the sense organs.
 Sensory receptors: All sensations begin with sensory receptors. Sensory receptors are
specialized cells located in the sense organs that detect, and transmit stimulus information
to sensory nerves and the brain. In order to enable us to understand about the world, the
physical energy must be changed into a form the brain can understand through the
process called transduction. Transduction: It is the process by which Sensory organs
convert their physical sensory information into neural impulses. Transduction takes place
at sensory receptors. Next, connecting neurons in the sense organs send this information
to the brain. The brain processes these neural impulses into what we experience.
 Sensory Reduction: filtering and analyzing incoming sensations before sending neural
messages on to the cortex.
 Response: It is any reaction of an organism to or in the presence of a stimulus. The
reaction could be muscular or glandular.
 Psychophysics: A branch of psychology called psychophysics studies the relationship
between the intensity of a stimulus and its sensory response. In other words, it studies the
relationship between the physical nature of stimuli and people’s sensory responses to
them. In short, studies the link between physical characteristics of stimuli and our sensory
experience.
 PERCEPTION is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting stimuli; it
includes identification, recognition, and images of the stimulus in question; previous
experiences have a role to play in it.
2.2.1 Measuring Sensitivity of the Senses

2.2.2.1 Absolute Threshold

The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is the
softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes
unnoticed. The absolute threshold is therefore the point at which a stimulus goes from
undetectable to detectable to our senses.

2.2.2.2 Difference Threshold

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Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this stimulus changes? When
we notice the sound of the radio in the other room, how do we notice when it becomes louder.
It's conceivable that someone could be turning it up so slightly that the difference is undetectable.
The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change has
occurred. This change is referred to as the just noticeable difference.

This difference is not absolute, however. Imagine holding a five-pound weight and one pound
was added. Most of us would notice this difference. But what if we were holding a fifty-pound
weight? Would we notice if another pound were added? The reason many of us would not is
because the change required to detect a difference has to represent a percentage. In the first
scenario, one pound would increase the weight by 20%, in the second, that same weight would
add only an additional 2%. This theory, named after its original observer, is referred to as
Weber's Law.

2.2.2.3 Signal Detection Theory

Have you ever been in a crowded room with lots of people talking? Situations like that can make
it difficult to focus on any particular stimulus, like the conversation we are having with a friend.
We are often faced with the daunting task of focusing our attention on certain things while at the
same time attempting to ignore the flood of information entering our senses. When we do this,
we are making a determination as to what is important to sense and what is background noise.
This concept is referred to as signal detection because we attempt detect what we want to focus
on and ignore or minimize everything else.

2.2.2.4 Sensory Adaptation

The last concept refers to stimuli which has become redundant or remains unchanged for an
extended period of time. Ever wonder why we notice certain smells or sounds right away and
then after a while they fade into the background? Once we adapt to the perfume or the ticking of
the clock, we stop recognizing it. This process of becoming less sensitive to unchanging stimulus
is referred to as sensory adaptation, after all, if it doesn't change, why do we need to constantly
sense it?

2.2.2.5 Sensory deprivation and sensory overload

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 Human brain requires a minimum amount of sensory stimulation in order to function

normally.
 This need may help explain why people who live alone often keep the radio or television set
running continuously and why prolonged solitary confinement is used as a form of
punishment or even torture.
 If too little stimulation (sensory deprivation) is can be bad for you, so can too
much (sensory overload), because it can lead to fatigue and mental confusion.

2.3 Perception

As mentioned in the introduction, perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through

our senses. The way we perceive our environment is what makes us different from other animals
and different from each other. In this section, we will discuss the various theories on how our
sensation are organized and interpreted, and therefore, how we make sense of what we see, hear,
taste, touch, and smell.

2.3.1 Visual perception: constructing the visual world

 In the brain, sensory signals that give rise to vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch are
combined from moment to moment to produce a unified model of the world. This is a process of
perception. Perception consists of three basic processes:
a) Selection
b) Organization
c) Interpretation
1) Selection: the first step in perception is selection in which we select the stimuli to which
we will attend. In almost any situation there is an excess of sensory information, but the brain
manages to sort out the important messages from the senses and discards the rest- a process
known as selective attention.

 There are, in general, environmental, psychological and physiological factors that

influence the process of selective attention.

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A) Environmental/stimulus factors: generally, the focus of attention is attracted to

objects or events that possess unusual characteristics or that provide strong stimulation to
the sense organs. Some of these qualities of objects/ events (stimuli) are the following.
 Intensity: the more intense the stimulus the more it will be attended. A bright color
will attract us more than a dull one.
 Size: we tend to notice larger compared to smaller ones.
 Contrast: what contrasts with the surrounding environment attracts attention easily.
For example a banana in a banana in a bowel of oranges.
 Repetition: a fleeting stimulus will not catch our attention as easily as one, which is
repeated.
 Movement: something, which moves, is more likely to attract attention than
something stationary.
 Novelty: a sudden or unexpected stimulus is likely to catch our attention more
easily than one we have been expecting or that we have encountered.

B) Psychological factors: the focus of attention is also affected by certain characteristics

of individuals. We will mention some of them.

 Motivation: what we choose to hear or perceive is determined largely by your

current level of satisfaction or deprivation. For example when you are hungry, you
are much more likely to notice TV commercials for doughnuts, hamburger, or pizza
than those for cars or detergent. In a similar way you will find that when you are
lonely, your perceptions will be so affected that it will seem that everyone is part of a
happy couple except you.
 Personality and interest: for example, in a football game, an ex-player may give
attention the football game; his wife, a singer, may give attention to the music in the
stadium; and a friend, a commentator, may give attention to the way the referee is
handling crisis situations in the play.

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C) Physiological factors- one of the major physiological factors in selection is the

presence of specialized cells in the brain called feature detectors (or feature analyzers)
that respond only to certain sensory information.

2.3.2 Gestalt Principles of Grouping

The German word "Gestalt roughly translates to "whole" or "form," and the Gestalt
psychologist's sincerely believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In order to
interpret what we receive through our senses, they theorized that we attempt to organize this
information into certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely without
unneeded repetition. For example, when you see one dot, you perceive it as such, but when you
see five dots together, you group them together by saying a "row of dots." Without this tendency
to group our perceptions, that same row would be seen as "dot, dot, dot, dot, dot," taking both
longer to process and reducing our perceptive ability. The Gestalt principles of grouping include
four types: similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure.

Similarity refers to our tendency to group things together based upon how similar to each other
they are. In the first figure above, we tend to see two rows of red dots and two rows of black
dots. The dots are grouped according to similar color. In the next figure, we tend to perceive
three columns of two lines each rather than six different lines. The lines are grouped together
because of how close they are to each other, or their proximity to one another. Continuity refers
to our tendency to see patterns and therefore perceive things as belonging together if they form
some type of continuous pattern. In the third figure, although merely a series of dots, it begins to
look like an "X" as we perceive the upper left side as continuing all the way to the lower right
and the lower left all the way to the upper right. Finally, in the fourth figure, we demonstrate
closure, or our tendency to complete familiar objects that have gaps in them. Even at first glance,
we perceive a circle and a square.

Form Perception
 Refers to the way sensations are organized into meaningful shapes and patterns.
 Gestalt Psychologists first studied form perception systematically in Germany in the early
20th century. Gestalt Psychologists were concerned with meaningful patterns or wholes.

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 They argued that perceptions are more than the sum of their sensory parts. They proposed six
major perceptual rules the brain follows automatically and unconsciously as it organizes
sensory input into meaningful wholes:
1. Figure and ground: According to this principle, dividing visual displays into
figure and ground is a fundamental way in which we organize visual perceptions.
The figure stands out from the rest of the environment. For example, while
reading this material your eyes are receiving sensations of black lines and white
paper, but your brain organizes these sensations and perceives letters and words
against a backdrop of white pages- the letters are the figure and the pages are the
ground.
2. Proximity/Nearness: states that objects or stimuli that are near each other in
place or time tend to be grouped together even though they are dissimilar.
3. Similarity: objects that are alike in some way (for example in color shape or size)
tend to be perceived as belonging together.
4. Closure: the brain tends to fill in gaps in order to perceive complete forms. That
is we tend to perceive a complete object event though parts of it may be obscured
or missing. Someone listening to a conversation over a very bad telephone
connection may hear only bits and pieces of what the other person is saying, but
he will fill in the gaps and perceive these sounds as whole words and sentences.
5. Good Continuation/ Continuity: States that lines, patterns or objects tend to be
seen as continuing in one direction even if interrupted by another object.
2.3.3. Movement perception
In our daily life, we perceive movements and use the information we get for various things. For
instance we move out of the way for oncoming cars or we avoid collusion with hurrying people.
Occasionally our perceptual processes are fouled by objects that look as if they are moving when
they are not moving. So, there are two kinds of movements:

I- Real movement- the perception of real movement is the result of an actual change in the
object’s position in space. Basically, there are two ways in which we perceive real

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movement: 1- an image moves across the retina, and 2- the eyes move in the head, to
follow the path of the moving object.

II- Apparent movement- occurs when an object is static but we perceive it as moving. There
are 3 major types of apparent movement.

1- Phi-phenomena/ stroboscopic movement- a succession of still pictures projected fast on a

screen gives a false impression of movement.
2- Auto-kinetic movement- a movement, which is self-generated. It is caused by the slight
movement of the eye’s focal point.
3- Induced movement/ Movement aftereffect- occurs when a moving object create apparent
movement on a relatively static object.

2.3.4 Distance/Depth Perception

=We determine distance using two different cues: monocular and binocular. Monocular cues are
those cues which can be seen using only one eye. They include size; texture, overlap, shading,
height, and clarity.

Size refers to the fact that larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two
images are of the same object. The texture of objects tend to become smoother as the object gets
farther away, suggesting that more detailed textured objects are closer. Due to overlap, those
objects covering part of another object is perceived as closer. The shading or shadows of objects
can give a clue to their distance, allowing closer objects to cast longer shadows which will
overlap objects which are farther away. Objects which are closer to the bottom of our visual field
are seen as closer to us due to our perception of the horizon, where higher (height) means farther
away. Similar to texture, objects tend to get blurry as they get farther away; therefore, clearer or
crisper images tend to be perceived as closer (clarity).

Binocular cues refer to those depth cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive. There are
two important binocular cues; convergence and retinal disparity. Convergence refers to the fact
that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus. The farther our
eyes converge, the closer an object appears to be. Since our eyes see two images which are then
sent to our brains for interpretation, the distance between these two images, or their retinal
disparity, provides another cue regarding the distance of the object.

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2.3.5 Maintaining Perceptual Constancy

Imagine if every time an object changed we had to completely reprocess it. The next time you
walk toward a building, you would have to re-evaluate the size of the building with each step,
because we all know as we get closer, everything gets bigger. The building which once stood
only several inches is now somehow more than 50 feet tall.

Luckily, this doesn't happen. Due to our ability to maintain constancy in our perceptions, we see
that building as the same height no matter what distance it is. Perceptual constancy refers to our
ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret the object's properties. There are
typically three constancies discussed, including size, shape, and brightness.

Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when our
distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller. This holds true for all of our senses.
As we walk away from our radio, the song appears to get softer. We understand, and perceive it
as being just as loud as before. The difference being our distance from what we are sensing.

Everybody has seen a plate shaped in the form of a circle. When we see that same plate from an
angle, however, it looks more like an ellipse. Shape constancy allows us to perceive that plate as
still being a circle even though the angle from which we view it appears to distort the shape.

Brightness constancy refers to our ability to recognize that color remains the same regardless of
how it looks under different levels of light. That deep blue shirt you wore to the beach suddenly
looks black when you walk indoors. Without color constancy, we would be constantly re-
interpreting color and would be amazed at the miraculous conversion our clothes undertake.

2.3.6 Perceptual illusion (visual illusion)

It occurs when two objects produce the same retinal image but are perceived as different images.
It is an inappropriate interpretation of the physical reality. Some of the most common types of
illusions include.

 Visual Illusion: occurs when two objects produce almost the same retinal image but
are perceived as different images.
1. Muller-Lyer illusion
2. Horizontal-vertical illusion
3. Ponzo illusion

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4. Moon illusion
* Try to read more on these and other types of illusions.

2.3.7 Interpretation
 This final stage of perception is called interpretation. After selectively sorting through
incoming sensory information and organizing it into patterns, the brain uses this information
to explain and make judgments about the external world.
 Like selection, the process of interpretation is also influenced by several factors. The
following can be examples.
 Beliefs: What we hold to be true about the world can affect the interpretation of
ambiguous sensory signals.
 Emotions: Our emotions or moods also influence our interpretations of sensory
information.
 Expectations: Previous experiences often affect how we perceive the world. The
tendency to perceive what to expect is called perceptual set.
2.3.8. Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
 Eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin- we rely on these organs for our experience of the external
world.
 Some people, however, claim they can send and receive messages about the world with
out relying on the usual sensory channels, by using Extrasensory Perception (ESP).
 Reported ESP experiences fall into four general categories:
 Telepathy is a direct communication from one mind to another without the usual
visual, auditory and other sensory signals.
 Clairvoyance is the perception of an event or fact without normal sensory input.
 Precognition is the perception of an event that has not yet happened.
 Psychokinesis is the ability to affect the physical world purely through thought.
Persons with such abilities claim to move or affect objects with out touching them.
 Normal perception depends on the ability to detect changes in energy in the physical world.
Claims for most forms of ESP, however, challenge everything we currently now know to be
true about the way the world and the universe operate.

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CHAPTER FOUR: LEARNING

4.1 Meaning and Characteristics of Learning
It is very difficult to give universally acceptable definition of learning due to variations in
perspective and theoretical background of psychologists and also educators. Hence, the most
commonly used definition of learning is the one that takes into account the different theoretical

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viewpoints. Based on this assumption, learning is a relatively enduring change in an

individual’s behavior as a result of training or experience. The analysis of the above definition
of learning reveals the following attributes of learning:
 Learning must be accompanied by a change. This implies that after learning a learner is
capable of doing something that he/she has not been able to do before the learning
experience.
 The change is a change in behavior. Behavior refers to any action or reaction of an
organism that can be overt (observable) and/or covert (unobservable).
Note that, since learning is an internal mental activity, it cannot be directly observed but it can
be inferred through the activities of the individual.
 The change in behavior must be relatively permanent. Learning is neither transitory
nor fixed once and for all. This is because:
 Even though they may modify behavior, temporary changes (e. g., changes due to
fatigue, illness, maturation, growth, drugs and emotions) cannot be considered as
learning.
 Since learning stays till forgetting occurs or till new learning displaces the previous
one, learning is not fixed once and for all.
 Learning depends on practice or experience. Learning represents only those changes that
occur as a result of practice or experience. In other words, to qualify as learning, this
change must be brought about by the interaction of a person with his or her environment. In
other words, changes that result from instincts, reflexes, maturation, growth, illness,
fatigue, emotions, injury, and drugs such are not learning.
 Some important characteristics of learning
o Learning is growth. Through his/her daily experiences the learner grows mentally
and physically.
o Learning is Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust him/herself
adequately to the new environment or situations.
o Learning is organizing Experience. Learning is not mere addition to the
acquiring of knowledge, facts or skills. It is the reorganization of experience.
o Learning is purposeful. The process of learning is based on purpose.

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o Learning is Active. In the process of learning active involvement of the individual

in his environment is required. This can take place by questioning, problem
solving, discussion etc.
o Learning is both individual and social. Learning is more than an individual
activity. It is a social activity too.
o Learning the product of environment. Environment plays an important role in
the individual’s learning. It either enhances or stifles learning.
o True Learning Affects the Conduct of the Learner. There is a change in the
mental structure of the learner after every experience or learning.
Types of learning
There are many types of learning, ranging from simple to complex learning in educational
psychology. R. Gagne (1972) gives the following fundamental classification of learning types:
i. Verbal Information: This refers to facts about events, features, structures, processes and
soon. Example: historical events, geographical features, biological processes (Listening
to lectures, reading and discussion).
ii. Intellectual Skills: It is ability to master symbols and think properly using the symbols.
Example: language and mathematical skills (demonstration, practice is useful for
mastery).
iii. Motor/Skill: Development of abilities which involve muscular activity. Example:
typing, operating a machine, setting up a laboratory experiment (the skill should be
executed in the proper sequence; it should be executed smoothly.
iv. Affective/attitudinal: Acquisition of positive or negative tendencies to phenomena
(persons, religious, ideologies, ethnic groups, vocations). The development of values
such as honesty and considerateness is also affective learning.
Factors contributing for attitude development are need (aspiration) of the individual, social
pressure) the individual’s experience, instructor modelling, the effectiveness of the attitude in
meeting the individual’s aspirations or needs.
Factors Affecting Individual Learning
 Objective/purpose of learning
 Person’s readiness for learning
 Physical, emotional or social condition of a learner.

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 Lack of careful guidance from others

 Application of full attention
 Strong motivation to learn
 Active involvement of the learner
 Feedback to the learner

4.2 Theories of Learning

Theories of learning attempt to explain the mechanism of behavior involved in the learning
process. Different experts have formulated different theories of learning that explain the process
of learning from different perspectives. It is really difficult to give a single theory which
satisfies all interested persons. In general, learning theories may be broadly categorized into:
A. Behavioral learning theory
B. Social learning theory
C. Cognitive learning theory
4.2.1. Behavioral learning theory
Behaviorist School of Psychology was founded by John B. Watson. It is based on the belief that
behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the
publication of Watson's classic paper in 1913: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.”
According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with
no consideration of internal mental states. This school of thought suggests that only observable
behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too
subjective. Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based
upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through
interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental
stimuli shape our behaviors. Behavioral theories believe that learning occurs as a result of
stimulus response association. Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws
to govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on consequences. Behaviorists
also differ among themselves with respect to their views about the role of reinforcement in
learning.
There are two major types of behavioral learning theories as well as conditioning: Classical
Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.

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4.2.1.1 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who won a novel
prize in 1904 for his experiment on the digestive system of animals (dogs). He developed his
theory of classical conditioning without any intention to develop it. Therefore, classical
conditioning was developed by chance while Pavlov was studying the digestive system of
animals, particularly dogs. In his experiment Pavlov observed that like human beings dogs
salivate at the sight and smell of food. Gradually, the dogs started to salivate only for the sight of
persons and dish without food. After observing this, Pavlov wanted to conduct an experiment by
taking a stimulus that does not naturally cause (elicit) any response (salivation). For his
experiment, Pavlov used a neutral stimulus that was called bell. At the end, his findings brought
about a revolutionary change in the field of learning. To demonstrate classical conditioning,
Pavlov (1927) attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure
precisely the dog’s salivation.
Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
responses such as fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or sweating- sometimes called responses
because they are automatic responses to stimuli. Through the process of classical conditioning,
human and animals can be trained to act involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect-
or a very different effect – on them.
The theory of classical conditioning, therefore, is the process of learning in which a previously
neutral stimulus, by being paired with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of
natural stimulus can elicit a response by itself. It is also sometimes called substitution learning
because it involves substituting a neutral stimulus in place of natural stimulus. The theory states
that the responses originally made to unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with the
conditioned stimulus and what is learned is a conditioned stimulus-conditioned response bond of
some kind. To make this explanation clear, let us consider Pavlov’s experiment. Classical
conditioning is also called substitution learning because it involves the substitution of a neutral
stimulus in place of natural stimulus.
In one of his experiments, Pavlov began by sounding a tuning fork (bell) and recording a dog’s
response. As expected, there was no salivation. At this point, the sound of the tuning fork (bell)
was a neutral stimulus- stimulus not connected to a response because it brought forth no
salivation. Then, Pavlov fed the hungry dog (he gave it food). The response was salivation.

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In the above experiment the food was an unconditioned stimulus (US) – stimulus that
automatically produces an emotional or physiological response because no prior training or
“conditioning” was needed to establish the natural connection between food and salvation. The
salivation was an unconditioned response (UR) – naturally occurring emotional or
physiological response again because it occurred automatically, no conditioning required.
Using these three elements- the food, the salivation, and the tuning fork (bell sound) – Pavlov
demonstrated that a dog could be conditioned to salivate after hearing the tuning fork (bell
sound). He did this by continuous pairing of the sound with food. At the beginning of
experiment, he sounded the fork and then quickly fed the dog. After Pavlov repeated this several
times, the dog began to salivate after hearing the sound but before receiving the food. Now the
sound had become a conditioned stimulus (CS) – stimulus that evokes an emotional or
physiological response after conditioning- that could bring forth salivation by itself. The
response of salivating after the tone was now a conditioned response (CR) – learned response
to a previously neutral stimulus.
Phases of Pavlov Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment has the following three phases
1. Pre-conditioning phase (before conditioning)
 The sound of the bell (neutral stimulus) did not produce any response (salivation)
 The food (unconditioned/natural stimulus) produced a response (salivation) (UCR)
2. Conditioning phase (during conditioning)
 The bell was presented first, and then immediately followed by food. Hence, bell + food
produced a response (salivation) (UCR)
3. Post conditioning phase (after conditioning)
 The previously neutral stimulus (the bell) was presented alone and started to produce a
response (conditioned response/CR)

Element of Classical Conditioning

The following are basic elements discussed in classical conditioning:

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1. Natural/Unconditioned Stimulus (US). An unconditioned stimulus is any event that

automatically elicits the response prior to the conditioning. In the above case food is the
unconditioned stimulus because it caused salivation (response) automatically before the
conditioning took place.
2. Unconditioned Response (UR). The unconditioned response is the response to the natural
stimulus. The dog’s salivation after receiving food is the unconditioned response. Thus, an
automatic, involuntary, and unlearned response to a particular stimulus is called unconditioned
response of reflex.
3. Neutral Stimulus. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to
conditioning.
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS). The conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that
acquires the power to elicit a response when it is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. In
Pavlov’s original experiment the bell is a conditioned stimulus since it is only when the ringing
of the bell was paired with food did it cause the dog to salivate.
5. Conditioned Response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response that is
evoked by the conditioned stimulus. The dog’s salivation in response to the bell (in the absence
of the food) is a conditioned response. Thus conditioning is said to be complete when the
conditioned stimulus will cause a conditioned response to occur before the unconditioned
stimulus is presented. Generally, conditioning occurs only when the conditioned stimulus is
presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus.
Although the terminology Pavlov used to describe classical conditioning may seem confusing,
the following summary can help make the relationships between stimuli and responses easier to
understand and remember:
• Conditioned = learned.
• Unconditioned = not learned.
• An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response.
• Unconditioned stimulus– unconditioned response pairings are not learned and not trained: They
are naturally occurring.
• During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus.
• A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned stimulus–
conditioned response pairing is a consequence of learning and training.

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• An unconditioned response and a conditioned response are similar (such as salivation in

Pavlov’s experiment), but the unconditioned response occurs naturally, whereas the conditioned
response is learned.
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov and his associates discovered several phenomena during their experimental studies on the
dog. The following are important principles related with the experiment finding:

1. Acquisition: refers to the initial learning of the animal or individual to respond to the
neutral stimulus. Acquisition occurs when the CS gains power over the US or the natural
stimulus to elicit conditioned response. Factors that affect the degree of acquisition are:
intensity of the stimuli, time arrangement/sequence, time interval between the presence of
the natural stimulus and the neutral stimulus.
The following conditionings are identified based on the time interval and order of CS and UCS.
a. Delayed conditioning- CS is presented first and remains until the onset of UCS.
b. Trace conditioning- The CS is first presented and ends before the onset of UCS.
c. Simultaneous conditioning- The CS and UCS begin together.
d. Backward conditioning- UCS is presented first and followed by CS.
2. Stimulus generalization: A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to
produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the
same response. Generalization occurs when similar stimuli to a CS produce the CR. A
student may generalize his fear to physics and chemistry tests although he had performed
poorly only on mathematics test. In this case, the physics and chemistry tests were similar
stimuli to the mathematics test and they produced the CR by themselves.
3. Stimulus discrimination: Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It refers to the
ability to differentiate between similar stimuli. For example, a student may feel fear
during mathematics test but not during physics or chemistry tests. This shows that the
student is able to discriminate between appropriate and in appropriate situations for a
response.
4. Extinction: A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned
response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. In classical conditioning,
extinction is done by repeatedly presenting the CS without the US. This action will

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decrease the frequency of previously CR. Eventually, the CR disappears. CR will

disappear over time when the CS is no longer presented. In the example mentioned
above, if the student repeatedly passes the mathematics tests, his fear of mathematics
tests will disappear.
5. Spontaneous recovery: The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a
period of rest and with no further conditioning. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a
response reappears at any time (even years later) especially when stimulus conditions are
similar to the initial learning experience. Sometimes there is the weak appearance of a
previously extinguished response. Example: A cured addict of alcohol may suddenly
relapse to consuming if he/she is continuously exposed to alcohol.
4.2.1.2. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. It is a form of learning in
which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability that the behavior will
occur. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior. Thorndike (1874- 1949) was the pioneer in studying this kind of
learning. His famous formulation of Law of Effect lies at the heart of the operant conditioning.
The Law of Effect states that:

“Behavior that brings about a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is apt to be performed

again, whereas behavior that brings about negative effect (punishment) is apt to be
suppressed.”

Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,

depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, in which
the original behaviors are the natural, biological responses to the presence of a stimulus such as
food, water, or pain, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism
performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point:
the organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable result.

While much of the contribution to the field of operant conditioning was made by researchers like
Thorndike and Watson, it was Skinner who is credited for his theory of operant conditioning.

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An American psychologist of the 1950s, he emphasized on the role that ‘consequences’ have to
play on the process of learning. He was interested in a response-stimulus connection, (Response
→ Stimulus) or (R-S), rather than the S-R connection as proposed by Pavlov. The learning took
place through instrumental or operant conditioning.
Beginning form 1930s, B.F. Skinner spent several decades studying the behavior of animals in
the chamber of box that became known as skinner’s box. Mice/rat get food when a lever is
pressed, then pressing lever is associated with the likelihood of getting food. Mice/rat will press
the lever (and eat) more frequently, learning that pressing the lever will be followed by the
appearance of a food pellet. Outside the box is a cumulative recorder, a device that records each
lever press and the time interval between presses.
The basic idea of operant conditioning is that consequences are proven to be powerful tools in
shaping and control of behavior. Skinner’s theory is different from Pavlov’s work in that he
studied voluntary behavior used in operating on the environment. Pavlov concentrated on
conditioned stimulus, which is why his theory is called Type-S conditioning. Skinner focused on
response and thus his theory is called Type-R conditioning. So, Skinner changed the usual S-R
formula in to R-S formula.
Skinner concluded that a living entity, be it animals or human beings, act instrumentally; they
would act out certain behavior that would make them feel rewarded and get them what they
want. On the other hand, they would avoid those acts of behavior that would be punishing and
not get them what they want. The operant theory is based on the assumption that behavior is a
function of its consequences.
Basic Features in Operant Conditioning
A. Shaping: It is the process of teaching behavior by rewarding closer and closer
approximation of the desired behavior. In shaping, the behavior that is similar to the
expected behavior is reinforced first. Therefore, we use reinforcement selectively to
convert simple behaviors into more complex patterns of responding. The process is
sometimes called successive approximation.

B. Stimulus Discrimination: A behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus

but not in its absence. A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement

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will follow a response. Example: we borrow a certain material from our friend after we
recognize that our friend is in a good mood.

C. Stimulus Generalizations: It is a condition in which an organism learns a response to one

stimulus and then applies it to other stimuli. Example: if a new employee has learned that
being polite to the customer produces recognition, it is likely to show similar behavioral
pattern to other customers.

D. Extinction: If reinforcement is discontinued, extinction of the operant response will occur.

Compared to classical conditioning, in operant conditioning extinction takes place after
longer period of time.

E. Reinforcement: It is the process whereby a reinforce increases the likely hood of a response.
The whole process that led the experimental animal to press the lever is called reinforcement.
Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Put
it another way, reinforcement will strengthen a behavior. It is something that increases the
strength of a response and tends to encourage repetitions of the behavior that preceded the
reinforcement. There are two forms/types of reinforcement. These are:

a. Positive reinforcement: - It occurs when presenting/adding positive value

(pleasant) stimulus strengthens the probability of the occurrence of a response.
e.g.. Water, food, praise. If food, water, money, or praise is provided after a
response, it is more likely that that response will occur again in the future.
b. Negative reinforcement: - is a process by which the removal or withdrawal of any
stimulus strengthens the probability of the occurrence of a response (e.g.. Loud
noise, bright light, electric shock failure, rejection, criticism). For example, if
your iPod volume is so loud that it hurts your ears when you fi rst turn it on, you
are likely to reduce the volume level. Lowering the volume is negatively
reinforcing, and you are more apt to repeat the action in the future when you fi rst
turn it on. Negative reinforcement, then, teaches the individual that taking an
action removes a negative condition that exists in the environment.
Note that; negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment.

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F. Punishment: A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will
occur again. Unlike negative reinforcement, which produces an increase in behavior,
punishment reduces the likelihood of a prior response. If we receive a shock that is meant
to decrease a certain behavior, then we are receiving punishment, but if we are already
receiving a shock and do something to stop that shock, the behavior that stops the shock
is considered to be negatively reinforced. An individual is punished for his/her behavior,
thereby discouraging repetition of the response. The behavior that precedes the pleasant
event is weakened and becomes less likely to occur again. However, Skinner suggested
that punishment is not a suitable technique for controlling behavior.
There are two types of punishment: positive punishment and negative punishment, just as there
are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In both cases, “positive” means adding
something, and “negative” means removing something.
a. Positive punishment: weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant
stimulus. For instance, spanking a child for misbehaving or spending ten years in jail for
committing a crime is positive punishment.
b. Negative punishment: consists of the removal of something pleasant. For instance, when
a teenager is told she is “grounded” and will no longer be able to use the family car
because of her poor grades, or when an employee is informed that he has been demoted
with a cut in pay because of a poor job evaluation, negative punishment is being
administered.

Both positive and negative punishment result in a decrease in the likelihood that a prior behavior
will be repeated.
Summery
• Reinforcement increases the frequency of the behavior preceding it; punishment decreases the
frequency of the behavior preceding it.
• The application of a positive stimulus brings about an increase in the frequency of behavior and
is referred to as positive reinforcement; the application of a negative stimulus decreases or
reduces the frequency of behavior and is called punishment.

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• The removal of a negative stimulus that results in an increase in the frequency of behavior is
negative reinforcement; the removal of a positive stimulus that decreases the frequency of
behavior is negative punishment.
Punishment may work if the following conditions were fulfilled:
 Immediacy- When punishment follows immediately after the behavior to be punished
 Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being punished is intermittently
reinforced and therefore, becomes resist to extinction.
 Intensity- severe punishment is more effective than mild one. But studies indicate that even
intense punishments are effective provided that they are applied immediately and
constantly.
Schedules of Reinforcement
When we refer to the frequency and timing of reinforcement that follows desired behavior, we
are talking about schedules of reinforcement. The schedule will determine when a behavior will
be reinforced.
 Continuous reinforcement schedule: refers to reinforcing behavior every time it occurs.
Continuous reinforcement is reinforcement given for each desired response.
 Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule: refers to reinforcement given only
intermittently after desired responses.
Acquiring a response is slower with partial reinforcement than with continuous reinforcement.
When shaping new behaviors, it is best to use continuous reinforcement until the desired
behavior is stable. Although learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement
schedule, behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial
reinforcement schedule.
 Why should intermittent reinforcement result in stronger, longer-lasting learning than
continuous reinforcement?
Reinforcement schedules affect how easily responses are acquired and extinguished. Schedules
of partial reinforcement may be based either on the number of correct responses (ratio schedule)
or on the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement is given (interval schedule). In either
case, reinforcement may appear on a fixed, or predictable, or on a variable, or unpredictable,
schedule.
I. Ratio Schedule: - refers to arrangement of giving reinforcement after a response.

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 Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):- is concerned with administering of reinforcement after a

fixed number of correct responses.
Example: - A man is paid after completing a certain amount of work.
 Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): - a pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable
number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Example:- Gambling games
II. Interval Schedule: - is concerned with arrangement of providing reinforcement after an
interval.
 Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):- refers to providing reinforcement after a fixed interval of
time, regardless of the number of responses made.
Example:
– Payment of salary on 1st of every month.
– Administration of quiz on every Monday of the class.
 Variable Interval Schedule (VI): - a pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts
of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement
Example: Fishing & Dialing a phone

Reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur
again. There are two types of reinforcers.

 A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a
person’s previous experience. Food for a hungry person, warmth for a cold person, and
relief for a person in pain all would be classified as primary reinforcers.
 A secondary reinforcer, in contrast, is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its
association with a primary reinforcer. For instance, we know that money is valuable,
because we have learned that it allows us to obtain other desirable objects, including
primary reinforcers such as food and shelter. Money thus becomes a secondary reinforcer
(Moher et al., 2008).

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Similarities and differences between classical and operant conditionings

Concept Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic principle Building associations between a Reinforcement increases the frequency of the behavior
conditioned stimulus and conditioned preceding it; punishment decreases the frequency of
response. the behavior preceding it.

Nature Based on involuntary, natural, innate Organism voluntarily operates on its environment to
of behavior behavior. Behavior is elicited by the produce a desirable result. After behavior occurs, the
unconditioned or conditioned stimulus. likelihood of the behavior occurring again is increased
or decreased by the behavior’s consequences.

Order of events Before conditioning, an unconditioned Reinforcement leads to an increase in behavior;

stimulus leads to an unconditioned punishment leads to a decrease in behavior.
response. After conditioning, a conditioned
stimulus leads to a conditioned response.

Example After a physician gives a child a series of A student who, after studying hard for a test, earns an
painful injections (an unconditioned A (the positive reinforcer), is more likely to study hard
stimulus) that produce an emotional in the future. A student who, after going out drinking
reaction (an unconditioned response), the the night before a test, fails the test (punishment) is
child develops an emotional reaction (a less likely to go out drinking the night before the next
conditioned response) whenever he sees test.
the physician (the conditioned stimulus).

4.2.2. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory extends behaviorism. Both behaviorism and social learning theory agree
that experience is an important cause of learning. They also include the concepts of
reinforcement and punishment in their explanation of behavior. Furthermore, they agree that
feedback is important in promoting learning.

Albert Bandura was the major motivator behind social learning theory. One of the main things
that he was concerned with was how cognitive factors influence development, but he confined
his approach to the behavioral tradition. Bandura called his theory a social cognitive theory. Like
other behaviorists, Bandura believes that cognitive development alone cannot explain changes in
behavior in childhood and he believed that learning processes are primarily responsible for
children’s development. However, he felt quite strongly that the cognitive abilities of the child
affect learning processes. This, he feels, is especially true of the more complex types of learning.
So, how does Bandura handle the child’s learning?

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Bandura's social learning theory stresses the importance of observational learning, imitation
and modeling. His theory integrates a continuous interaction between behaviors, personal factors
- including cognition - and the environment referred to as reciprocal causation model.
For Bandura, behavior, environment and person factors interact to influence learning. They
influence and are influenced by each other. For example, a teacher’s feedback (environment) can
lead students to set higher goals (person/cognitive) and these goals will motivate students to put
more efforts (behavior) in their studies.
People can learn through Modelling and imitation. If they learn by watching, they must be
focusing their attention, constructing images, remembering and making decisions that affect
learning. Learning by observing others has two models:
 Observational learning can take place through vicarious reinforcement. This takes place
when we see others being rewarded or punished for particular action and modify our
behaviour as it we had received the consequence ourselves.
  In the 2nd type of observational learning we observe and imitate the behaviour of a model
with no reinforcement and punishment received by the model. The model show something
the observer wants to learn. Imitation also can take place when the observer wants to
become more like an admired or high status model. The observer may also use fictional
characters as models and try to behave as we imagine to model.
Steps for observational learning

1. Attention: the first step in imitation is paying attention to the model. Without attention, there
can be no learning. Attention is a necessary condition of observational learning in social
settings.

2. Retention: The second phase in imitation is retention of observed behaviour. Observed

behaviours and all the sensory information should be encoded and stored before they should
be performed.

3. Reproduction: In this phase of learning from models, the verbal or visual codes in memory
guide the actual performance of the newly acquired behaviour. Observational learning is

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most accurate when overt enactment follows mental rehearsal. Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

4. Motivation: Behaviour acquired by observing others is enacted if it is reinforcing to do so. If

it is punishing to perform the behaviour, it does not usually occur. Finally, in order for
observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has
been modeled.

4.2.3. Cognitive theory of Learning

Cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result of our attempt to make sense of the world
using our all mental tools. Cognitive theorists explain that, the way we think, our knowledge,
expectations, feelings and interaction with others influence how and what we learn. They
emphasize on internal process.
Cognitive and behavioural views differ in their assumptions about what is learned. In cognitive
view knowledge is learned, and change in knowledge makes change in behaviour possible. In the
behavioural view the new behaviours themselves are learned. Both behavioural and cognitive
theories believe reinforcement is important in learning, but for different reasons. For
behaviourists reinforces strengthen response and cognitivists see reinforcement as a source of
feedback about what is likely to happen if behaviours are repeated.

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CHAPTER FIVE: MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Overview

Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all of our daily activities
—talking, understanding, reading, and socializing—depend on our having learned and stored
information about our environments. Memory allows us to retrieve events from the distant past
or from moments ago. It enables us to learn new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to
access past experiences or information, we would be unable to comprehend language, recognize
our friends and family members, find our way home, or even tie a shoe. Life would be a series of
disconnected experiences, each one new and unfamiliar. Without any sort of memory, humans
would quickly perish. So that, to learn and reason successfully, human beings need to hold
information and to retrieve the information they have stored when the need arises. Philosophers,
psychologists, writers, and other thinkers have long been fascinated by memory.
5.1. Nature and Definition of Memory

 Psychologists consider memory as the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve
information/ what was learned earlier. The processes involved in the operation of
memory are:
 Encoding: - refers to the initial process of gathering, converting and registration
of sensory data. Encoding refers to translating incoming information into a mental
representation that can be stored in memory. In encoding we transform a sensory
input into a form or a memory code (words or images) that can be further
processed. You can encode the same information in a number of different ways.
For example, you can encode information according to its sound (acoustic code),
what it looks like (visual code), or what it means (semantic code).
 Storage: - is the retention (saving) of encoded information over time. The transfer
of information from short- to long-term memory can be achieved in many ways.
Simply repeating the information can help if it's repeated enough times. For
example, frequently called phone numbers are remembered because you have
used (repeated) the number many times. Although simply repeating, or practicing,

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something can help move it into long-term memory, another strategy for
transferring information is to think about it deeply.
 Retrieval:-refers to the processes of accessing and using stored information in
memory. In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used. Like encoding, information can be retrieved through
visualizing it, thinking about the meaning, or imagining the sound, etc. The more
ways information has been encoded, the more ways there are for retrieving it.
 The process of memory can then be discussed and/or summarized as follows: First, you
select the information to which you will attend. You then code the information for
storage (where it can be practiced and processed more deeply). Later, when needed,
information is retrieved by using a search strategy that parallels how the information was
coded and stored. In discussing memory however, it is useful to separate the process from
the structure. Memory process is the mental activities we perform to put information into
memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later. Memory structure is the nature of
memory storage itself- how information is represented in memory and how long it lasts
and how it is organized.
4.2. Information-Processing Model: The Three Memory Storage Systems

 Information processing theorists have relied on the computer as a model of human mental
activity.
 Because they assume that human brain and computers operate in a relatively similar way.
Information processing model is hypothetical mental or cognitive structure through which
information flows during the process of learning. Models of memory based on this idea
(Information processing theories) assume that like a computer, the human mind takes in
information, performs operation on it to change its form and content, stores and locates it,
and generates responses to it. Information processing theorists have shown that learning
involves actively processing, storing and retrieving when the need arises. A number of
such models of memory have been proposed.
 One of the most important and influential of these is the one developed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed a three

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store system of memory; Sensory memory, Short-term memory, and Long-term

memory. Those kinds of storage systems are structurally distinct because they hold
information differently, for different purpose and kinds of information they store and for
varying amount of time they retain information.
 It assumes that information processing takes place in three successive stages of three
storage systems.
1. Sensory Memory (SM)
 Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory
systems. The sensory memory retains an exact copy of sensory images i.e. what is seen or
heard (visual and auditory) and cognitive process do not begin to alter data until after
they pass through the sensory register.
Duration, Capacity, and Contents of information in sensory register
 Duration: Sensory memory systems typically function outside of awareness and store
information for only a very short time (i.e. last between one and three seconds).
Information that comes through visual seems to last less than a second. Information that
comes through auditory probably lasts a bit longer; estimates range up to two or three
seconds.
 Capacity: Its capacity to store information is relatively large for a brief time.
 Contents of information: resembles sensations from the original stimuli. The
information stored in sensory memory is a fairly accurate representation of the
environmental information but unprocessed (Its content is exact photocopy of visual
images and sound pattern). Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply
decays from the register. However, some of the information that has got attention and
recognition pass to short-term memory for further processing.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
 It is also called working memory. Selective attention determines what information
moves from sensory memory to short-term memory.
 When you pay attention to the information in your sensory memory, a limited amount of
information is transferred into short-term memory. Short term memory was postulated to
explain temporary retention of information as distinct from long term retention of

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information. Short term memory acts to also store current sensory information and to
rehearse new information from sensory buffers. STM contains our conscious experience
or what you are thinking at the moment.
 There are various terms used to refer to this stage of memory, including working
memory, immediate memory, active memory, and primary memory.
 STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading, speaking, and problem
solving.
Duration, Capacity, and Contents of information in Short-term memory:
 Duration: STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images, words, and sentences
and so on) received from SM for up to about20- 30 seconds by most estimates. It is
possible to prolong STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the process of internal repetition.
 Rehearsal is the process of keeping the center of attention, perhaps by repeating them
silently or aloud. The amount of rehearsal given to items is important in transfer of
information from short to long term memory. Elaborative rehearsal is more likely
important and it involves giving the material organization and meaning as it is being
rehearsed.
 Capacity: it has a very limited capacity to a small number of bits of information that can
be held at a time. Miller 1956 reported that the capacity is only about five to nine (7 + 2)
as separate new items (independent information) at once. Thus, the number of items that
short-term memory can handle at any one time is small.
 Content of the information in STM: its content is activated information. Interference
appears to be the primary mechanism of memory loss. Within STM, there are three basic
operations:
o Iconic memory - The ability to hold visual images.
o Acoustic memory - The ability to hold sounds. Acoustic memory can be held
longer than iconic memory.

Improving the short-comings of short-term memory: Material in STM is easily displaced

unless we do something to keep it there. So how do we keep information’s much longer?

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 Rehearsal: To keep information activated in STM for longer than 20 seconds, most
people rehearse the information mentally. Repetition or rote rehearsal is a technique we
all use to try to "learn" something. There are two types of rehearsal. These are:-
A. Maintenance Rehearsal:-involves repeating the information in your mind.
B. Elaborative Rehearsal: - involve associating the information a person is trying
to remember with something that a person already knows or with information
from long-term memory.
 The limited capacity of short term memory can also be somewhat improved by the
process of chunking. Chunking; is a process of grouping individual bits of information.
According to most models of memory, we overcome this problem, by grouping small
groups of information into larger units or chunks. The real capacity of short-term memory
therefore is not a few bits of information but a few chunks. Chunking is a major
technique for getting and keeping information in short-term memory; it is also a type of
elaboration that will help get information into long-term memory.
3. Long Term Memory (LTM)
 Our sense of self and continuity as an individual could hardly exist without long-term
memory of what happened to us yesterday, the day before, and so on back to our earliest
years. LTM is therefore a type of memory that can store unlimited amount of information
for a very long period of time.

Duration, Capacity, and Contents of information in long-term memory:

 Duration: LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last for days, months,
years, or even a lifetime.
 Capacity: The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits. The vast amount of
information stored in LTM enables us to learn, get around in the environment, and build a
sense of identity and personal history. Content of the information in LTM: It holds
information that well learned, meaningful information and provides the framework to
which we attach new knowledge. Our access information in STM is immediate because
information in STM is what we are thinking about at that very moment. But access to
information in long term memory requires time and effort.

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Components of Long term memory

The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems and thus are:
1. Declarative/ explicit memory: refers to the conscious recollection of information such as
specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It is further subdivided into
semantic and episodic memories.
 Semantic memory- Include items of general knowledge facts about the world, as well as
storage of language and other cognitive concepts. i.e. information that includes concepts,
principles, rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies and so on.
 Episodic Memories- are internal representations of personally experienced events. It is
memory for the biographical details of our individuals 'life's (personal experiences such
as information in stories and analogies).
2. Non-declarative/ implicit memory- refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which
behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously
recollected.
One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory. It is the “how to”
knowledge of procedures or skills. Knowing how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.
 Procedural memory: - refers to memory for skills and habits, such as how to do things
(as driving a car, riding a bicycle).
 Associative learning: - Learning that involves the automatic learning of associations
between two stimuli.

Storing information in Long term memory

The way you learn information in the first place affects its recall later. One important
requirement is that you integrate new material with information already stored in long-term
memory as you construct understanding. Here, elaboration, organization and context play
important role.
 Elaboration: is addition of meaning to new information through the connection with
already existing knowledge. It is a form rehearsal and keeps information activated. We
often elaborate automatically.

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 Organization: it improves memory because materials that are well organized are easier
to learn and to remember than bits of information. Placing a concept in a structure will
help you learn and remember either definitions or specific examples.
 Context: it is a third element of processing that influences learning. Aspects of physical
and emotional context are learned along with other information. Later, if you tried to
remember the information, it will be easier if the current context is similar to the
original one.
4.3. Forgetting
 Forgetting is defined as the loss of information over time or it can be defined as inability to
recall previously learned information. Under most conditions, people recall information
better soon after learning it than after a long delay; as time passes, they forget some of the
information.
 We have all failed to remember some bit of information when we need it, so we often see
forgetting as a bother. However, forgetting can also be useful because we need to continually
update our memories. When we move and receive a new telephone number, we need to
forget the old one and learn the new one. If you park your car every day on a large lot you
need to remember where you parked it today and not yesterday or the day before. Thus,
forgetting can have an adaptive function.
 Information lost in STM truly disappears. No moment of effort will bring it back. But
information stored in LTM may be available, given the right cues. Information appears to be
lost from Long-term memory through time decay and interference.
 So what causes forgetting?

4.3.1 Theories of Forgetting:

 Decay theory of Forgetting: Decay refers to loss of information through its non-use.
That is, memory traces are formed in the brain when we learn information, and they
gradually disintegrate over time if not used. Memories that are recently (regency effect)
retrieved are memorized easily than those memorized at the beginning (primary effect).

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 Interference Theory of Forgetting: According many psychologists, forgetting occurs

not because information is lost from memory, rather is because of interference of
information by the other over time. There are two types of interference.
i. Proactive interference occurs when prior learning or experience interferes with
our ability to recall newer information. The past information blocks the memory of
the newer information
ii. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with our ability
to recall earlier information or experiences. The newer or present information blocks
the memory of the past information
 Repression (Motivated forgetting): Repression refers to forgetting an unpleasant event
or piece of information due to its threatening quality. According to Freudian theory,
people banish unpleasant events into their unconscious mind. However, repressed
memories may continue to unconsciously influence people’s attitudes and behaviors and
may result in unpleasant side effects, such as unusual physical symptoms and slips of
speech. A simple example of repression might be forgetting a dentist appointment or
some other unpleasant daily activity.
1.4. Improving Memory

In the previous section, we have discussed memory processes and introduced you to some basic
concepts of memory. What we have presented, however, is just the tip of the iceberg. If you
review research on memory and learning, you will find that there exists a vast amount of
information on the subject. But in learning to become more personally and academically
effective, you are probably most interested in seeing how this knowledge can be put into
practice. In other words, how can it help you improve your memory? Thus, we focus on memory
techniques and strategies.

1. Pulling it all together. Organizing and ordering information can significantly improve
memory. Imagine, for example, how difficult it would be to remember a random list of 62 letters.
On the other hand, it would not be difficult to memorize the first sentence in this paragraph
(consisting of 62 letters). Similarly, learning a large amount of unconnected and unorganized
information from various classes can be very challenging. By organizing and adding meaning to
the material prior to learning it, you can facilitate both storage and retrieval. In other words, you

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can learn it better and recall it easier. The following concepts can help you pull various
information together in order to increase understanding and organization. This can mean
organizing material on paper, such as when you make an outline or idea web, or simply
organizing material in your memory, such as learning it in a particular order or making
intentional associations between ideas.

2. The funnel approach. This means learning general concepts before moving on to specific
details. When you study in this manner, you focus on getting a general framework, or overview,
before filling in the details. When you understand the general concepts first, the details make
more sense. Rather than disconnected bits of information to memorize, such as history dates, the
material fits together within the overall framework. Seeing how the smaller details relate to one
another, you process the information more deeply (which helps you store, and later retrieve, it
from memory).

3. Organizing through meaning and association. Earlier, we discussed the concept of making
intentional associations in order to improve learning retention. What do we mean by "intentional
associations"? When learning, a person continually makes associations. We make associations
between what we are learning and the environment we are in, between the information and our
mental states, and between the information and our stream of thoughts. When things are
associated in memory, thinking of one helps bring the other to mind. The memory of putting the
keys down was associated with your memory of things in the environment. When you are having
difficulty recalling new material, you can help bring it to mind by thinking about what you have
associated it with. In other words--retrace your mental path. We will return to this idea later
when we discuss specific strategies.

a) Deep processing--relating the material to yourself. One way to process information more
deeply, and also to create meaningful associations, is to think about how the information can be
personally meaningful. You might think about how the new material relates to your life, your
experience, or your goals. If you can link new information to memories already stored ("mental
hooks"), you'll have more cues to recall the new material.

b) Grouping. This idea is probably best explained with an example. Before reading ahead, take a
moment to complete the following exercise.

You can organize material by grouping similar concepts, or related ideas, together. Arranging the

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material into related groups helps your memory by organizing the information. For example, in
the exercise you just completed, you could have grouped all of the sports into one of the
following categories: a) Winter sports, b) Track and Field sports, and c) Sports using a ball.
Keeping these categories in mind, try the exercise again. If you were like most people, you will
be able to remember more of the sports.

4. Vivid associations. We have already discussed the idea of associations: aiding storage and
retrieval of new information by intentionally pairing it with something familiar. When learning
something new and unfamiliar, try pairing it with something you know very well, such as
images, puns, and music, whatever. The association does not have to make logical sense. Often
times it is associations that are particularly vivid humorous, or silly that stay in your mind. Some
people remember names this way. If you want to remember your friends name ‘Messay’ you
may vividly associate with the soccer star “MESSI” dribbling the ball.

5. Active learning. You will notice that the term "active learning" has come up frequently.
Active learning facilitates your memory by helping you attend to and process information. All of
the memory techniques we have discussed require active learning. Even if you attend every
lecture and read every assignment, there is no guarantee that you will learn and remember the
information. Although you may passively absorb some material, to ensure that you remember
important information requires being active and involved, that is attending to and thinking about
what you are learning.

6. Visual memory. Some people remember information best when it is encoded visually; if that
is the case for you, then code information in this manner. But even if you do not consider
yourself specifically "a visual learner," you may find that including visual memory can still help.
After all, it is one more way of encoding and storing information--and one more way of
retrieving it for a test.

7. Talk it out. When trying to memorize something, it can help to actually recite the information
aloud. You might repeat ideas verbatim (when you need to do rote memorization), or you can
repeat ideas in your own words (and thus ensure that you have a true understanding of the
information). Repeating information aloud can help you encode the information (auditory
encoding) and identify how well you have learned it. Although reciting aloud can be a helpful
memory technique, some people avoid it out of fear of appearing foolish ("what if someone sees

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me talking to myself?").

8. Visualize yourself teaching the material. An effective way to enhance recall and
understanding of dense material is to teach it to an imaginary audience. By doing so, you are
forced to organize the material in a way that makes sense to you and to anticipate potential
questions that may be asked by your students. Moreover, by articulating your lecture aloud, you
will uncover gaps in your comprehension (and recall) of the material. (Far better to be cover
those "weak" areas before a test than during it.) After you have mastered a particular section
from your textbook, try delivering an organized lecture on any topic from that section. Then
check for accuracy. Don't forget to anticipate questions that students might ask about the material
as a way of anticipating potential test questions.

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Chapter Eight: Personality

8.1. The nature of personality
Brainstorming questions:

ᴪ What is personality?
ᴪ How does it differ from temperament and character?
The word personality comes from the Latin root persona, meaning "mask." According to this
root, personality is the impression we make on others; the mask we present to the world.
Personality is defined as "an individual’s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving
(John, Robins, &Pervin, 2008). Clearly, personality is unique insofar as each of us has our own
personality, different from any other person's. The elements of personality organize our thinking
about personality. It allows us to suggest that personality has a number of different components,
which impact our overall behavior.
1. The first aspect of personality is talking about enduring, constant, stable parts of us. If
you're shy now, you will very likely still be shy when you wake up tomorrow morning.
So we are talking about stable characteristics.
2. A second aspect of personality, or any trait identified with personality, is that it must
occur repeatedly or consistently. The response should occur in a wide variety of
circumstances. An aggressive person will tend to be so in many different situations; for
instance, in workplace, and in most social relationships essentially everywhere the
opportunity arises.

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3. A third important aspect of our personality is that each theory of personality is based on
the assumption that we are each unique. We each have a certain amount of aggression,
humor, virtue, happiness, and so forth. However, the unique combination that defines you
is identifiable.

Definition of Personality
The layman may identify personality with externals of an individual his looks, voice, dress,
manners and gestures. We say somebody has a wonderful personality. The externals or physique
and appearance constitute only one factor in one’s personality: They do not constitute the whole
thing. Like other abstract terms defining personality is difficult. There are various definitions of
personality. Allport, for example, has listed fifty definitions, including one of his own, in his
book on personality.

Personality is defined as an individual’s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving

(John, Robins, & Pervin, 2008). Personality is the total quality of an individual’s behavior as it is
shown in his habits of thinking, in his attitudes, interests, his manner of acting and his personal
philosophy of life. It is the totality of his being. It includes his physical, mental, emotional and
temperamental makeup and how it shows itself in behavior.

These various components of personality do not stand apart from each other. They are
interconnected and as a result of this integration gave rise to a characteristic behavior pattern or
quality called personality. Some of these aspects may be given more weight than others and play
more vital role in the development of one’s personality. These variations cause differences in
personality from one individual to another.

There are three basic factors, which have to be considered in describing personality. These are:

1. The internal aspects: these are feelings, the physiological systems, glands and inherently
determined physical features.

2. The social situation: they include the influence of the family and other groups to which one
belongs, the influence of customs, traditions and culture.

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3. The reactions or behavior; they are results from the interaction of the individual and the
stimuli from the environment. Personality is a dynamic growing thing. It grows in a social setup,
through social experiences and continual adjustment to the environment.

There are three main factors that contribute to differences in personality. These are:

1. The physiological factors. These include:

The physique of the individual (his size, strength, looks); ƒ Physical appearances and
deficiencies and how other people react to these characteristics;

Endocrine glands production of hormones; Example: excess insulin secretion may make the
individual fatigued or anxious. Hypothyroidism may cause sluggishness, inertia or dullness,
slowness or stupidity. Hyperthyroidism may cause nervous tension, excitement and over activity.

2. The environmental or social factors

Reactions of other people and reactions to other people;

Example: relationships in the home and the family, the influence of school

An atmosphere of peace, love, mutual understanding at home develops self-confidence and

security;

Repressive home atmosphere will result in rebellious or dependence as personality traits;

Personality of the teacher, richness of the curriculum, the presence or absence of co curricula
activities, methods of teaching affect the child’s personality.

3. Mental or psychological factors include

Motives, interests, activities, will and character, intellectual capacities, reasoning, attention,
perception and imagination.

Personality can be defined and understood in a number of ways:

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• Personality is the sum total of characteristics on the basis of which people can be differentiated
from each other.
• Personality is the stability in a person’s behavior across different situations.
• It can also be seen as the characteristic ways in which people behave.
• Personality consists of characteristics that are relatively enduring, and that make us behave in
a consistent and predictable way.

The word personality comes from the Latin word persona, which means “mask,” we can look
at the study of personality as the study of the masks that people wear. These masks often belie
the true personality underneath the surface. Psychologists and other practitioners concern
themselves with the cognitions (thinking), emotions (feeling), and behaving (outward
behavior) that others exhibit as a true definition of their personalities. The reason that the
study of personality is so intriguing and widespread is due to two main factors. First,
personalities are rather consistent throughout the lifespan. Second, our personalities make us
unique.

Psychologists regard personality as a person’s unique long-term pattern of thinking, emotions,

and behavior (Burger, 2008; Mischel, 2004). In other words, personality refers to the consistency
in who you are, have been, and will become. It also refers to the special blend of talents, values,
hopes, loves, hates, and habits that makes each of us a unique person.

Many people also confuse personality with the term character, which implies that a person has

been evaluated, not just described (Skipton, 1997). If, by saying someone has “personality,” you

mean the person is friendly, outgoing, and attractive, you are describing what we regard as good
character in our culture. But in some cultures it is deemed good for people to be fierce, warlike,
and cruel. So, whereas everyone in a particular culture has personality, not everyone has
character — or at least not good character. (Do you know any good characters?) Personality is
also distinct from temperament, the “raw material” from which personalities are formed.

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Temperament refers to the hereditary aspects of your personality, such as your sensitivity,
irritability, distractibility, and typical mood (Rothbart, 2007).
Personality A person’s unique and relatively stable behavior patterns.
Character Personal characteristics that have been judged or evaluated; a person’s desirable or
undesirable qualities.
Temperament The hereditary aspects of personality, including sensitivity, activity levels,
prevailing mood, irritability, and adaptability.

Personality is what makes our actions, thoughts and feelings consistent (or relatively consistent),
and it is also what makes us different from one another.

Factor influencing personality (Determinants of personality)

Gordon Allport (1961) makes the point that personality is psychophysical, which means both
physical and psychological. Recent research has shown that biological and genetic phenomena
do have an impact on personality. Child (1968) makes the point that personality is stable – or at
least relatively stable.

8.2. Theories of personality

8.2.1. The Psychoanalytic Perspective

By the early years of the twentieth century, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) had begun to write
about psychoanalysis, which he described as ‘a theory of the mind or personality, a method of
investigation of unconscious process, and a method of treatment. This approach also emphasizes
the irrational aspects of human behavior and portrays aggressive and sexual needs as having a
major impact on personality. It is the general and best-known theory of personality.
All psychoanalytic theories have two themes in common. These are:

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1. They are concerned with powerful but largely unconscious motivations believed to exist in
every human being. This school emphasizes on childhood experiences as critically
important in shaping adult personality.

2. Human personality is governed by conflict between opposing forces i.e.; anxiety over
unacceptable motives and defense mechanisms that develop to prevent anxiety from
becoming too great.

Freud's assumption
Freud discussed three levels of awareness based on different components of the mind. He called
these the conscious mind, the preconscious mind, and the unconscious mind. The conscious mind
consists of the part of our mind that we are aware of. It includes thoughts and activities that are
part of the present. The preconscious mind is the part of personality that we may not be thinking
about or currently aware of, but we can easily remember the information. Examples may be what
clothes you wore yesterday or what you ate for dinner. Again, anything that is easily
remembered is included in the preconscious mind. The unconscious mind is a bit trickier. The
unconscious mind includes all aspects of our personality that we are not aware of. The
unconscious mind, according to Freud, is the largest part of our personality structure. Freud
believed that the unconscious mind includes evil thoughts, immoral wishes, as well as every
horrible memory a person has endured as a part of his or her life experience. Freud maintained
that the unconscious tries to reveal itself through dreams. He felt that individuals’ dreams were
the road to their unconscious. He asserted that nightmares could be explained by a reaction to
unconscious material that was not filtered properly by the censors.
According to Freud, the structure of the mind is further broken down into three controlling parts
of personality. These are known as the id, ego, and superego. These are Latin roots that Freud
translated into German. The id in German is das Es, which means “the it.” The ego in German,
das Ich, means “the I.” The superego in German is das Über-ich, which means “the above I.”
The id is also known as the pleasure principle, and it wants you to do whatever is pleasurable
with no regard to the consequences. In addition, the id wants this satisfaction immediately. It is
like the little devil that sits on your shoulder telling you to “Do it, do it!” The superego works on
the idealistic principle and is like the little angel on the other side of your shoulder. The superego

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tells you “Don’t do it.” This is the moral component of your personality and works in contrast
with the demands of the id. The ego works off the reality principle and is considered the decision
maker. It hears the demands of both the id and the superego and is in touch with the real world.
Anxiety and Defense mechanisms

How does the ego then try to reconcile, moderate the opposing goals of the id and the superego?

When the ego loses its energy to resolve the divergent demands of the id, anxiety is signaled.

Anxiety is a feeling of apprehension or tension that hinders our daily functioning. It is also an
intense, negative emotional experience which arises when: Ego realizes that expression of an id
impulse will lead to some kind of harm to the personality and the superego is making an
impossible demand to the satisfaction of the biological needs. Anxiety as an alarm signal tells
ego that something must be done to resolve the conflict and to protect the personality from
danger. The ego, therefore, uses defense mechanism, a mental strategy to block the harmful
forces while at the same time reducing anxiety. It protects the individual from overwhelming
anxiety, punishment of the superego and other unpleasant experiences.

Because anxiety is obviously unpleasant, Freud believed that people develop a range of defense
mechanisms to deal with it. Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to
reduce anxiety by concealing its source from themselves and others.

Freud postulated that the ego experiences different kinds of anxiety due to the demands of the id,
the superego, and the ego. He called these reality anxiety, due to the demands of the external
world; moral anxiety, when the ego is threatened by the demands of the superego; and neurotic
anxiety, which occurs when the id threatens to overwhelm the ego and force the person to do
something unacceptable. To explain how people protect themselves from these anxieties, Freud
wrote about various defense mechanisms. Here is a list of the defense mechanisms that Freud
stated we use when we need help with these anxieties:
Denial—Believing that what is true is actually false
Displacement—Redirecting emotions to a substitute, more suitable, target
Intellectualization—Focusing on intellectual components of a situation rather than dealing with
the feelings associated with it

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Projection—Denying feelings and attributing them to others

Rationalization—Realizing that one’s actions are not acceptable so creating a false justification
Reaction formation—Overacting in the opposite manner to unacceptable feelings or thoughts
Regression—Acting like a child to protect the conscious mind
Repression—Pushing unwelcome thoughts into the unconscious
Sublimation—Redirecting improper urges into socially acceptable actions
Personality Development: Psychosexual Stages
Freud also provided us with a view of how personality develops through a series of five
psychosexual stages during which children encounter conflicts between the demands of society
and their own sexual urges (in which sexuality is more about experiencing pleasure and less
about lust). According to Freud, failure to resolve the conflicts at a particular stage can result in
fixations, conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they fi rst
occur. Such conflicts may be due to having needs ignored or (conversely) being overindulged
during the earlier period.
The sequence Freud proposed is noteworthy because it explains how experiences and difficulties
during a particular childhood stage may predict specific characteristics in the adult personality.
This theory is also unique in associating each stage with a major biological function, which
Freud assumed to be the focus of pleasure in a given period.
Generally, Sexual impulses undergo five developmental stages. These are oral, anal, phallic,
latency and genital. At each stage in a child's life, the drive for pleasure centers around a
particular area of the body i.e. mouth, anus, and finally the genitals. Freud believed that adult
personality is shaped by the way in which the conflicts between early id urges and the
requirements imposed by society, like for example in weaning, toilet training, prohibitions
against masturbation are resolved at each of the psychosexual stages.

1. The oral stage (birth or 0 – 18 months)

During the first 12 to 18 months of life, children suck, eat, and bite anything they can put into
their mouths. During this stage the sexual pleasure focuses on the mouth or the Erogenous zone
is mouth. Sucking is an important activity at this stage not only to obtain food to satisfy hunger,
but also a source of intense pleasure for the child. This is why babies suck, lick, bite, and chew
anything they can get. If infants are either overindulged (perhaps by being fed every time they

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cry) or frustrated in their search for oral gratification, they may become fixated at this stage. For
example, fixation might occur if an infant’s oral needs were constantly gratified immediately at
the first sign of hunger rather than if the infant learned that feeding takes place on a schedule
because eating whenever an infant wants to eat is not always realistic. Fixation at the oral stage
might produce an adult who was unusually interested in oral activities like eating, talking,
smoking and or who showed symbolic sorts of oral interests such as being “bitingly” sarcastic or
very gullible (“swallowing” anything). Additionally, passiveness, over dependence, un-
enterprising adult, reverted thumb/pen sucking (is a form of regression), and so forth are some of
the fixations of this stage. Fixation at the oral stage can occur for the following reasons:

a. When babies repeatedly experience anxiety over whether food will be given or not given.

b. When they come to learn that they are totally dependent on others.

2. The anal stage (18 – 36 months)

From around age 18 months until 3 years of age; a period when the emphasis is on toilet training.
At this point, the major source of pleasure changes from the mouth to the anal region, and
children obtain considerable pleasure from both retention or holding and expulsion or discharge
of feces. If toilet training is particularly demanding, fixation might occur. Fixation at this stage
can also occur due to strict and punitive toilet training. Fixation during the anal stage might
result in unusual rigidity or inflexibility, orderliness or neatness, punctuality and or extreme
disorderliness and sloppiness or carelessness in adulthood.

It occurs during the second year of life, when children begin to develop voluntary control over
bowel movements. Holding in and expelling feces gives great sensual pleasure to the child. The
demands of toilet training by parents are imposed at this stage. Toilet training, according to
Freud, is a crucial event because it is the first big conflict between the child's id impulses and
society's rules. Fixation at this stage can occur due to strict and punitive toilet training.

Consequences

 The child may resist completely the urge to defecate in a free and enjoyable manner.
 May result in extreme orderliness during adulthood.

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 May result in excessive neatness during adulthood.

3. The phallic stage (3 – 6 years)

At about age 3, the phallic stage begins. At this point there is another major shift in the child’s
primary source of pleasure. Now interest focuses on the genitals and the pleasures derived from
fondling them. During this stage the child must also negotiate one of the most important hurdles
of personality development: the Oedipal complex. According to Freudian theory, as children
focus attention on their genitals, the differences between male and female anatomy become more
salient. Furthermore, according to Freud, at this time the male unconsciously begins to develop a
sexual interest in his mother, starts to see his father as a rival, and harbors a wish to kill his father
—as Oedipus did in the ancient Greek tragedy. But because he views his father as too powerful,
he develops a fear that his father may retaliate drastically by removing the source of the threat:
the son’s penis. The fear of losing one’s penis leads to castration anxiety, which ultimately
becomes so powerful that the child represses his desires for his mother and identifies with his
father. Identification is the process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible,
imitating that person’s behavior and adopting similar beliefs and values. By identifying with his
father, a son seeks to obtain a woman like his unattainable mother.
For girls, the process is different. In girls it is called Electra complex. The girl being jealous of
her mother maintains relationship with her father. Freud reasoned that girls begin to experience
sexual arousal toward their fathers and begin to experience penis envy. They wish they had the
anatomical part that, at least to Freud, seemed most clearly “missing” in girls. Blaming their
mothers for their lack of a penis, girls come to believe that their mothers are responsible for their
“castration.” This aspect of Freud’s theory later provoked accusations that he considered women
to be inferior to men. Like males, though, they find that they can resolve such unacceptable
feelings by identifying with the same-sex parent, behaving like her, and adopting her attitudes
and values. In this way, a girl’s identification with her mother is completed. At this point, the
Oedipal conflict is said to be resolved, and Freudian theory assumes that both males and females
move on to the next stage of development. If difficulties arise during this period, however, all
sorts of problems are thought to occur, including improper sex-role behavior and the failure to
develop a conscience.

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Pleasure focuses on masturbation (self-manipulation) of the genitals.

It is the period when the Oedipal and Electra conflicts occurs.

The concept of Oedipal and Electra complex

At five or six, sexual behavior is directed to mother. The child sees his father as rival. This is the
rise of Oedipal conflict. But the boy fears to retaliate his father. Freud called this castration
anxiety. Castration anxiety is the earliest form of subsequent anxieties. In girls it is called Electra
complex. The girl being jealous of her mother maintains relationship with her father. But
ultimately both boys and girls identify with parents of opposite sex with her mother.

Resolution of the Oedipal conflict

The boy or the girl recognizes that he or she can never biologically possess the characteristics of
the opposite sex parent.

By means of identification the boy or the girl tries to adopt the attitudes, behaviors, and moral
values of the same-sex parent.

4. The Latency stage (7 – 11 years)

After the resolution of the Oedipal and Electra complexes, typically around age 6 or 7, children
move into the latency period, which lasts until puberty. During this period, sexual interests
become dormant, even in the unconscious.
During this stage the sexual and aggressive drives, which produced crises at earlier periods, are
temporarily dormant. There is no sexual zone for this state. This doesn’t mean that the child’s
life at this time is entirely conflict-free. For example, the birth of a sibling may rouse intense
jealousy.

5. The genital stage (puberty to death)

During this stage, adolescence, sexual feelings re-emerge, which marks the start of the final
period, the genital stage, which extends until death. The focus during the genital stage is on
mature, adult sexuality, which Freud defined as sexual intercourse.

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The stability of the latency period, however, does not last long. As Erickson says, ‘It is only a
lull before the storm of puberty’. At puberty sexual energy becomes high. Once again, Oedipal
feelings threaten to break into consciousness, and now the young person is big enough to carry
them out in reality. Freud said that from puberty onward the individual’s great task is freeing
himself from the parents. For the son, this means releasing his tie to the mother and finding a
woman of his own.

The boy must also resolve his rivalry with his father and free himself of his father’s domination
of him. For the daughter, the tasks are the same; she too must separate from the parents and
establish a life of her own. Freud noted, however, that independence never comes easily. Over
the years we have built strong dependence upon our parents, and it is painful to separate
ourselves emotionally from them. Successful resolution of the Oedipal complex may result in:

 The formation of deep and mature love relationships with the opposite sex.
 Enabling the personality to assumes a place in the world as a fully independent matured
adult.

The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud

Freud laid the foundation for important work done by a series of successors who were trained in
traditional Freudian theory but later rejected some of its major points. These theorists are known
as Neo-Freudian psychoanalysts.
The Neo-Freudians placed greater emphasis than Freud on the functions of the ego by suggesting
that it has more control than the id over day-to-day activities. They focused more on the social
environment and minimized the importance of sex as a driving force in people’s lives. They also
paid greater attention to the effects of society and culture on personality development. Some of
the well-known neo-Freudians includes:
Carl Jung (1875–1961): Collective Unconscious
Carl Jung (pronounced “young”), one of the most influential neo-Freudians, rejected Freud’s
view of the primary importance of unconscious sexual urges. Instead, he looked at the primitive
urges of the unconscious more positively and argued that they represented a more general and
positive life force that encompasses an inborn drive motivating creativity and more positive
resolution of conflict.

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Jung suggested that we have a universal collective unconscious - a common set of ideas,
feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our relatives, the whole human race, and even
nonhuman animal ancestors from the distant past. This collective unconscious is shared by
everyone and is displayed in behavior that is common across diverse cultures—such as love of
mother, belief in a Supreme Being, and even behavior as specific as fear of snakes. Jung went on
to propose that the collective unconscious contains archetypes – a universal symbolic
representations of a particular person, object, or experience. To Jung, archetypes play an
important role in determining our day-today reactions, attitudes, and values. For example, Jung
might explain the popularity of the Star Wars movies as being due to their use of broad
archetypes of good (Luke Skywalker) and evil (Darth Vader).

Karen Danielsen Horney (1885–1952): Psychosocial Analysis

Karen Horney (pronounced “Horn-eye”) was one of the earliest psychologists to champion
women’s issues and is sometimes called the first feminist psychologist. Horney suggested that
personality develops in the context of social relationships and depends particularly on the
relationship between parents and child and how well the child’s needs are met. She rejected
Freud’s suggestion that women have penis envy; she asserted that what women envy most in
men is not their anatomy but the independence, success, and freedom women often are denied.
She offered a new concept called womb envy in which men are envious that women are able to
carry babies and they will therefore overcompensate for this envy by developing a neurotic focus
on career success.
Horney was also one of the first to stress the importance of cultural factors in the determination
of personality. For example, she suggested that society’s rigid gender roles for women lead them
to experience uncertainty about success because they fear they will make enemies if they are too
successful. Her conceptualizations, developed in the 1930s and 1940s, laid the groundwork for
many of the central ideas of Feminism that emerged decades later.

Horney’s work is called psychosocial analysis because she placed emphasis on the emotional
relations between parent and child in early childhood. Horney’s distinction is due to radical
differences of opinion with Freud. Freud viewed neuroses in terms of universal instinctual
conflicts. Horney, however, felt that neuroses were due to cultural factors that are indigenous to

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the region in which a person lives. In the psychosexual stages of development that Freud created,
he offered the notion of penis envy. Horney did not agree with penis envy, but rather offered a
new concept called womb envy. She said that men are envious that women are able to carry
babies and they will therefore overcompensate for this envy by developing a neurotic focus on
career success.
Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
Adler created individual psychology, with an emphasis on interpsychic (interpersonal)
phenomena; this was different from the intrapsychic (within the psyche) theory of Freud.
Although Adler was not considered to be a follower or student of Freud, Freud heard about
Adler’s work and invited him to participate in one of his roundtable discussions. Adler later
became the president and coeditor of one of Freud’s journals. As Adler developed his own
theories, however, and they were radically different from those of Freud, Adler resigned and
took nine associates with him.
Adler proposed that the primary human motivation is a striving for superiority, not in terms of
superiority over others but in a quest for self-improvement and perfection rather than the sexual
needs of Freud.
Early social relationships with parents have an important effect on children’s ability to outgrow
feelings of personal inferiority and instead to orient themselves toward attaining more socially
useful goals, such as improving society. Adler used the term inferiority complex to describe
situations in which adults have not been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority they
developed as children, when they were small and limited in their knowledge about the world.
Other neo-Freudians included Erik Erikson, whose theory of psychosocial development we
discussed in Chapter two: Human Development, and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud. Like Adler
and Horney, they focused less than Freud on inborn sexual and aggressive drives and more on
the social and cultural factors behind personality.
8.2.2. Trait Approaches to Personality
Trait approaches to personality focus on descriptive traits that can be identified and summed up
to create an accurate picture of someone’s personality. Trait theory seeks to explain in a
straightforward way the consistencies in individuals’ behavior. Traits are consistent personality
characteristics and behaviors displayed in different situations. Trait theorists do not assume that
some people have a trait and others do not; rather, they propose that all people possess certain

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traits but the degree to which a particular trait applies to a specific person varies and can be
quantified. For instance, you may be relatively friendly, whereas I may be relatively unfriendly.
But we both have a “friendliness” trait, although your degree of “friendliness” is higher than
mine. The major challenge for trait theorists taking this approach has been to identify the specific
primary traits necessary to describe personality. As we shall see, different theorists have come up
with surprisingly different sets of traits.
Allport’s Trait Theory: Identifying Basic Characteristics
A pioneer in the field of personality research, Gordon Allport (1897–1967) believed in
individuality and having consistent personalities of a person across time. Allport thought that
each person had various traits and suggested that there are three fundamental categories of traits
in common: cardinal, central, and secondary traits.
1. A cardinal trait: is a single characteristic that directs most of a person’s activities.
For example, a totally selfless woman may direct all her energy toward humanitarian activities;
an intensely power-hungry person may be driven by an all-consuming need for control.
2. Central traits: most people, however, do not develop a single, comprehensive cardinal trait.
Instead, they possess a handful of central traits that make up the core of personality.
For instance, honesty and sociability, are an individual’s major characteristics; they usually
number from five to ten in any one person.
3. Secondary traits: are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less
influential than central or cardinal traits.
For instance, a reluctance to eat meat and a love of modern art would be considered secondary
traits.
Cattell and Eysenck: Factoring Out Personality
Another key trait theory figure was Raymond Cattell (1905–1998), who developed
questionnaires and tests to determine personality characteristics. Cattell worked in the area of
intelligence as well and realized the importance of offering solid scientific research to explain his
work. Thus, he created a statistical technique called factor analysis that allowed him to analyze
data from various sources to determine personality characteristics. He suggested that human
personality traits could be summed up by 16 personality factors (PFs) or main traits. He felt that
everyone has some of each of these traits and that tests would determine how much of each trait
a person has.

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N.B; Refer a list of Cattell’s 16 personality factors and their ranges from books and google for
deep understanding.
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was another psychologist who helped shape the trait approach to
personality. Eysenck believed that the way to deal with the large numbers of personality traits
was to organize them into narrowly defined categories. Thus, he suggested that personality
consists of three basic traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
 Extraversion involves relating to other people and the environment while introversion
involves directing attention inward.
 Neuroticism, or emotional stability, consists of moodiness versus being even-tempered.
This refers to the tendency to become upset or emotional or the tendency to remain
emotionally constant.
 Psychoticism is a tendency to have difficulty dealing with reality and may have other

illnesses as well.
The Big Five Personality Traits

As a result of Cattell’s and Eysenck’s work, the five-factor theory of personality was created.
Some theorists believe that Cattell focused on too many traits (16 PFs) and Eysenck focused on
too few traits. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged.
The five-factor theory holds that five core traits i.e., extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience interact to form the human
personality.
A. Extraversion: A dimension ranging from sociable, talkative, fun-loving, affectionate, and
adventurous at one end and retiring, sober, reserved, silent, and cautious at the other
opposite end.
B. Agreeableness: A dimension ranging from good-natured, gentle, cooperative, trusting, and
helpful at one end and irritable, ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative, and headstrong at the
other end.
C. Conscientiousness: A dimension ranging from well-organized, careful, self-disciplined,
responsible, and precise at one end and disorganized, careless, weak-willed, and neglectful
at the other side.

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D. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: A dimension ranging from poised, calm, composed, and

not hypochondriacally at one end and nervous, anxious, excitable, and hypochondriacally
at the other.

E. Openness to experience: A dimension ranging from imaginative, sensitive, intellectual, and

polished at one end and down-to-earth, insensitive, crude, and simple at the other end.

The Humanistic Approach to Personality

The humanistic approach to personality is unparalleled from the psychodynamic and behaviorist
perspectives. This perspective puts forth the idea that in order to understand human behavior,
psychologists, researchers, and other practitioners must first look at unique human aspects and
qualities. Humanistic theorists believe that the perception of each individual is more important
than the actual events or the opinions of the therapists working with these issues. This theory
stresses the importance of personal growth and freedom to make choices.
Two of the most identified theorists within humanistic, or phenomenological, psychology are
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970). Rogers felt that we all need
unconditional positive regard, which is the opposite of what most of us believe. Conditional
positive regard is based on the notion that we are given love only if we behave in ways that are
deemed appropriate by the people with whom we are seeking attention. If we receive
unconditional positive regard, that is, love and acceptance, regardless of societal definitions, then
our self-concept is enhanced and we are more productive. Maslow created a hierarchy of needs
that has self-actualization as the top tier and the most important component of personality
development.

Behaviorist Perspectives of Personality

Behavioral psychology began with John B. Watson (1878–1958) and looks at personality
development as largely resting with the individual’s environment. Since each person experiences
different situations in his or her life, then each acquires his or her personality differently as well.
Another famous behaviorist is B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who looked at punishment and
reinforcement within the individual as paramount to shaping personality.
One behaviorist, Julian Rotter (1916–), left his roots to create a new approach to the
development of personality, the social learning theory of personality. Rotter feels that

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reinforcement does not automatically stamp in behavior. He believes that most of the reinforcers
that people strive to obtain are social and that most learning occurs in social situations (Rotter,
1990). Therefore, Rotter’s social learning theory of personality incorporates cognitive factors
into reinforcement principles. He states that behavior is a function of expectancies, and he
defines this phenomenon with the term locus of control. Thus, Rotter suggests that individuals
who have an internal locus of control believe that they can influence their own reinforcers via
their skill and ability. Those who have an external locus of control believe that desired outcomes
or results that have already occurred happen because of forces beyond their control (Rotter,
1990). Many psychological tests have been conducted to assess locus of control and personality
factors.
Another behaviorist who left his roots to follow the social learning theory perspective is Albert
Bandura (1925–). The social learning theory that Bandura created emphasizes the importance of
observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others (Bandura,
1977). Bandura stated, “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action” (1977, p. 22).
According to Bandura, social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
The component processes underlying observational learning include the following: (1) attention,
including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional
value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past
reinforcement); (2) retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic
rehearsal, and motor rehearsal; (3) motor reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-
observation of reproduction, and accuracy of feedback; and (4) motivation, including external
and vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.

Biological Perspectives

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Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates 400 BC and Galen, 140/150 AD classified 4
types of "humors" in people. Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily
fluids, corresponding to their character.
The personalities were termed as "humors". Hippocrates and his followers claimed that
temperament or personality reflects the relative levels of body fluids they called humors. That is
personality is dependent on the dominant body fluid among the following: Blood, Phlegm, Black
bile, and Yellow bile.
The relative constituent and personality characteristics are indicated in the table below

Fluid Humor Character

Blood Sanguine Optimistic, warm-hearted
Phlegm Phlegmatic Calm, sluggish, not sensitive
Black bile Melancholic Depressed, lonely, sad
Yellow bile Choleric Irritable, hot-tempered

It is not clear whether this classification is valid; what we need to know here is the classification
instigated interest in conducting research on the biological basis of personality. Another
approach to detecting personality is known as physiognomy, or the idea that it is possible to
assess personality from facial characteristics. William Sheldon (1940) classified personality
according to body type. He called this a person’s somatotype. Sheldon identified three main
somatotypes namely: Ectomorph, Mesomorph, and Endomorph. According to him, soma (body)
of individuals determines what kind of personality the individual may possess.
The following table shows the types and relative personality characteristics.
Somatotypes Shape Personality type Personality
characteristics
Endomorph Soft, plump, developed Viscerotonic Relaxed, sociable,
visceral structure and easygoing etc
rounded physique
Mesomorph Muscular, strong Somatotonic Active, assertive and

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energetic
Ectomorph Lean or poor muscles, Cerebrotonic Shy, restrained,
thin, or people with introspective, non-
fragile physique assertive, sensitive

8.3. The measurement of personality

Any test, standardized instrument or questionnaire which has been designed to aptly measure the
personality, also known as the character or the psychological makeup, of an individual can be named as a
personality measurement.

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