Linear Algebra I-1 PDF
Linear Algebra I-1 PDF
Linear Algebra I-1 PDF
Table of Contents
Content Page
Introduction i
Table of Contents ii- iii
Unit I: Vectors 1
1.1 Definition of points in n-space 1
1.2 Vectors in n-space; geometric interpretation in 2 and 3-spaces 2
1.3 Scalar product, and norm of a vector, orthogonal projection, and
direction cosines 7
1.4 The vector product 13
1.5 Applications on area and volume 15
1.6 Lines and Planes 17
ii
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UNIT I
VECTORS
Certain Physical quantities such as mass, area, density, volume, etc., that possess only
magnitude are called scalars. On the other hand, there are physical quantities such as
force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc that has both magnitude and direction.
Such quantities are called vectors.
The concept of a vector is essential for the whole course. It provides the foundation and
geometric motivation for everything that follows. Hence the properties of vectors, both
algebraic and geometric, will be discussed in this unit.
We know that, once a unit length is selected, a number x can be used to represent a point
on a line. A pair of numbers (i.e. a couple of numbers) (x, y) can be used to represent a
point in the plane. A triple of numbers (x, y, z) can be used to represent a point in space.
The following pictures illustrate these representations:
We can say that a single number represents a point in 1-space (A), a couple represents a
point in 2-space (B) and a triple represents a point in 3-space (C).
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Although we cannot draw a picture to go further, we can say that a quadruple of numbers
(x, y z, w) or (x1, x2, x3, x4) represent a point in 4-sapce.
Example 1.1.1 The space we live in can be considered as a 3 space. After selecting an
origin and a coordinate system, we can describe the position of a point
(body, particle, etc.) by 3 coordinates. We can extend this space to a 4
dimensional space, with a fourth coordinate, for example, time. If you
select the origin of the time axis as the birth of Christ, how do we
describe a body with negative time co-ordinate? What if the birth of
the earth is taken as the origin of time?
If A = (a1, a2, ., an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are points in the same space n , and if c is a
real number then
i. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if a1 = b1, a2 = b2, … and an =
bn.
ii. A + B, A – B and cA are defined to the points whose coordinates are (a1 + b1,
a2 + b2, …, an + bn), (a1-b1, a2-b2, …,an - bn) and (ca1, ca2, …, can),
respectively.
Example 1.1.2 1) Let A = (1,2), B = (-3,4) , then A+B=(-2,6), A-B = (4,-2), -3A=(-3,-6)
2) Let X = (1, 0, π, 4), Y = (2, 4,-2π,-6), then 2X+Y = (4, 4, 0, 2) and
X-(1/2) Y = (0,-2, 2π, 7).
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and denote it by AB . The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector.
Notice that the definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have
the same initial and terminal points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely
provided we make no change in magnitude and direction.
Activity 1.2.1
Let (a1, a2) be the coordinate representation of A
and let (b1, b2) be that of B. Let P be the point
direction of AB ?
Is OP = AB ?
If your answer for the above questions is yes, then we can conclude that any vector V=
AB in the plane is a vector OP with initial point at the origin. This is the only vector
V = OP is uniquely determined by its terminal point P. If P = (x, y), then we shall write
V = (x, y) and refer to it as the coordinate representation of V relative to the chosen
coordinate system. In view of this, we shall call (x, y) either a point or a vector,
depending on the interpretation which we have in mind. So if V = AB , then we can
write V = B – A. In view of this two vectors AB and CD are equal (or equivalence) if
B – A = D – C.
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Example 1.2.1: If P = (1, 3), Q = (-1,0), R = (0, -1) and S = (-2, -4) then QP RS
As numbers can be added subtracted and multiplies, vectors can be combined in the
following ways.
Let A = (a1, a2) and B = (b1, b2) vectors and t be a real number. The sum
A + B = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2)
The difference A – B = (a1 - b1, a2 – b2)
The scalar multiple tA = (t a1, t a2)
The geometric interpretation of the above vector operations is that A + B is a vector
obtained by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A.
If t > 0, then tA is a vector in the direction of A. What about if t<0? A and tA are said
to have opposite direction.( see figure a and b)
tA
for t > 0 Fig. a for t < 0 Fig. b
We can extend the above notions to vectors in n but the geometric interpretations for
n > 3 are difficult. Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors.
If A = (a1, a2, …, an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are vectors in n and if t is any real number,
then
A B a1 b1 , a 2 b2 ,.., a n bn
tA = (ta1, ta2, …, tan)
A and B are said to be parallel vectors iff either A = tB for some real number t or
B = tA. In other words, A and B are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the other.
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Activity 1.2.2: 1) Let A = (6, -2, 4). Find two vectors C and D which are parallel to A.
Are C and D also parallel to each other?
2) Let P = (3,7), Q = (-4,2), R = (5,1), S = (-16,-14).
Is PQ parallel to RS ?
Using the above definitions and applying the associative and commutative properties of
real numbers, one can prove the following theorem.
= (a1 b1 , a 2 b 2 ,..., an bn )
= (b1 a1 , b 2 a 2 ,..., bn an )
= (b1 , b 2 , ..., b n ) (a1 , a 2 ,..., a n )
= BA
Example 1.2.3
A boat captain wants to travel due south at 40 knots.
If the current is moving northwest at 16 knots, in
what direction and magnitude should he works the
engine?
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(8 2) 2 (40 8 2 ) 2 = 52.5.
40 8 2
The direction is arctan = -1.35 radians
8 2
Exercise 1.2.1:
1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
a. A+B c. A+B – C
b. 2A – B d. A – 3B + 10C
2. Determine whether and can be found to satisfy the vector equations
a. (2, 1, 0) = (-2, 0, 2) + (1, 1, 1)
b. (-3, 1, 2) = (-2, 0, 2) + (1,1,1)
x2 y2 z 2
x z x2 y2 z 2
y
The distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is given by:
D ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y 2 y1 ) 2 ( z 2 z1 ) 2
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1.3 Scalar product and norm of vector, orthogonal projection, and direction cosines
Let A = (a1, a2,…,an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) be two vectors. The scalar product of A
and B is the number A.B defined by
Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product.
Example 1.3.1
The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones
are:
a) A.B B.A
Example 1.3.2: Given A = (3, 2,-1) and B = (2,0, 3), and C = (1,-1,1), then
a. A.B = B.A = 3
b. 2(A.B) = 6
c. (A+B).C = A.C + B.C = 5
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Activity 1.3.2: Find A.A, B.B, and C.C. Are all positive values?
The length, or norm or magnitude of vector A = (a1, a2, …, an), denoted by ||A||, can be
expressed in terms of the scalar product. By definition
1 1 1
Example 1.3.4: If A , , , then A (1 / 3) (1 / 3) (1 / 3) 1
3 3 3
Any non-zero vector can be fully represented by providing its magnitude and a unit
vector along its direction. Let A be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then
A
A
A
Example 1.3.5: Given a vector A = (1, 1, 1). Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Solution:
A 1 1 1 3 , then the unit vector in the direction of A is:
A (1,1,1) 1 1 1 1
A , , (1,1,1)
A 3 3 3 3 3
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Activity 1.3.3: 1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
the unit vector in the direction of A+B – C.
2. The vectors i (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors in the
direction of positive x, y and z axis, respectively. Find a unit vector in the
direction of A = (-1, 2, 3).
Let A, B be two n-tuples of vectors. We define the distance between A and B to be
A B ( A B).( A B)
The following theorem gives us a geometric interpretation for the scalar product.
A B A B 2 A B cos
2 2 2
(Why?)
A.B A B cos
Activity 1.3.4: Given two non-zero vectors A and B, how do you find the angle between
them? Take, for example, A = (2, -1, 2), B = (1, -1, 0) and find the
angle between them.
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Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle between
them is .
2
Note: Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if A.B= 0.
b) A B A B (Triangle inequality)
Proof a) If one of A or B is a zero vector then both sides of the inequality are equal
to 0. Suppose both A and B are non-zero.
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V.V ,
2
b) From the fact that V
AB ( A B) . ( A B)
2
A 2 A.B B
2 2
(why ?)
A 2 A B B
2 2
(why ?)
A B
2
AB A B
Remark: The inequalities of Theorem 1.3.2 hold true also for any vectors A and B in Rn.
line containing A.
1
Since A is a unit vector in the direction of A and since OD has magnitude
A
OD B cos 1
A
A
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A.B
or OD A (why?)
A2
A.B
That is, Pr oj AB 2 A
A
A.B
We call t 2
the component of B along A.
A
2. B - Pr oj AB is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.
1
Example 1.3.6: Let A = (3, -1, -2) and B = 2, 3, , then
2
ProjA B = A.B2 A 6 3 1 A 12 , 4 , 8
9 1 4 7 7 7
A
ProjB A = A.B 6 3 1 B 64 , 96 , 16
B
2 1 53 53 53
B 49
4
Activity 1.3.4: One application of projections of vector arises in the definition of the
work done by a force on a moving body. Find another application.
Given a non-zero vector u (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in 3 . The direction cosines of the vector u are:
u1 u u
Cos , Cos 2 , Cos 3
u u u
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Where the direction angles, , , and are the angles that the vector makes with the
positive x, y, and z-axes respectively.
Example 1.3.7: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.
The second type of product of two vectors is the cross product. Unlike the dot product,
the cross product of two vectors is a vector.
Definition 1.4.1 The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors
A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3) is defined by
A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)
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3) tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t
A B A.B
2 2 2 2
4) AxB
5) C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6) (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7) C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8) A . (A x B) = 0 and B. (A x B) = 0 (that is, AxB is perpendicular to
both A and B.)
9) (AxB) x C = (A. C) B – (B.C)A
Proof : The following is the proof for 1, 2 and 8. The rest are left as an exercise
1) From the definition of cross product,
A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 – a2 b1)
For B x A, interchange A and B to obtain
B x A = (b2 a3 – b3 a2, b3 a1 - b1 a3, b1 a2 - b2 a1)
= (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 - a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)
= - (A x B)
2) A x A = (a2 a3 – a3 a2, a3 a1 - a1 a3, a1 a2 - a2 a1)
= (0, 0, 0)
8) Setting C = A in 5) yields
A . (A x B) = B . (A x A)
= B.0 (why?)
=0
By setting C = B in 5),
B .(A x B) = A . (B x B)
= A.0=0
This shows that for non zero vectors A and B, the cross product A x B is orthogonal to
both A and B.
Activity 1.4.2: Are the usual commutative and associative laws valid? i.e. for any
vectors A, B and C in 3 , is A x B = B x A?
Is A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C?
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From 4) of theorem 1.4.1, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross
product.
A B A.B
2 2 2 2
AxB
2 2 2 2
A B A B cos 2 ( is the angle between A and B)
A
2
B 1 cos2
2
A B sin 2
2 2
Activity 1.4.3:
- For the unit vectors i, j and k , find i j , j k and k i . What is j i ?
- If A and B are parallel, what is A B?
- If A and B are orthogonal, What is A B ?
Exercise 1.4.1:
1. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = (2,-3,1) and B = (1,2,-4).
2. Prove that (A – B)x(A + B) = 2(AxB).
Let u and v be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make. Then
The direction of uxv is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.
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To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v, and w, we find
the triple product:
u.(vxw) = Volume
u1 v1 w1
u2 v2 w2 = u1 (v2 w3 v3 w2 ) v1 (u 2 w3 u 3 w2 ) w1 (u 2 v3 u 3 v2 )
u3 v3 w3
Example 1.5.1: 1. Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors
u= (1, 3, 2) and v= (-2, 1, 3).
Exercise: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at u = (3, -2, -1),
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Note that if (x, y, z) is on line and if A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3 then
(x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) for some real number t.
Example 1.6.1 Find equation of a line through P1 = (0, 1, 2) and P2 = (-1, 1, 1).
Solution: We need a point A on the line and a vector B parallel to the vector
formed by two point of the line.
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Exercise 1.6.1: Let the line L1 passes through the points (5,1,7) and (6,0,8) and the line
L2 passes through the points (3,1,3) and ( 1,3, ) . Find the value of for
which the two lines intersect.
Suppose P = (x, y, z) is a point on line through A = (a1, a2 a3) in the direction of
B = (b1, b2, b3). Then p = A + tB (x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) or equivalently
x = a1 + b1t
y = a2 + b2t
z = a3 + b3t
These equations are parametric equation of a line and t is called a parameter.
Activity 1.6.3: 1) Find the parametric equation of a line that contains (2, -1, 1) and is
1
parallel to the vector (3, , 0).
2
2) From the parametric equation of a line in 3 , derive the equation
y a1 y a2 z a3
b1 b2 b3
It is called standard form of equation of a line.
If the line is on a plane show that the standard form reduces to an
equation of the form y = mx + c.
Two lines and m given by A1 + tB1 and A2 + tB2 are said to be parallel if B1 and B2
are parallel. That is the vectors P1 – Q1 and P2 – Q2 are parallel for any two points P1, Q1
of and P2, Q2 of m.
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Now put f (t ) A tB
2
2 A.B A.B
So it has minimum at: t 2
2
2B B
Activity 1.6.4: Starting from the equation N . p o p 0 , show that equation of a plane
through point Po = (xo, yo, zo) perpendicular to N = (a, b, c) is
ax + by + cz = d where d = axo + byo + czo.
This equation can be written as N . P d . The vector N is said to be normal to the plane.
Hence a plane is any set of the form {P: N.P = d}. Where N is a given non-zero vector
and d is a given number.
Example 1.6.2: Find an Equation of the plane that contains point (-2, 4, 5) and that is
normal to (7, 0, -6).
Solution: The equation of the plane is given by 7(x+2)+0(y-4)-6(z-5) = 0 or 7x- 6z = -44
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Two planes in 3 spaces are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They
are said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle
between two planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.
Activity 1.6.6:
1. A plane passes through (-1, 2, 3) and is perpendicular to the y-axis. What is
the equation?
2. Consider the planes x + 2y - 3z = 2 and 15x - 9y – z = 2. Are they parallel or
perpendicular planes? Or neither parallel nor perpendicular?
Exercise 1.6.2: Find the equation of the plane passing through the three points
P1 = (2,1,1), P2 = (3,-1,1), P3 = (4,1,-1).
N.QP
However, Pr ojN QP N
N2
N.QP
given by: d
N
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Exercises 1.1
1. Let A = (0, 1, 5) ,B = . Find the angle between A and B.
2. Which of he following vectors are parallel or perpendicular to (1, 1, -1)?
a) (2, 2, -2) d) (1, 0, 1)
1 1 1
b) (2, -2, 0) e) , ,
2 2 2
c) (-2, 2, 2) f)
3. a) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 = (1, 0, 0)
b) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to both E1 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
c) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1, E2 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
4. Find a non-zero vector orthogonal to (1, 2, -1)
5. Find a unit vector in the direction of (3, -1, 2, 4)
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
6. Let U1 , , , U 2 , , , U3 , ,0
3 3 3 6 6 6 2 2
a) Show that each u1, u2, u3 is orthogonal to the other two and that each is
a unit vector
b) Find the projection of E1 on each of u1, u2, u3
c) Find the projection of A = (a1, a2, a3) on u1.
7. In the following cases compute (A x B).C
a) A = (1, 2, 0) B = (-3, 1, 0), C = (4, 9, -3)
b) A = (-3, 1, -2) B = (2, 0, 4), C = (1, 1, 1)
8. Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if
A A tB for every number t.
9. If A + B + C = 0. Show that A x B = B x C = C x A
10. Find a formula for the area of a parallelogram whose vertices, in order, are
P, Q, R & S.
Show that A B A B A B
2 2
11.
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B x PQ
by: d
B
22. Let be the line x = 1 + 2t, y = -1 + 3t, z = -5 + 7t. Find the two points on
at a distance 3 units from the plane 2(x-1) + 2(y+3) –z = 0
23. The set of all points equidistant from (0, 1, 5) and 5, -1, 3) is a plane. Find the
equation.
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UNIT II
VECTOR SPACES
Definition 2.1.1: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the
following conditions:
a) If x, y are elements of K then x + y and xy are also elements of K.
b) If x is an element of K, then –x is also an element of K.
Furthermore, if x 0, then x-1 is also an element of K.
c) 0 and 1 are elements of K.
Example 2.1.1: The set of all real numbers and the set of all complex numbers ℂ are
fields.
Activity 2.1.1: Are ℤ (The set of all integers) and Q (the set of all rational numbers
fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and
multiplied and the results are also elements of the field. Moreover, every
element can be divided by a non-zero element.
Definition 2.1.2: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added
and can be multiplied by elements of K. It satisfies the following
properties.
V1) For any u, v V and a K, we have
u+vV and au V
V2) For any u, v, w V,
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
V3) There is an element of V, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that
0 + u = u + 0 = u for all elements u of V.
V4) For u V, there exists –u V such that
u + (-u) = 0
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Activity 2.1.2: What is the name given for each of the above properties?
Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For
example, the property 0u = O can be proved as :
0u + u = 0u + 1.u (by V8)
= (0 + 1) u (by V7)
= 1. u
=u
By adding –u to both sides of ou + u = u, we have 0u = O
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The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those
of elements of 2, 3, or n. Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors
Definition2.3.1: Suppose V is a vector space over k and W is a subset of V. If, under the
addition and scalar multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we
call W a subspace of V.
Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:
i) W is closed under addition. That is, if u, w W, then u + w W
ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if uW and a k, then auW.
iii) W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W V, properties V1 – V8 are satisfied for the elements of W.
Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.
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Activity 2.3.1: Take any vector A in 3. Let W be the set of all vectors B in 3 where
B.A = 0. Discuss whether W is a subspace of 3 or not.
Definition 2.3.2: Let v1, v2, …, vn be elements of a vector space V over k. Let
x1, x2, …, xn be elements of k. Then an expression of the form x1v1 + x2v2 +… + xn vn is
called a linear combination of v1, v2, …, vn..
Example 2.3.2: The sum 2(3, 1) + 4(-1, 2) +(1, 0) is a linear combination of (3, 1), (-1, 2)
and (1, 0). As this sum is equal to (3, 10), we say that (3, 10) is a linear combination of
the three ordered pairs.
Activity 2.3.2:
i) Take two elements v1 and v2 of 3. Let W be the set of all linear
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Definition 2.4.1: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements v1, v2, …, vn of V are said to
be linearly independent if and only if the following condition is satisfied:
whenever a1, a2, …, an are in k such that a1v1 + a2v2 + … + anvn = 0, then ai = 0 for all
i = 1, 2, …, n.
If the above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other
words v1, v2,…, vn are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers a1, a2, …, an
where a1v1 + a2v2 + … + anvn = 0 for at least one non-zero ai.
Example 2.4.1: Consider v1 = (1, -1,1) , v2 = (2, 0, -1) and v3 = (2, -2, 2)
i) a1v1 + a2v2 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, 0, -1) = (a1 + 2a2, -a1, a1 – a2)
a1v1 + a2v2 = 0 a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 = 0 and a1 – a2 = 0
a1 = 0 and a2 = 0
Hence v1 & v2 are linearly independent.
ii) a1v1 + a2v3 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, -2, 2)
= (a1 + 2a2, -a1 – 2a2 , a1 +2 a2)
a1v1 + a2v3 = 0 a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 – 2a2 = 0 and a1 +2 a2 = 0
a1 = -2a2
Take a1 = 2 and a2 = -1, we get 2(1, -1, 1) + (-1) (2, -2, 2) = 0.
As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.
Activity 2.4.1: Show that v1, v2 and v3 are also linearly dependent.
Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.
Activity 2.4.2: Show that (1, 0, 0, …,0), (0, 1,0,…)…, (0,0,0, …, 1) are linearly
independent vectors in n.
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Definition 2.5.1: If elements e1, e2, …, en of a vector space V are linearly independent
and generate V, then the set B = {e1, e2, …, en} is called a basis of V.
we shall also say that the elements e1, e2,…, en constitute or form a
basis of V.
Example 2.5.1:
1) Show that e1 = (0, -1) and e2 = (2, 1) form a basis of 2.
Solution: we have to show that
i) e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) They generate 2 i.e every element (x,y) of 2 can be written as a
linear combination of e1and e2.
i) a1 e1 + a2 e2 = O a1(0, -1) + a2(2,1) = (0, 0)
2a2 = 0 and –a1 + a2 = 0
a2 = 0 and a1 = 0
e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) (x, y) = a1e2 + a2 e2 (x, y) = (0, -a1) + (2a2, a2)
x = 2a2 and y = -a1 + a2
x
a2 = and a1 = a2 – y … (*)
2
x 2y
=
2
Therefore, given any (x, y), we can find a1 and a2 given by (*) and (x, y) can be
written as a linear combination of e1 and e2 as
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The vectors E1 = (1, 0, 0) , E2 = (0, 1, 0), E3 = (0, 0, 1) are linearly independent and
every element (x, y, z) of 3 can be written as
(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)
= xE1 + yE2 + zE3
Hence {E1, E2, E3} is a basis of 3.
Note that the set of elements E1 = (1, 0, 0,…,0), E2 = (0, 1, 0, … 0),…,En = (0, 0, 0, …,1)
is a basis of n. It is called a standard basis.
Example 2.5.2
1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of (4,3) with respect to the basis
{(0, -1), (2,1)} is (-1, 2). But with respect to the standard basis it is (4, 3).
Find coordinates of (4,3) in some other basis of 2.
2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions f: which are of degree less
than or equal to 2.
Every element of V has the form f(x) = bx2 + cx + d, where b, c, d
V is a vector space over (show).
Clearly, e1 = x2, e2 = x and e3 = 1 are in V and a1e1 + a2 e2 + a3e3 = O
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E = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} and B = {(-1,1,0), (-2, 0, 2), (1, 1, 1)} are bases of 3 and
each has three elements. Can you find a basis of 3 having two elements? four elements?
The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same
number of elements. To prove this, we use the following theorem.
Theorem 2.5.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {v1, v2,…,vn} be a basis of
V. If w1, w2,…,wm are elements of V, where m > n, then w1, w2, …, wm
are linearly dependent.
Proof (reading assignment)
Theorem 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and
another basis W has m elements. Them m = n.
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Remarks : 1. If V = {0}, then V doesn‟t have a basis, and we shall say that dim v is
zero.
2. The zero vector space or a vector space which has a basis consisting of
a finite number of elements, is called finite dimensional. Other vector
spaces are called infinite dimensional.
Example 2.5.3:
Definition 2.5.3: The set of elements {v1, v2, …,vn}of a vector space V is said to be a
maximal set of linearly independent elements if v1, v2, …,vn are
linearly independent and if given any element w of V, the elements
w,v1, v2, …, vn are linearly dependent.
Example 2.5.4: In 3 {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1)} is a maximal set of linearly
independent elements.
We now give criteria which allow us to tell when elements of a vector space constitute a
basis.
Theorem 2.5.3: Let V be a vector space and {v1, v2, …,vn}be a maximal set of linearly
independent elements of V. Then {v1, v2, …,vn}is a basis of V.
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Theorem 2.5.4: Let dim V = n, and let v1, v2, …,vn be linearly independent elements of
v. Then
{v1, v2, …,vn} is a basis of v.
Proof: According to theorem 3.4.1, {v1, v2, …,vn} is a maximum set of linearly
independent elements of V.
Hence it is a basis by theorem 2.5.3
Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let U, W be subspaces of V. We define the
sum of U and W to be the subset of V consisting of all sums u + w with u U and
wW . We denote this sum by U +W and it is a subspace of V. Indeed, if u1 , u 2 U
and w1 , w2 W then
(u1 w1 ) (u 2 w2 ) u1 u 2 w1 w2 U W
If c K , then
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Definition 2.6.1: A vector space V is a direct sum of U and W if for every element v in
V there exist unique elements u U and wW such that v u w .
Theorem 2.6.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K, and let U, W be subspaces. If
U + W = V, and if U W 0, then V is the direct sum of U and W.
Proof: Exercise
Note: When V is the direct sum of subspaces U, W we write:
V U W
Theorem 2.6.2: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field K. Let W be a
subspace. Then there exists a subspace U such that V is the direct sum of W and U.
Proof: Exercise
Theorem 2.6.3: If V is a finite dimensional vector space over the field K, and is the
direct sum of subspaces U, W then
dim V = dim U + dim W
Proof: Exercise
Remark: We can also define V as a direct sum of more than two subspaces. Let W 1,
W2, …., Wr be subspaces of V. We shall say that V is their direct sum if every element
of can be expressed in a unique way as a sum
v w1 w2 ....... wr
With wi in Wi.
Suppose now that U, W are arbitrarily vector spaces over the field K(i.e. not necessarily
subspaces of some vector space). We let UXW be the set of all pairs (u, w) whose first
component is an element u of U and whose second component is an element w of W.
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We define the addition of such pairs component wise, namely, if (u1 , w1 ) UXW and
(u 2 , w2 ) UXW we define
(u1 , w1 ) (u 2 , w2 ) u1 u 2 , w1 w2 )
If c K , we define the product c(u1 , w1 ) by
U + W = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ), x1 , x2 , x3 R V
3
Thus; V = U + W
The intersection of U and W is: U W 0
Therefore, V is the direct sum of W and U.
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Exercise:
2 ab ab a b ba
1. Let, V R , U ( , ), a, b , and W ( , ), a, b .
2 2 2 2
Show whether V is the direct sum of W and U or not.
Exercise 2.1
1. Let k be the set of all numbers which can be written in the form a b 2 , where a,
b are rational numbers. Show that k is a field.
2. Show that the following sets form subspaces
a. The set of all (x, y) in 2 such that x = y
b. The set of all (x, y) in 2 such that x – y = 0
c. The set of all (x, y, z) in 3 such that x + y = 3z
d. The set of all (x, y, z) in 3 such that x = y and z = 2y
3. If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that U W and U W are
subspaces.
4. Decide whether the following vectors are linearly independent or not (on )
a) (, 0) and (0, 1)
b) (-1, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 2)
c) (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1), and (1, 5, 3)
5. Find the coordinates of X with respect to the vectors A, B and C
a. X = (1, 0, 0), A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, -1)
b. X = (1, 1, 1) , A = (0, 1, -1), B = (1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, 2)
6. Prove: The vectors (a, b) and (c, d) in the plane are linearly dependent if and only
if ad – bc = 0
7. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace of 4 generated by
{(1, -4, -2, 1), (1, -3, -1, 2), (3, -8, -2, 7)}.
8. Let W be the space generated by the polynomials x3 + 3x2 – x + 4, and
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UNIT III
Matrices
The concept of matrices has had its origin in various types of linear problems, the most
important of which concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear
equations. Matrices are also useful in organizing and manipulating large amounts of data.
Today, the subject of matrices is one of the most important and powerful tools in
Mathematics which has found applications to a very large number of disciplines such as
Engineering, Business and Economics, statistics etc.
subscript j the column in which the entry appears. That is, a ij is an element of matrix A
which is located in the i th row and j th column of the matrix A. Whenever we talk about
a matrix, we need to know the order of the matrix.
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The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has. When we say a matrix
is a 3 by 4 matrix, we are saying that it has 3 rows and 4 columns. The rows are always
mentioned first and the columns second. This means that a 3 4 matrix does not have the
same order as a 4 3 matrix. It must be noted that even though an m n matrix contains
mn elements, the entire matrix should be considered as a single entity. In keeping with
this point of view, matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as A, B, C and so
on.
Remark: By the size of a matrix or the dimension of a matrix we mean the order of the
matrix.
1 5 2
Example 3.1.1: Let A .
0 3 6
Solution: Since A has 2 rows and 3 columns, we say A has order 2 3 , where the
number of rows is specified first. The element 6 is in the position a23 (read a two three)
because it is in row 2 and column 3.
1 4 7
Example 3.1.2: What is the value of a 23 and a 32 in A 2 3 1 ?
5 7 8
Solution: a 23 , the element in the second row and third column, is 1 and a 32 , the
element in the third row and second column, is 7. What is the size of this
matrix?
Activity 3.1.1: 1. Suppose A is a 5x7 matrix, then
a. A has 7 rows. (True/False)
b. aij is an element of A for i = 6 and j = 4.(True/False)
4 8
4 7 5
2. Suppose A and B 7 1
8 1 6 5 6
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by the symbol ( a ij )m n or more simply ( a ij ) . This notation merely indicates what type
Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and
five columns.
Definition 3.1.2: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if they are of
the same order and if all corresponding entries are equal.
5 1 0 2 3 1 0 9
For example,
but 9 2 . Why?
2 3 4 2 3 2 2 2
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x y 6 1 6
Example 3.1.4: Given the matrix equation
3 8 . Find x and y.
x y 8
x y 1
Solution: By the definition of equality of matrices,
x y 3
solving gives x = 2 and y = -1.
Activity 3.1.3: Find the values of x, y, z and w which satisfy the matrix equation
x y 2x z 1 5
a.
2 x y 3 z w 0 13
x 3 2 y x 0 7
b.
z 1 4 w 6 3 2 w
3.2. Types of matrices: Square, identity, scalar, diagonal, triangular, symmetric, and
skew symmetric matrices
Certain types of matrices, which play important roles in matrix theory, are now
considered.
Row Matrix: A matrix that has exactly one row is called a row matrix. For example, the
matrix A 5 2 1 4 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .
Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single column is called a column matrix. For
3
example, the matrix B 1 is a 3 1 column matrix.
4
Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It
0 0 0 0
is usually denoted by 0m n or more simply by 0. For example, 0 is a
0 0 0 0
2 4 zero matrix.
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respectively.
In a square matrix A a ij of order n, the entries a11 , a 22 , ..., a nn which lie on the
diagonal extending from the left upper corner to the lower right corner are called the
main diagonal entries, or more simply the main diagonal. Thus, in the matrix
3 2 4
C = 1 6 0 the entries c11 3, c22 6 and c33 8 constitute the main diagonal.
5 1 8
Note: The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix A of order n is
n
called the trace of A. That is, Trace of A = a
i 1
ii .
Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper (lower) triangular matrix if all
entries below (above) the main diagonal are zeros.
5 0 0 0
2 4 8 1 0
For example, 0 1 2 and
3 0
are upper and lower triangular
6 1 2 0
0 0 3
2 4 8 6
matrices, respectively.
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal if each of the entries not falling
on the main diagonal is zero. Thus a square matrix A a ij is diagonal if a ij 0 for
i j.
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Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called
a scalar matrix.
2 0 0
For example, 0 2 0 is a scalar matrix.
0 0 2
k , ifi j
Note: Let A a ij be a square matrix. A is a scalar matrix if and only if a ij .
0, ifi j
Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit
matrix if all its main diagonal entries are 1‟s and all other entries are 0‟s. In other words,
a diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or
unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In or more simply by I.
1 0 0
1 0
For example, I 3 0 1 0 is identity matrix of order 3. I 2 is identity
0 1
0 0 1
matrix of order 2.
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Addition of matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition
of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding
corresponding entries of A and B. Thus, if
A ( a ij )m n and B ( bij )m n , then A B ( a ij bij )m n .
Remark: Notice that we can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order. If
they are, we say they are conformable for addition. Also, the order of the sum of two
matrices is same as that of the two original matrices.
1 2 4 2 -1 3 4
A = 2 3 1 B = 2 4 2 C = 2
5 0 3 3 6 1 3
Find, if possible. a) A + B b) B + C
If A is any matrix, the negative of A, denoted by –A, is the matrix obtained by replacing
each entry in A by its negative. For example, if
2 1 2 1
A 5 4 , then A 5 4
6 0 6 0
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Note: The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix addition as the number zero does in
addition of numbers.
Subtraction of Matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by
A – B, we mean A + (-B). In other words, to find A – B we subtract each entry of
B from the corresponding entry of A.
4 1 0 2
Example 3.3.1: Let A 2 3 and B 5 2
5 7 6 1
4 0 1 2 4 3
Then A B 2 5 3 ( 2 ) 3 5
5 6 7 1 1 8
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0 2 3 7 6 3
Example 3.3.2: If A and B . Find 2A + 3B.
2 1 4 1 4 5
0 2 3 0 4 6 7 6 3 21 18 9
Solution: 2A 2 and 3B 3
2 1 4 4 2 8 1 4 5 3 12 15
0 4 6 21 18 9 21 22 15
2 A 3B
4 2 8 3 12 15 7 14 23
Multiplication of Matrices
While the operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication are fairly
straightforward, the product AB of matrices A and B can be defined under the condition
that the number of columns of A must be equal to the number of rows of B. If the number
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of columns in the matrix A equals the number of rows in the matrix B, we say that the
matrices are conformable for the product AB.
Because of wide use of matrix multiplication in application problems, it is important that
we learn it well. Therefore, we will try to learn the process in a step by step manner. We
first begin by finding a product of a row matrix and a column matrix.
a
Example 3.3.4: Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B = b , find the product AB.
c
a
AB = [ 2 3 4 ] b
c
= [ (2a + 3b + 4c)]
Note that AB is a 1 1 matrix, and its only entry is 2a + 3b + 4c.
5
Example 3.3.4: Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B = 6 , find the product AB.
7
5
Solution: AB = [ 2 3 4 ] 6 = 10 18 28 56
7
Note: In order for a product of a row matrix and a column matrix to exist, the number of
entries in the row matrix must be the same as the number of entries in the column matrix.
Example 3.3.5: Here is an application: Suppose you sell 3 T-shirts at $10 each, 4 hats at
$15 each, and 1 pair of shorts at $20. Then your total revenue is
3
10 15 20 4 (10 3) (15 4) (20 1) 110
1
Pr ice Re venue
Quantity
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5 3
Example 3.3.6: Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B = 6 4 , find the product AB.
7 5
Solution: We already know how to multiply a row matrix by a column matrix. To find
the product AB, in this example, we will be multiplying the row matrix A to
both the first and second columns of matrix B, resulting in a 1 2 matrix.
AB = [ 2 . 5 + 3 . 6 + 4 . 7 2.3 + 3.4+ 4.5 ]
= [ 56 38 ]
We have just multiplied a 1 3 matrix by a matrix whose order is 3 2. So unlike
addition and subtraction, it is possible to multiply two matrices with different dimensions
as long as the number of entries in the rows of the first matrix is the same as the number
of entries in columns of the second matrix.
Activity 3.3.3: 1. Given the matrices E, F, G and H, below
1 2
2 -1 –3
E = 4 2 F = 3 2 G = [ 4 1 ] H = –1
3 1
Find, if possible. a) GH b) FH c) EF d) FE
2. Given the matrices R, S, and T below.
1 0 2 0 –1 2 –2 3 0
R = 2 1 5
S = 3 1 0 T = –3 2 2
2 3 1 4 2 1 –1 1 0
Find 2RS – 3ST.
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Activity 3.3.4: 1. If a matrix A is 3x5 and the product AB is 3x7, then what is the order
of B?
2. How many rows does X have if XY is a 2x6 matrix?
Remark: The definition refers to the product AB, in that order, A is the left factor called
pre factor and B is the right factor called post factor.
1 4
2 4 1 6
Example 3.3.7: Find the product AB if A 5 3 and B
0 2 2 7 3 8
Solution: Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the
product AB=C is defined. Since A is 3 2 and B is 2 4 , the product AB
will be 3 4
c11 c12 c13 c14
AB c 21 c 22 c 23 c 24
c 31 c 32 c 33 c 34
The entry c11 is obtained by summing the products of each entry in row 1
of A by the corresponding entry in column 1 of B, that is.
c11 ( 1 )( 2 ) ( 4 )( 2 ) 10 . Similarly, for C21 we use the entries in
row 2 of A and those in column 1 of B, that is C21 = (5) (-2) + (3) (2) = -4.
Also, C12 = (1) (4) + (-4) (7) = -24
C13 = (1) (1) + (-4) (3) = -11
C14 = (1) (6) + (-4) (8) = -26
C22 = (5) (4) + (3) (7) = 41
C23 = (5) (1) + (3 ) (3) = 14
C24 = (5) (6) + (3) (8) = 54
C31 = (0) (-2) + (2) (2) = 4
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Observe that the product BA is not defined since the number of columns of B is not equal
to the number of rows of A. This shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative.
That is, for any two matrices A and B, it is usually the case that AB BA (even if both
products are defined).
1 0 1 2
Example 3.3.8: Let A , and B , then
0 0 1 0
1 2 1 0
AB , BA . Thus, AB BA .
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 2 3 0 0 0
Example 3.3.9: 1) Let A 3 2 1 , B 2 4 6 , then AB 0 0 0 .
2 1 0 1 2 3 0 0 0
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1 3 2 1 4 1 0 3 1 1 2
2) Let A 2 1 3 , B 2 1 1 1 , C 3 2 1 1
1 2 1 2 2 5 1 0
4 3 1
3 3 0 1
1 15 0 5
then AB AC . But B C .
3 15 0 5
In this chapter, we will be using matrices to solve linear systems. Later, we will be asked
to express linear systems as the matrix equation AX = B, where A, X, and B are
matrices. The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix.
Example 3.3.10: Verify that the system of two linear equations with two unknowns:
ax by h
can be written as AX = B, where
cx dy k
a b x h
A= c d X = y and B = k
a b x ax + by
AX = c d y = cx + dy
If AX = B, then
ax + by h
cx + dy = k
If two matrices are equal, then their corresponding entries are equal.
Therefore, it follows that
ax by h
cx dy k
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2x 3y 4z 5
3x 4 y 5 z 6
5x 6z 7
If A, B and C are any matrices, and if I is an identity matrix, then the following hold,
whenever the dimensions of the matrices are such that the products are defined.
Remark: For real numbers, a multiplied by itself n times can be written as an.
Similarly, a square matrix A multiplied by itself n times can be written as
An. Therefore, A2 means AA, A3 means AAA and so on.
Exercise:
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 1
1. If A 1 0 2 , B 1 0 1 and C 1 2 3
1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
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5 2 2 4 1 3
2. Let A , B , C
1 3 6 1 7 2
Find the following: i) AB ii) BC iii) (AB)C iv) A(BC)
4 1 4
3. If A 4 0 4 , compute A2. Is it equal to I3, where I3 is the identity matrix
3 1 3
of order 3?
Transpose of a matrix
Definition 3.3.1: Let A be an m n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by A' or A t , is
the n m matrix obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus the
first row of A is the first column of At, the second row of A is the second column of At
and so on.
2 3
2 4 6 t
Example 3.3.11: If A , then A 4 1
3 1 4 6 4
c) If A is m n and B is n p , then ( AB ) t B t At .
t A
d) A t
1 1 1
Example 3.3.12: A is orthogonal (verify)
2 1 1
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2 1 5
Example 3.3.13: A 1 0 3 is symmetric.
5 3 6
a 3 4 8
b c 3 9
Activity 3.3.7: 1. For A is to be a symmetric matrix, what numbers
d e f 10
g h i j
should the letters a to j represent?
2. a) Does a symmetric matrix have to be square?
b) Are all square matrices symmetric?
Definition 3.3.4: A square matrix A a ij is said to be skew symmetric if A t A ,
0 5 7 0 5 7
t
Example 3.3.14: For A 5 0 3 , A 5 0 3 A .
7 3 0 7 3 0
So A is skew-symmetric.
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Proof: AB is symmetric ( AB )t AB B t At AB
BA AB
Suppose AB = BA. Then (AB)t = BtAt = BA = AB
Exercise
1. a) Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i*j, where * represents
multiplication.
b) What is BT? c) Is B symmetric? Why or why not?
3 1 0 2 4 3
2. Given A 2 4 5 and B= 5 1 7 . Verify that
1 3 6 2 3 8
i) ( A B) t At B t , ii) ( AB ) t B t A t iii) (2 A) t 2 At
1 1 1
3. Let A , is A t A is symmetric?
1 2 3
Ri R j .
k. This is abbreviated as Ri k Ri
For elementary column operations “row” by “column” in (1), (2) and (3) above.
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We say that two matrices are row equivalent if one is obtained from the other by a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.
It is important to note that row operations are reversible. If two rows are interchanged,
they can be returned to their original positions by another interchange. If a row is scaled
1
by a nonzero constant c, then multiplying the new row by produces the original row.
c
Finally, consider a replacement operation involving two rows, say rows i and j, and
suppose c times row i is added to row j to produce a new row j. To “reverse” this
operation, add – c times row i to the new row j and obtain the original row j.
Example 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to
the second, and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in
to the first.
1 3 1 1 3 1
0 2 4, 0 1 2
0 3 4 0 3 4
1 3 1 1 3 1
Solution: 0 2 4 R2 ½ R2 0 1 2
0 3 4 0 3 4
1 3 1 1 3 1
0 2 4 2R2 R2 0 1 2
0 3 4 0 3 4
Activity 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to
the second, and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in
to the first.
0 5 3 1 5 2 1 3 1 5 1 3 1 5
a) 1 5 2, 0 5 3 b) 0 1 4 2 , 0 1 4 2
2 1 8 2 1 8 0 2 5 1 0 0 3 5
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In the definition that follows, a nonzero row (or column) in a matrix means a row (or
column) that contains at least one non-zero entry; a leading entry of a row refers to the
left most nonzero entry (in a non zero row).
Definition 3.5.1: A matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the
Following three properties:
1) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
2) Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry
of the row above it.
3) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition then it is in
reduced echelon form (or row reduced echelon form)
4) The leading entry in each non zero row is 1
5) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example 3.5.1: The following matrices are in row echelon form, in fact the second
matrix is in row reduced echelon form
2 3 2 1 1 0 0 29
0 1 4 8 , 0 1 0 16
5
0 0 0 0 0 1 1
2
Definition 3.5.2: (i) A matrix which is in row echelon form is called an echelon matrix.
(ii) A matrix which is in row reduced echelon form is called a reduced
echelon matrix.
Note: 1) Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one row reduced echelon matrix.
But a matrix can be row equivalent to more than one echelon matrices.
2) If matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U, we call U an echelon
form of A. If U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon
form of A.
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Activity 3.5.1: Determine which of the following matrices are in row reduced echelon
form and which others are in row echelon form (but not in reduced echelon form)
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
a) 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
b) c)
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 2 3 4 5 1 0 5 0 8 3
0 0 3 4 5 0 1 4 1 0 6
d) e)
0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Example 3.6.1: Find the rank of each of the matrices given in the above activity.
Solution: a) has rank 2; b) has rank 1; c, d, and e have rank 3.
Activity 3.6.1: Find the row reduced echelon form of each of the following matrices and
determine the rank.
1 3 0 0 3
1 3 5 7 0 0
a) 2 4 6 8
0 1 0
b)
0 0 0 0 0
3 5 7 9
0 0 0 3 1
1 0 1 0 0
0 1 2 1 3 0
1
d) 2 4 5 5 3
0 1 0
c)
0 1 0 2 1
3 6 6 8 3
0 0 0 1 1
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In this section we will present certain systematic methods for solving system of linear
equations.
Definition 3.7.1: A linear equation in the variables x1 , x 2 ,..., x n over the real field
i{1,2,3, . . ., m} then the system is called non homogeneous. In matrix notation, the
linear system (2) can be written as AX B where
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
a a 22 ... a 2 n x b
21 2 2
A , X and B
. . .
. . .
. . .
a m1 am2 ... a mn x n bm
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The m (n 1) matrix whose first n columns are the columns of A (the coefficient
matrix) and whose last column is B is called the augmented matrix of the system. We
denote it by [AB]. The augmented matrix determines the system (2) completely because
it contains all the coefficients and the constants to the right side of each equation in the
system. For example for the non homogeneous linear system
x1 3 x 2 x 3 2
x 2 2 x3 4 (3)
2 x1 3 x 2 3 x 3 5
1 3 1 1 3 1 2
The matrix A 0
1 2 is the coefficient matrix and 0 1 2 4 is the
2 3 3 2 3 3 5
augmented matrix.
Are the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of a homogeneous linear system
equal? Why?
A solution of a linear system in n-unknowns x1 , x2 ,..., xn is an n-tuple ( s1 , s 2 ,..., s n ) of real
numbers that makes each of the equations in the system a true statement when si is
substituted for xi, i = 1,2, . . ., n. The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set
of the linear system. We say that two linear systems are equivalent if they have the same
solution set.
Activity 3.7.1: 1) Give the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of the linear
system
x1 3 x 2 2 x 3
x1 11x 3
2 x1 x 2 4 x 3 0
x1 x 2 2
2) Does the linear system have a solution?
x1 x 2 0
uv 2
3) Find the solution set of the linear system
u v 1
How many solutions does it have?
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3
2 x x 2 x 3 8 13
4) Given the system 1 2 . Is 5, ,3 a solution of the
x1 4 x 3 7 2
25
linear system? What about (-7, -22, 0) and 3, ,1 ?
2
The activity given above illustrates the following general fact about linear systems.
A system of linear equations has either
1. no solution, or
2. exactly one solution, or
3. Infinitely many solutions.
We say that a linear system is consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many
solutions; a system is inconsistent if it has no solution.
Activity 3.7.2:
1. The homogeneous linear system AX O is consistent for any m n matrix A.
Explain, why?
2. Consider a linear system of two equations in two unknowns, give geometric
interpretation if the system has
i) no solution ii) exactly one solution iii) many solutions
Do the same for a linear system of three equations in three unknowns.
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The basic operations that are used to produce an equivalent system of linear equations are
the following:
1. Replace one equation by the sum of itself and a multiple of another equation.
2. Interchange two equations
3. Multiply all the terms in an equation by a non zero constant.
Activity 3.7.3: Why these three operations do not change the solution set of the system?
We illustrate this technique by using the following example.
We keep x1 in the first equation and eliminate it from the other equations. For this replace
the third equation by the sum of itself and two times equation 1.
2.eq.1 : 2 x1 6 x 2 2 x 3 4
eq.3 : 2 x1 3 x 2 3 x 3 5
[ New eq.3] 3 x 2 5 x3 9
We write the new equation in place of the original third equation:
x1 3 x 2 x 3 2 1 3 1 2
x 2 2 x3 4 R3 R3 + 2R1 0 1 2 4
3 x 2 5 x3 9 0 3 5 9
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3.eq.2 : 3 x 2 6 x 3 12
eq.3 : 3 x 2 5 x3 5
[ New eq.3] x 3 3
The resulting equivalent system is:
x1 3 x 2 x 3 2 1 3 1 2
x 2 2 x3 4 R3 R3 – 3R2 0 1 2 4
x 3 3 0 0 1 3
Now we eliminate the –2x3 term form equation 2. For this we use x3 in equation 3.
2.eq.3 : 2 x 3 6
eq.2 : x 2 2 x3 4
[ New eq.3] x3 3
From this we get
x1 3 x 2 x 3 2 1 3 1 2
x2 2 R2 R2 +2R3 0 1 0 2
x 3 3 0 0 1 3
Again by using the x3 term in equation 3, we eliminate the –x3 term in equation 1.
1.eq.3 : x 3 3
eq.1 : x1 3 x 2 x 3 2
[ New eq.1] x1 3 x 2 1
Thus we get the system
x1 3 x 2 1 1 3 0 1
x 2 2 R1 R1+R3 0 1 0 2
x 3 3 0 0 1 3
3.eq.2 : 3x2 6
eq.1 : x1 3 x 2 2
[ New eq.1] x1 5
So we have an equivalent system (to the original system) that is easier to solve.
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x1 5
1 0 0 5
x2 2 0 1 0 2
R1 R1 – 3R2
x3 3
0 0 1 3
Thus the system has only one solution, namely (5, -2, -3) or x1 5, x 2 2, x 3 3 . To
verify that (5, -2, -3) is a solution, substitute these values in to the left side of the original
system, and compute:
5 + 3(-2) - (-3) = 5 – 6 + 3 = 2
-2 - 2(-3) = -2 + 6 = 4
-2(5) - 3(-2) - 3(-3) = -10 + 6 + 9 = 5
It is a solution, as it satisfies all the equation in the given system (3).
Let us see how elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of a given linear
system can be used to determine a solution of the system. Suppose a system of linear
equations is changed to a new one via row operations on its augmented matrix. By
considering each type of row operation it is easy to see that any solution of the original
system remains a solution of the new system.
Conversely, since the original system can be produced via row operations on the new
system, each solution of the new system is also a solution of the original system. From
this we have the following important property.
If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent, then the two
systems have the same solution set.
Thus to solve a linear system by elimination we first perform appropriate row operations
on the augmented matrix of the system to obtain the augmented matrix of an equivalent
linear system which is easier to solve and use back substitution on the resulting new
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system. This method can also be used to answer questions about existence and
uniqueness of a solution whenever there is no need to solve the system completely.
1 1 1 3
Solution: The augmented matrix is A 1 5 5 2
2 1 1 1
Let us perform a finite sequence of elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
1 1 1 3 R R R 1 1 1 3 2 R1 R 3
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 3 1
R3 2 R 2 R3 1 1 1 3
0 6 6 1 0 6 6 1
9
0 3 3 5 0 0 0
2
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x1 x 2 x 3 3
6 x 2 6 x 3 1 (*)
9
0
2
9
But the last equation 0. x1 0. x 2 0. x 3 is never true. That is there are no values
2
x1 , x 2 , x 3 that satisfy the new system (*). Since (*) and the original linear system have
the same solution set, the original system is inconsistent (has no solution).
Let us find an echelon form of the augmented matrix first. From this we
can determine whether the system is consistent or not . If it is consistent
we go a head to obtain the reduced echelon form of [AB] , which enable
us to describe explicitly all the solutions.
2 1 1 2
R2 R1 R2
2 1 1 2
R3 3R1 R3
2 1 1
4 0 0 2
6
6 3 2 9 6 3 2 9
2 1 1 2 R 3 5 R 2 R 3 2 1 1 2 1
0 0 2 6 2
0 0 2 6 R2
R2
2
0 0 5 15 0 0 0 0
2 1 1 2 2 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 3 R 1 R 2 R1
R1 2 R1
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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1 1
1 2
0
2
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0
Exercise 3.1:
1. Find the solution set of the following system:
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2 x1 x 2 3x3 1
x1 3x 2 5 x3 2 x 4 11
x1 x 2 2 x3 2
a. c. 3x1 2 x 2 7 x3 5 x 4 0
4 x1 3x 2 x3 3
2 x1 x 2 x 4 7
x1 5 x3 3
x1 2 x 2 3x3 x4 0 x1 3x2 2 x3 5 x4 10
b. 3x1 x2 5 x3 x 4 0 d. 3x1 2 x2 5 x3 4 x4 5
2 x1 x 2 x 4 0 2 x1 x2 x3 5 x4 5
x yz 6
2. For what values of and the system: x 2 y 3z 10 , has
x 2 y z
i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution
3. Let M mxn = the set of all mxn matrices. Is Mmxn a vector space under matrix
addition and scalar multiplication?
0 1
4. Let W x . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where
0 x
a b
M 2 x 2 a, b, c, d ?
c d
0 x
5. Let W x, y . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where
0 y
a b
M 2 x 2 a, b, c, d ?
c d
UNIT IV
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Determinants
In this case, the straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the
determinant of the matrix. We will see some of the uses of the determinant in the
subsequent sections. For now, let's find out how to compute the determinant of a matrix
so that we can use it later.
Definition 4.1.1: (Determinant of order 1): Let A a11 be a square matrix of order 1.
Then determinant of A is defined as the number a11 itself. That is, a11 a11 .
Example 3 3 , 5 5 and 0 0
a11 a12
Definition 4.1.2: (Determinant of order 2): Let be a 2 2 matrix, then
a 21 a 22
A a11a 22 a12 a 21 .
That is, the determinant of a 2 2 matrix is obtained by taking the product of the entries
in the main diagonal and subtracting from it the product of the entries in the other
diagonal.
To define the determinant of a square matrix A of order n(n > 2), we need the concepts of
the minor and the cofactor of an element.
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Let A a ij be a determinant of order n. The minor of aij, is the determinant that is left
by deleting the ith row and the jth column. It is denoted by Mij.
a11 a12 a13
For example, given the 3 x 3 determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 . The minor of a11 is
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
M 11 , the minor of a12 is M 12 , and so on.
a32 a33 a32 a33
defined as ( 1 )i j M ij , where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j
M ij , if i j is even
in which the entry lies. Thus C ij . For example, the cofactor of
M ij , if i j is odd
a11 a12 a13
a12 in the 3 x 3 determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 is
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 21 a 23 a a 23
C 12 ( 1 )1 2 21
a 31 a 33 a 31 a 33
0 1 2
Example 4.1.1: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the matrix: 1 2 3
3 1 1
Solution: C11 = -1, C21 = 1 , C31 = -1, C12 = 8, C13 = -5, C22 = -6, C32 = 2, C23 = 3, C33 = -1
Activity 4.1.1: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the given matrices:
2 3 4 2 0 1
a. 3 2 1 b. 5 1 0
1 1 2 0 1 3
Definition 4.1.3 :( Determinant of order n): If A is a square matrix of order n (n >2), then
its determinant may be calculated by multiplying the entries of any row (or column) by
their cofactors and summing the resulting products. That is,
det A ai1Ci1 ai 2 Ci 2 ..... ain Cin Or det A a1 j C1 j a2 j C2 j ..... anj Cnj
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Remark: It is a fact that determinant of a matrix is unique and does not depend on the
row or column chosen for its evaluation.
1 3 4
Example 4.1.2: Find the value of 0 2 5
2 6 3
Solution: Choose a given row or column. Let us arbitrarily select the first row. Then
1 3 4
2 5 0 5 0 2
0 2 5 (1) ( 3 )( 1 ) 4 = 1(6 30) 3(0 10) 4(0 4)
6 3 2 3 2 6
2 6 3
= 22
If we had expanded along the first column, then
1 3 4
2 5 3 4
0 2 5 (1) 0 (2) 1(6 30) 2(15 8) = 22, as before
6 3 2 5
2 6 3
1 2 0 1
3 1 4 1
Example 4.1.3: Find the value of A
2 0 3 3
4 3 1 2
1 4 1 3 4 1 3 1 4
= ( 1 ) 0 3 3 2 2 3 3 0 ( 1 ) 2 0 3 = 54 – 94 + 13 = -27
3 1 2 4 1 2 4 3 1
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5 7 2 2 3 0 0 0
0 3 0 4 5 2 0 0
b. A d. A
5 8 0 3 8 3 1 0
0 4 7 2
5 0 6 5
The following diagram called Sarrus‟ diagram, enables us to write the value of the
determinant of order 3 very conveniently. This
technique does not hold for determinant of
higher order.
Working Rule: Make the Sarrus‟ diagram by
repeating the first two columns of the
determinant as shown below. Then multiply the elements joined by arrows. Assign the
positive sign to an expression if it is formed by a downward arrow and negative sign to
an expression if it is formed by an upward arrow.
Value: a11a 22 a33 a12 a 23 a31 a13 a 21a32 a31a 22 a13 a32 a 23 a11 a33 a 21a12
2 1 3
Example 4.1.4: Find the value of A 5 7 0 with the
4 1 6
Exercise:
2 1 5
3 2 2 a
1) Evaluate the following determinants: a) b) c) 3 4 1
5 4 a 2
0 6 1
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1 2 3
2) Let A 4 5 4 . Determine each of the following
3 2 1
Property 1: The value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into
columns and columns into rows. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a 21 a31
a 21 a 22 a 23 a12 a 22 a32 or det A det A t
a31 a32 a33 a13 a 23 a33
Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of
the determinant so obtained is the negative of the value of the original determinant. That
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
is, a 21 a 22 a 23 a31 a32 a33 .
a31 a32 a33 a 21 a 22 a 23
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Property 5: If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added k times
the elements of another row (or column), the value of the determinant so obtained is
equal to the value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 ka31 a12 ka32 a13 ka33
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Property 6: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of two
elements, the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 b1 a 32 b2 a 33 b3 a 31 a 32 a 33 b1 b2 b3
1 18 72
Example 4.2.1: Find the value of the determinant A 2 40 148
3 45 150
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1 18 72
4 4
A 0 4 4 = = 24 - 36 = -12
9 6
0 9 6
yz x y
Example 4.2.2: Show that z x z x ( x y z )( x z )2
x y y z
yz x y
Solution: Let z x z x . Performing R1 R1 R2 , R1 R1 R3 , we get
x y y z
2( x y z ) x y z x yz 2 1 1
zx z x = (x yz) z x z x
x y y z x y y z
0 0 1
= (x yz) xz zx x (Property 5)
x y yz z
= ( x y z )( x z )2
Activity 4.2.1: Evaluate the following determinants by using the properties listed above:
1 3 1 2
3 1 43 2 4 6
2 5 1 2
a) 2 7 35 b) 7 9 11 c)
0 4 5 1
1 3 17 8 10 12
3 10 6 8
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3 0 2 5
Example 4.2.3: Let A and B , then
4 1 1 4
3 0 2 5
AB A B (3)(3) 9
4 1 1 4
Example 4.2.4: Let A and B be 3x3 matrix with det A = 2 and det B = -3.
Find det (2ABt).
Solution: det(2 AB t ) 2 3 det A det B t 8(2)(3) 48 , since det B = det Bt.
Definition 4.3.1: Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n and let Cij be the cofactor of
aij. Then the adjoint of A, denoted by adj A, is defined as the transpose of the cofactor
matrix (Cij).
1 2 3
Example 4.3.1: Find adj A, if A 1 0 1
4 3 2
Solution: We have C11=-3, C12=6, C13= -3, C21=5, C22=-10, C23=5, C31=2,C32=-4, C33=2.
3 5 2
Thus, adj A 6 10 4 .
3 5 2
1 5 0
Activity 4.3.1: Find adj A if A 2 4 1
0 2 0
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2 1 3
Example 4.3.2: If A 2 0 1 , verify that A(adjA) = |A| I3 = (adjA)A
4 5 6
2 1 3 5 9 1 4 0 0 1 0 0
Hence A( adjA ) 2 0 1 16 24 4 = 0 4 0 4 0 1 0 A I
3
4 5 6 10 14 2 0 0 4 0 0 1
Definition 4.3.2: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a square matrices B of order
n, if it exists, is called an inverse of A if AB = BA = In. A matrix A having an inverse is
called an invertible matrix. It may easily be seen that if a matrix A is invertible, its
inverse is unique. The inverse of an invertible matrix A is denoted by A-1.
Does every square matrix possess an inverse? To answer this let us consider the matrix
0 0
A . If B is any square matrix of order 2, we find that AB = BA = 0.
0 0
We thus see that there cannot be any matrix B for which AB and BA both are equal to I2.
Therefore A is not invertible. Hence, we conclude that a square matrix may fail to have
an inverse. However, if A is a square matrix such that A 0 , then A is invertible and
1
A1 adj A . For, we know that A( adjA ) ( adiA ) A A I n
A
1 1 1
A adjA adjA A I n . Thus A is invertible and A 1 adjA .
A A A
A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if A 0 , and it is called non-
singular (invertible) if A 0 .
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6 7 1
Example 4.3.3: Find if the matrix A 3 5 has no inverse.
9 11
2 2 8 0
( 2)( 4) 0
2 or 4
3 1 2
Example 4.3.4: If A 2 3 1 , then A 3( 3 2 ) 1( 2 1 ) 2( 4 3 ) 8
1 2 1
2 0 0
Further, if B 3 1 4 then B 0 and it is singular.
5 2 8
1
Note: If A is an invertible nxn matrix, then AA-1 = In and det A-1 = , where
det A
det A 0 .
2. The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix itself, i.e. A 1 ) 1 A
3. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e.,
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4 2 1
Example 4.3.5: Find the inverse of the matrix A= 7 3 3 .
2 0 1
1
A1 adjA . To find adjA, let Cij denote the cofactor of aij, the element in the ith row
A
and jth column of |A|. Thus C11=3, C12 = -1, C13=-6, C21 = 2, C22=2, C23=-4, C31=-9 C32=-5 and C33 =26.
3 2 9 3 2 9
adj A 1 2 5
1 1 1
adj A 1 2 5 . Hence A
A 8
6 4 16 6 4 16
1 4 0
a b
Activity 4.3.3: 1. Find the inverse of A, if i) A ii) A 1 2 2
c d 0 0 2
3 4 2 8
2. Find matrix A such that A .
6 2 9 4
4.4. Cramer’s rule for solving system of linear equations (homogeneous and non
homogeneous)
Now let e1, e2, . . . en be columns of the n × n identity matrix I and Ii(x) be the matrix
obtained from I by replacing column i by x.
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Example 4.4.1: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer‟s Rule.
2x1 x 2 x 3 6
x1 4x 2 2x 3 4
3x1 x3 7
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax b
2 1 1 x1 6
where A 1 4 2 x x2 and b 4
3 0 1 x 7
3
det A i (b)
By Cramer‟s Rule, x i (i 1, 2, 3)
det A
2 1 1
det A 1 4 2 3
3 0 1
6 1 1 2 6 1
4 4 2 1 4 2
det A1 (b) 7 0 1 6 det A2 (b) 3 7 1 3
x1 2 , x2 1
det A 2 3 det A 2 3
2 1 6
1 4 4
det A3 (b) 3 0 7 3
and x3 1.
det A 2 3
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Example 4.4.2: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer‟s Rule.
2 x1 x 2 7
3x1 2 x3 8
x 2 2 x3 3
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax b
2 1 0 x1 7
where A 3 0 1 x x2 and b 8
0 1 2 x 3
3
det A i (b)
By Cramer‟s Rule, x i (i 1, 2, 3)
det A
2 1 0
det A 3 0 1 4
0 1 2
7 1 0 2 7 0
8 0 1 3 8 1
det A1 (b) 3 1 2 6 3 det A2 (b) 0 3 2 16
x1 , x2 4 and
det A 4 4 2 det A 4 4
2 1 7
3 0 8
det A3 (b) 0 1 3 14 7
x3 .
det A 4 4 2
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For the non homogeneous system Ax b , if det A 0 , then the Cramer‟s rule does
not give any information whether or not the system has a solution. However, in the case
of homogeneous system we have the following useful theorem.
2 2 8 0
( 2)( 4) 0 or 2, 4
Let us consider a square matrix A of order n (i.e n rows and n columns). If there are at
least k rows and k columns which must be deleted in order to obtain a non vanishing
determinant, then the order of the highest ordered non vanishing determinant in A is
given by r = n – k and this number is defined as the rank of A.
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Remark: The rank of a matrix is the order of the largest sub square matrix whose
determinant is different from zero.
1 2 3
Example 4.5.2: Obtain the rank of the matrix A= 3 4 5
4 6
5
Solution: | A | = -1(24 – 25) + 2(18 – 20) – 3(15 – 16) = 0. So R (A) < 3 … (1)
1 2
A minor of order 2 of A is 2 0 . So R(A) 2 ……(2)
3 4
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1 2 3
Example 4.5.3: Find the rank of the matrix A =
2 4 6 23
Solution: Since A is a 2x3 matrix, rank of A 2. But every determinant of order 2 in
A is zero. So rank of A < 2 …..(1)
But A is a non zero matrix r(A) 1 …. (2)
from (1) and (2) r(A) = 1
1 0 4 5
Example 4.5.4: Find the rank of the matrix A= 2 1 3 0 .
8 1 0 7
Solution: A is a 3x4 matrix. So rank of A 3 ……(1).
A non vanishing determinant of order 3 in A is
1 0 4
2 1 3 = -43. So rank of A 3 ……(2).
8 1 0
1 1 1 2
Example 4.5.5: The 34 matrix A = 2 2 2 4 has a row that is a constant multiple
1 2 3 4
of another row (i.e R2 = 2R1). This matrix possesses four square sub
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
matrices order 3: 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 , 2 2 4 , 2 2 4 .
1 2 3 1 2 4 1 3 4 3 3 4
The determinant of each of these matrices is zero. Because, in each case the second row
is a constant multiple of the first row. Thus the rank of the matrix A cannot be equal to 3.
That is rank of A < 3. However, it is easy to find a 2 x 2 sub matrix of A whose
2 4
determinant is different from zero. Take its determinant is equal to -4 0.
3 4
This indicates that rank(A) = 2.
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1 6 6 3
Activity 4.7.1: Let A , u , and v .
5 2 5 2
i) Are u and v eigenvectors of A?
ii) Show that 7 is an eigenvalue of A.
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the equation A I n X 0 .
Example 4.7.1: Let A 1 6 . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eignvectors
5 2
of A.
1 6 1 0
Solution: A I 2 0 0
5 2 0 1
1 6
0 3 28 0
2
5 2
7 or 4
The corresponding eigenvectors can now be found as follow:
1 6 1 0 x 0
For = 7: (A – 7I2)X = 0 7 y 0
5 2 0 1
6 6 x 0
y 0 y x
5 5
1
Hence, any vector of the type , where is any real number, is an eigenvector
1
corresponding to the eigenvalue 7.
1 6 1 0 x 0
For = -4: (A + 4I2)X = 0 4
5
1 y 0
2 0
5 6 x 0 5
y 0 y 6 x
5 6
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1
Hence, any vector of the type 5 , where is any real number, is an eigenvector
6
corresponding to the eigenvalue –4.
3 2 0
Example 4.7.2: Let A 2 3 0 . Find the eigenvalues and the
0 0 5
corresponding eignvectors of A.
3 2 0
Solution: Characteristic equation of A: 2 3 0 0
0 0 5
(3 - ) (3 - ) (5 - ) - 4(5 - ) = 0
[(3 - )2 - 4] (5 - ) = 0
(2 - 6 + 5) ( - 5) = 0
( - 1) ( - 5)2 = 0
So, eigenvalues of A are: = 1 and = 5.
To find the corresponding eigen vectors, we substitute the values of in the equation
3 2 0 x 0
(A - I) X = 0. That is, 2 3 0 y 0 …. (*)
0 0 5 z 0
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2 2 0 x 0
For = 1, (*) becomes: 2 2 0 y 0 x = y, z = 0
0 0 4 z 0
2 2 0 x 0
For = 5, (*) becomes: 2 2 0 y 0 x = -y
0 0 0 z 0
x x 0 1 0
X x x 0 x 1 z 0
z 0 z 0 1
Exercise:
Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrices:
2 3 1
3 2
a) A b) A 1 2 1
3 2 1 3 2
1 1 1
1 1
c) A d) A 0 2 1
2 3 0 0 1
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Proof:
a1 b1
a b
2 2
Let x1 and x 2 be eigenvectors of A associated with distinct eigenvalues
a n bn
1 and 2 , respectively, i.e.,
Ax1 1 x1 and Ax 2 2 x2 .
Thus,
x1t Ax2 x1t At x2 x1t At x2 Ax1 x2 1 x1 x2 1 x1t x2 .
t t
Therefore,
Since 1 2 , x1t x 2 0 .
0 0 2
Example 4.8.1: Let A 0 2 0 .
2 0 3
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D P 1 AP P t AP ,
Where col1 ( P), col 2 ( P),, col n ( P ) are n linearly independent eigenvectors of
A and the diagonal elements of D are the eigenvalues of A associated with these
eigenvectors.
0 2 2
2 .
Example 4.8.2: Let A 2 0
2 2 0
2 2
Thus, 2, 2, 4.
2I Ax 0 .
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1 1
v1 1 and v 2 0 are two eigenvectors of A. However, the two eigenvectors
0 1
are not orthogonal. We can obtain two orthonormal eigenvectors via Gram-Schmidt
process. The orthogonal eigenvectors are
1
v v1 1
*
1
0
.
1 / 2
v2 v1
v2 v2 v1 1 / 2
*
v1 v1
1
1
v3 1 is an eigenvectors of A. Standardizing the eigenvector results in
1
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1 / 3
v3
w3 1 / 3 .
v3 1 /
3
Thus,
1 / 2 1/ 6 1/ 3
P w1 w2 w3 1 / 2 1/ 6 1/ 3 ,
0 2/ 6 1 / 3
2 0 0
D
0 2 0
,
0 0 4
and D P t AP .
v1 v1
2
vi vi1 vi vi2 vi v2 vi v1
v vi vi 1 vi 2 v2 v1
*
vi 1 vi 1 vi 2 vi 2 v2 v2 v1 v1
i
vn vn1 vn vn2 vn v2 vn v1
v vn vn1
*
vn2 v2 v1
vn1 vn1 vn2 vn2 v2 v2 v1 v1
n
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UNIT V
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
Activity 5.1.1: Recall about the meaning and properties of a function. Also try to recall
about related concepts like domain, range, one to one, on to,
composition, and inverse.
Recall that a function (mapping) consists of the following:
i) a set X, each of whose element is mapped
ii) a set Y, to which each element of x is mapped
iii) a rule (correspondence) f, which associates with each element x of X a single
element f (x) of Y.
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Activity 5.1.2:
1. Let A = [2, ) and B = [-4, ). Define a function
f : A B by f (x) = x2 - 4x.
a) show that f is one-to-one
b) Show that f is on to
c) Find the inverse of f
2. Let g : 2 2 be given by g(a, b) = (a + b, b)
i) Is g one-to-one? Verify!
ii) Is g onto? Verify!
iii) Does g have inverse? If so find its inverse.
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The following definition will enable us to give a complete answer for this question.
Definition 5.1.1: Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field K. A function
T: V W is called a linear transformation (or a linear mapping)
of V in to W if it satisfies the following conditions:
i) T (u + v) = T(u) + T(v) u,v V
ii) T(u) = T(u) K and u V
Note: 1. Using condition (ii) of the definition, one can show that T(Ov) = Ow
where Ov and Ow are zero vectors in V and W respectively.
T (Ov) = T(0.u) ( because 0.u = Ov for any u V)
= 0T(u) (by (ii),0 K (The zero element in the field K))
= OW (Why?)
This proves that a linear mapping maps a zero vector in to zero vector.
2) The two conditions in the definition are equivalent to
T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v) , K and u, vV
Let us prove that a function T from vector space V in to W over the same field K is a
linear transformation iff T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) for any 1, 2 K and for
any v1, v2 V.
Proof: First suppose T: V W is a linear transformation.
Since 1v1, 2v2 V 1, 2 K and v1, v2 V,
T(1v1 + 2v2) = T(1v1) + T(2v2) by condition (i) of definition 4.1.1
= T(v1) + 2 T(v2) by condition (ii) of definition 4.1.1
Thus T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) 1, 2 K and v1, v2 V.
Next suppose that
T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2 T(v2) 1, 2 K and v1, v2 V *
We have to prove that T is a linear transformation.
T(v1 + v2) = T(1.v1) + 1.v2) , where 1 is the multiplicative identity in K.
= 1.T(v1) + 1.T(v2) From (*)
= T(v1) + T(v2).
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n n
T i v i i T(vi ) for any n vectors v1, v2, …, vn in V
i1 i 1
and for any n scalars 1, 2, 3, …, n in K whenever T:VW is a linear
transformation.
Now let us see some examples of a linear transformation (or a linear mapping).
Example 5.1.1 Let V be a vector space over the field K. Then the mapping
I: V V given by I(v) = v vV is a linear transformation. To prove
this let u,v V and K. Then u + v V and uV as V is a vector
space. Since I(x) = x x V, we have
i) I (u + v) = u + v and I(u) + I(v) = u + v
Thus I (u + v) = I(u) + I(v)
ii) I (u) = u and I(u) = u
Thus I (u) = I(u)
Therefore I is a linear transformation. We call I identity transformation.
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Example 5.1.2: Let T be a mapping from a vector space V over a field K into it self
given by T(v) = Ov v V where Ov is a zero vector in V.
Then T is a linear transformation. (Verify!). We call this linear
transformation the zero transformation.
Example 5.1.3: Let V be the vector space of all differentiable real valued functions
of real variables on an open interval (a, b). Then the mapping D: V V
given by D(f ) f ' (where f ' is the derivative of f) is a linear
transformation. This can be easily verified by using the properties of
derivative.
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a linear transformation?
Solution: No, take (0, 1, 2), (3, 0, 1) 3
N((0, 1,2) + (3, 0, 1)) = N(3, 1, 3)
= (3,1,3) 32 12 32
= 19
N(0, 1, 2) + N(3, 0, 1) = (0,1,2) 3, 0, 1
= 0 2 12 2 2 32 0 2 12
= 5 10
Remark: To show that a mapping T from a vector space V in to W over the same
field K is not a linear transformation it suffices to show that there exists two
vectors v1, v2 V such that T(v1 + v2) T(v1) + T(v2) or there exists scalar V
such that T(v ) T( v ) .
Activity 5.1.3:
1. Show that the mapping T : 32 defined by T(x, y, z) = (x-y, x – z) is a linear
transformation.
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Let us add one more example. Recall that vectors v1, v2, v3, … vm in a vector space V
over a field K are linearly independent iff 1 v1 + 2v2 +… + nvn = Ov (where
1,2, …, n K) implies 1 = 2 = …. = n = 0
Example 5.1.7: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
same field K. Prove that the vectors v1, v2, v3, …, vn V are linearly
independent if T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent
vectors in W.
Solution: Suppose T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent vectors in W
where v1, v2, v3, …, vn are vectors in V and T:V W is a linear
transformation. To prove that v1, v2, v3,…,vn are linearly independent.
Let 1 2, 3, … ,n K such that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + …+ nvn = Ov
Then T(1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + … + nvn) = T(Ov)
So 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) + 3T(v3) + … + nT(vn) = Ow
But T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent.
Hence 1 = 2 = 3 = … = n = 0. Thus we have shown that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + … + nvn = Ov implies
1 = 2 = 3 = … = n = 0.
Consequently v1, v2, v3, …, vn are linearly independent.
Exercise
1. Determine whether or not each of the following mappings is linear transformation.
a) T: 22 given by T (x, y) = (x + y, x)
b) T: 2 given by T (x, y) = xy
c) T: 32 given by T (x1, x2, x3) = (1 + x1, x2)
a b a b 2c
Let T: M2 M2 be given by T
c d 3a c d
Is Ta linear mapping? Justify your answer!
3. Let V be the vector space of m n matrices over . Let P be a fixed mm matrix and
Q a fixed n n matrix over . Show that the mapping L: V V defined by
T(A) = PAQ is a linear transformation.
4. Show that the mapping F: 2 defined by F(a, b) = |a – b| is not a linear
transformation.
5. Let G : V W be a linear transformation where V and W are vector spaces over the
same field K.
Prove that if u1, u2, u3, …, un are linearly dependent vectors in V then G(u1), G(u2),
G(u3), …, G(un) are linearly dependent vectors in W.
6. Let U, V, and W be vector spaces over the same field K.
If g: U V and f : V W are linear transformations show that fog is also a linear
transformation form U in to W.
7) i) Let A = (a, b, c) be a fixed given vector in 3. Define T: 3 by
T(X) = AX X 3.
(AX is the scalar (dot) product of A and X). Show that T is a linear
transformation.
ii) Let A be as in (i) define T: 3 by T(X) = AX + 4. Show that T is not
a linear transformation.
8) Let V be the space of n x 1 matrices over and let W be the space of m 1
matrices over . Let A be a fixed m n matrix over . Define T: V W by
T(X) = AX, X V.
Prove that i) T is a linear transformation.
ii) T is a zero transformation if and only if A is the zero matrix.
9) Let V be the vector space of all n n matrices over and let B a fixed n n
matrix.
If T: V V is defined by T(A) = AB – BA then verify that T is a linear
transformation.
10) Let V be a vector space over , and f: V , g: V be two linear
transformations. Let F: V 2 be the mapping defined by F(v) = (f(v), g(v)).
Show that F is a linear transformation.
11) Let V, W be two vector spaces over the same field K and let F: V W be a
linear transformation. Let U be the subset of V consisting of all elements u such
that F(u) = Ow. Prove that U is a subspace of V.
12) Let F: 3 4 be a linear transformation. Let P be a point of 3 and A is a non
zero element of 3. Describe F[S], where S = {X 3| X = P + t A, t }.
(Distinguish the cases when F(A) = 0 and F(A) 0).
n
ii) T i v i
n
i 1
T( v
i 1
i
) i K and vi V, i = 1, 2, …, n.
We now state two other basic properties in the following theorem. The proof is left for
you as an exercise.
Theorem 5.1.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
same field K. Then i) T(-v) = -T(v) v V
ii) T(v1 – v2) = T(v1) – T(v2) v1, v2 V
Our next theorem asserts that a linear transformation from a given finite dimensional
vector space V in to any vector space W is completely determined by its values on the
elements of a given basis of V.
Theorem 5.1.2: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let {v1, v2, v3, …, vn}be
a basis of V. If {w1, w2, w3, …, wn}is a set of arbitrary vectors in W, then
there exists a unique linear transformation F: V W such that
F(vj) = wj for j = 1, 2, … n.
To prove the theorem, we need to
a) define a function F from V into W such that F(vi) = wi for all i = 1, 2, 3, … n.
b) show F is a linear transformation
c) show that F is unique.
Proof: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let {v1, v2, v3, …, vn} be a basis
of V and {w1, w2, w3, …, wn} be any set of n-vectors in W.
Since {v1, v2, v3, …, vn} is a basis of V, for any v V there exist unique scalars
a1, a2, a3, …, an K such that
n
v a v
i 1
i i
n n
Then x x i v i and y yv i i for some unique scalars x1, x2, x3, …,xn,
i 1 i 1
n n
(i) F(x + y) = F x i vi yi vi
i1 i 1
n
= F (x i yi ) vi
i1
n
= (x i yi ) w i by definition of F
i 1
n n
= xi wi yi w i
i 1 i 1
= F xi vi
n F y i v i
n
by definition of F
i 1 i 1
= F(x) + F(y)
F(x + y) = F(x) + F(y) x, y V
n
ii) F(x) = F x i vi
i 1
n
= F (x i ) v i
i1
n
= (x i )w i by definition of F
i 1
n
= xiwi
i 1
n
= F x i v i by definition of F
i1
= F (x)
So F (x) = F(x) K and x V
Therefore from (i) and (ii) we conclude that F is a linear transformation from V in
to W.
…, xn in K.
n
Thus G ( x ) G x i v i
i1
n
= x i G(vi ) as G is a linear transformation
i 1
n
= xiwi as G(vi) = wi for each i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
i 1
n
= F x i vi by definition of F.
i1
= F(x)
Since G(x) = F(x) for any x V, we conclude that G = F.
This proves that F is unique. With this we complete the proof of the theorem.
Remark: 1) The vectors w1, w2,w3,…, wn in theorem 4.2.2 are completely arbitrary;
they may be linearly dependent, independent or they may even be equal to
each other. But the number of these vectors in W must be equal with that of
the number of basis vectors of V.
2) In determining the linear transformation from V in to W the assumption that
{v1, v2, …, vn} is a basis of V is essential.
Example 5.1.8:
a) Is there a linear transformation T from 2 in to 2 such that T(2, 3) = (4, 5) and T(1,
0) = (0, 0)?
b) How many linear transformations satisfying the given conditions do we have?
Solution: a) Yes. The two vectors (2, 3) and (1, 0) are linearly independent and hence
they form a basis for 2. Thus according to theorem 4.2.2, there is unique
linear transformation from 2 in to 2 such that T(2,3) = (4, 5) and T(1,
0) = (0, 0).
b) As it is verified above, we have only one linear transformation satisfying
the given conditions.
y 2
T ( x, y) T (2,3) x y (1, 0)
3 3
y 2
= T (2,3) x y T (1, 0)
3 3
y 2
= (4,5) x y (0, 0)
3 3
4 5y
= y , (0, 0)
3 3
4 5y
Therefore T ( x, y) y, (x, y)
2
3 3
Observe that the image of any vector (a, b) 2 under the linear transformation of
4 5
example 4.2.2 is b , . So the image of 2 under T is the line through (0, 0) with
3 3
4 5
direction vector , .
3 3
Activity 5.1.4:
4 5
Let T: 2 2 be as in example 4.2.2 above, i.e T(a, b) b, b
3 3
i) Let A = {(x, y)| x2 + y2 = 1}. Find the image of A under T i.e T[A].
ii) Describe the set containing all elements in 2 whose images is (0,0)
x t 1
Thus we have
y 2t 1 t 2
Which in turn implies t1 = x and t2 = y – 2x. So (x, y) = x(1, 2) + (y – 2x) (0, 1)
and T(x, y) = x T(1, 2) + (y - 2x) T(0, 1)
= x(3, -1, 5) + (y – 2x) (2, 1, -1)
= (3x, -x, 5x) + (2y – 4x, y-2x, 2x – y)
= (2y – x, y – 3x, 7x – y)
Therefore the required linear transformation is given by
T(x, y) = (2y – x, y – 3x, -y + 7x).
Activity 5.1.5:
1 a) Find a linear transformation T: 22 such that T(1, 0) = (1, 1) and
T(0, 1) = (-1, 2)
b) Prove that T maps the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and
(0, 1) in to a parallelogram.
2. a) Is there a linear transformation T:33 such that
T(0, 1, 2) = (3, 1, 2) and T(1, 1, 1) = (2, 2, 2)?
b) If your answer in (a) is yes,
(i) find T.
(ii) is it unique? Why?
x ab
y a b
z a b c
xy xy
b , a , c z x
2 2
( x y) ( x y)
Thus (x, y, z) = (1,-1,1) + (1,1,1) + (z - x) (0,0,1)
2 2
( x y) ( x y)
L(x, y, z) = L(1,1,1) L(1,1,1) ( z x) L(0,0,1)
2 2
x y ( x y)
= (1, 0) (0, 1) ( z x) (0, 0)
2 2
x y x y
= ,
2 2
Therefore we have obtained a linear transformation L: 3 2 given by
x y x y
L(x, y, z) = ,
2 2
1 (1) 1 (1)
Moreover L(1,-1,1) = , = (1,0) and
2 2
1 1 1 1)
L(1, 1,1) = , (0, 1) .
2 2
Consequently we can say that there is a linear transformation L: 3 2 satisfying the
two given conditions L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1,1,1) = (0, 1).
x y x y
Is L: 3 2 given by L(x, y, z) = , the only linear mapping that can
2 2
satisfy the requirements of the question in the above example? Replace (0, 0, 1) by (1, 0,
0) in the solution of the above example and find a linear transformation
L: 3 2 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1). Do the same by replacing
(0, 0) by (1, 1) and (0, 0,1) by (1, 0, -1).
Exercise:
This section is concerned with these two special subspaces. Let us begin with the
following definition.
ii) The set of elements w in W such that there exists an element v of V such
that T(v) = w is called the image or the range of T.
Theorem 5.2.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
some field K. Then (a) Ker T is a subspace of V
(b) ImT is a subspace of W.
Proof : a) It is already proved
b) Clearly ImT is a subset of W
i) Since T(Ov) = Ow , Ow ImT.
ii) Let w1, w2 ImT. Then there exists u1, u2 V such that
T(u1) = w1 and T(u2) = w2. Since V is a vector space, u1 + u2 V. Moreover
T(u1 + u2) = T(u1) + T(u2) = w1 + w2. Thus w1 + w2 ImT as there exists a
vector v V such that T(v) = w1 + w2 (v = u1 + u2).
So we have w1 + w2 ImT w1, w2 W.
iii) Let K and w ImT. Then there exists v V such that T(v) = w
as w ImT. Since V is a vector space over K, v V. Moreover
T(v) = T(v) = w. Hence w ImT. From (i), (ii) and (iii) it
follows that ImT is a subspace of W.
= ( x u y v, y v z w)
= ( x y, y z ) (u v, v w)
= G ( x, y, z ) G (u , v, w)
and G ( ( x, y, z )) G (x, y, z )
= (x y, y z )
= ( x y, y z )
= G ( x, y , z )
Therefore G is a linear transformation.
b) ker G ( p, q, r ) 3 G( p, q, r ) (0,0)
= ( p, q, r ) 3 ( p q, q r ) (0,0)
= ( p, q, r ) 3 p q 0 and q r 0
= ( p, q, r ) 3 pqr
= ( p, p, p) P
= p(1,1,1) p
So kerG is the subspace of generated by (1,-1,-1). List at least four elements of ker G.
3
Im G (d , e) 2 G( x, y, z ) (d , e) for some ( x, y, z ) 3
= (d , e) 2
( x y, y z ) (d , e) for some ( x, y, z ) 3
= (d , e) 2 x y d and y z e for some x, y, z
= ( x y, y z ) x, y, z
= ( x y,0) (0, y z ) x, y, z
= ( x y ) (1, 0) ( y z ) (0, 1) x, y , z
= t1 (1,0) t2 (0, 1) t1 x y and t2 y z
u v 2w where u , v, w
u v 2w where u , v, w
v(1,1,0) w(2,0,1) v, w
ii) Since ker T = {(0, 0)} (contains only the zero vector of ), T is
2
Activity 5.2.1:
Let T: 3 3 be given by T(x, y, z) = (x + y, 2y, 2y – x)
a) Show that T is a linear transformation
b) i) Find ker T
ii) Is T one-to-one? Verify
iii) Find ImT.
T(1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 0) and T(2, 1,0) = (2, 3, 1) linearly independent. Thus from this
particular instance we conclude that a linear transformation may or may not map linearly
independent vectors in to linearly independent vectors.
Under what condition does it map linearly independent vectors in to linearly independent
vectors?
In the theorem we have proved that if the kernel of a linear transformation T contains
only the zero vector i.e T is 1 – 1 then T maps linearly independent vectors in to linearly
independent vectors.
The next theorem relates the dimension of the kernel and image of a linear transformation
L: V W with the dimension of V. Before going to it let us have the following
definition.
Definition 5.2.2: Let L be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
field K.
(a) The dimension of the Kernel (the null space) of L is called the nullity
of L.
(b) The dimension of the Image (the range) of L is called the rank of L.
4.3.2. We have seen that its kernel contains only the zero vector, so
dim (ker T) = 0. The set {(1, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1)} is a basis of its image, so
dim (ImT) = 2. Again we have dim 2
Nullity of T + Rank of T
Theorem 5.2.4: (Rank-nullity theorem) Let V and W be vector spaces over the same
field K. Let L: V W be a linear transformation. If V is finite
dimensional vector space then dim V = nullity of L + rank of L
i.e dim V = dim (ker L) + dim (ImL)
Proof: Since V is finite dimensional vector space, it is obvious that Ker L and
ImL =L (V) are finite dimensional. Moreover dim (Ker L), dim (ImL) dim V
(Verify)
Let {u1, u2, …, up} and {w1, w2, …, wq} be basis of kerL and ImL respectively
(p, q dim V) Then there exist v1, v2, …, vq V such that L(vi) = wi for i = 1, 2,
3,…q as wi ImL.
Claim: = {u1, u2, …, up, v1, v2, …, vq} is a bais of V.
Now we show that
i) generates V
ii) is linearly independent.
i) Let v V. Then L(v) ImL and hence there exist unique scalars b1, b2, …, bqin
K such that L(v) = b1w1 + b2w2 + … + bqwq.
So L(v) = b1L(v1) + b2L(v2) + … + bqL(vq) as L(vi) = wi for i = 1, 2, ..q
ii) Suppose 1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2+ … + rqvq = Ov ……… (1)
where 1, 2 …,pr1, r2, …, rq K
Then L(1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2 + … + rqvq) = L(Ov) = Ow
So we have 1L(u1) + 2L(u2) + …+pL(up) + r1L(v1) + r2L(v2) + … + rqL(vq) = Ow
r1w1 + r2w2 + … + rqwq = Ow since L(uj) = Ow and
L(vi) = wi j = 1, 2, …, p and i = 1, 2, …,q
r1 = r2 = … = rq = 0, since {w1, w2, …, wq} is basis of ImL.
1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup = Ov (replace r1, r2 … rqby 0 in (1)
1 = 2 = … = p = 0, since {u1, u2, …, up} is a basis of Ker L.
Thus we have shown that
1u1 + 2 u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2 + … + rqvq = Ov
1 = 2 = … = p = r1 = v2 = … = rq = 0
That is is a linearly independent set in V. From (i) and (ii) it follows that
= {u1, u2, …, up, v1, v2, …, vq} is a basis of V.
Hence dimV = p + q = dim (kerL) + dim (ImL)
Therefore dim V = Nullity of L + Rank of L.
(x – y + z + w, x + 2z – w, x + y + 3z – 3w) = (0,0,0)
x y z w 0 ... (1)
x 2z w 0 ...(2)
x y 3z 3w 0 ... (3)
Adding (1) and (3) we get 2x + 4z – 2w = 0
By dividing both sides of this equation by 2, we get equation (2)
i.e. x + 2z – w = 0. So w = x + 2z, and y = x + z + w = 2x + 3z
Thus (x, y, z, w) = (x, 2x + 3z, z, x + 2z)
= (x, 2x, 0, x) + (0, 3z, z, 2z)
= x(1, 2, 0, 1) + z(0, 3, 1, 2)
Hence the vectors (1, 2, 0, 1) and (0, 3, 1, 2) generate ker T as every (x, y, z, w) in
ker T can be written as a linear combination of (1, 2, 0, 1) and (0, 3, 1, 2).
Moreover they are linearly independent vectors in ker T. Therefore
{(1, 2, 0, 1),(0, 3, 1, 2)} is a basis of ker T and hence dim ker T = 2. That is
nullity of T is 2. Now by using rank-nullity theorem, we can easily determine the
rank of T.
dim(4) = Nullity of T + rank of T
4 = 2 + Rank of T
Rank of T = 2
ii) T is not one-to-one because kerT {0}. Since Rank of T = 2 which is
different from dim(3), ImT 3. So T is not on to.
Example 5.2.6: Find a linear transformation T: 34 whose range (image) is spanned
by (1, 2, 0, -4), (2, 0, -1, -3).
Solution: Given ImT is spanned by {(1, 2, 0, -4), (2, 0, -1, -3)}
Let us include a vector (0,0,0,0) in this set which will not affect the given
spanning property. Now by using, the standard basis of 3 and theorem 4. 2.2,
one can get a linear transformation T: 3 4 such that
T(1, 0, 0) = (1, 2, 0, -4), T(0, 1, 0) = (2, 0, -1, -3) and T(0,0,1) = (0,0,0,0)
If (x, y, z) 3, T(x, y, z) = T(x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1))
a b c 0
2a b c 0
3a 2b 0
3
From 3a + 2b = 0, we get b a
2
a
Substituting this in a + b + c = 0 and 2a + b – c = 0 we get c .
2
Thus any element (a, b, c) of ker L, can be expressed as
(a, b, c) = a ,
3 a = 3 1
a , a 1, ,
2 2 2 2
That is 1,
3 1 generates ker L. So 3 1 is a basis of ker L
, 1, ,
2 2 2 2
ii) Again by using the definition for ImL, we have
(u, v, w) ImL (u, v, w) = L(x, y, z) for some (x, y, z) 3
(u, v, w) = (x + y + z, 2x + y – z, 3x + 2y), where x, y, z
xyzu
2 x y z v
3x 2 y w
By adding the first two equations we get, 3x + 2y = u + v. But 3x + 2y = w. So w = u + v
Thus any vector (u, v, w) in ImL can be written as
(u, v, w) = (u, v, u + v) ; u, v
= (u, o, u ) + (o, v, v) ; u, v
= u(1, 0, 1) + v(0, 1, 1) ; u, v
Hence every vector in ImL is a linear combination of (1, 0, 1) and (0, 1, 1).
So {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)} generates ImL. Moreover (1, 0, 1) and (0, 1, 1) are linearly
independent (verify). Consequently {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)} is a basis of ImL.
iii) dim(kerL) = 1 as its basis contains only one non-zero vector, dim(ImL) = 2 as its
basis contains two vectors. dim (kerL) + dim (ImL) = 1 + 2 = 3
i.e. nullity of L + rank of L = dim(3) as stated in the theorem.
Exercise:
1 For each of the following linear transformation, find a basis and dimension of its
image and kernel.
i) T : 3 3 defined by T(x, y, z) = (x, x + 2y, y)
1 2 0 1
A 2 1 2 1 and X is a column vector in 4
1 4 4 2
2) Find a linear transformation T : 3 3 such that {(x, y, z): 4x – 3y + z = 0} is
the i) Kernel of T ii) image of T
3) Find a linear transformation F : 4 3 whose kernel is generated by
(1, 2, 3, 4) and (1, 1, 0, 1).
4) Find a linear transformation T : 3 4 whose image is generated by
(1, -1, 2, 3) and (2, 3, 0, 1).
5) Let L: V W be a liner transformation. Let w W and vo V such that
L(vo) = w. Show that L(x) = w iff x = vo + u where u is an element of the
kernel of L.
6) Let the linear transformation T : 3 3 be defined by
T(u, v, w) = (u + v – 2w, u + 2v – w, 2u + v)
Find the rank and nullity of T.
7. Show that the linear transformation T : 3 3 for which
T(e1) = e1 + e2, T(e2) = 2e2 + e3 and T(e3) = e1 + e2 + e3 is both one-to-one and on to.
ii) What are the conditions on a, b, and c so that (a, b, c) be in the null space
of T? What is the nullity of T?
iii) Is T one-to-one? Why?
Is T on-to? Why?
Notation: We denote the set of all linear transformations from a vector space V in to W
over the field K by L(V, W). While using the notation L(V, W), it should
be noticed that V and W are vector spaces over the same field . Let T, S
L(V, W) and K. Then T and S are linear transformations from V in to
W and hence they are functions from V in to W. Thus
i) the sum of T and S, T + S is a function from V in to W defined by
(T + S) (v) = T(v) + S(v) v V
ii) the scalar multiple of T by , T is a function from V in to W
defined by (T) (v) = (T(v)) v V.
We now state a theorem that asserts T + S and T are linear transformations form V in to
W for any T, S L(V, W) and K; and L (V, W) is a vector space with addition and
multiplication by scalars defined as above.
We shall prove the first two assertions and leave the last one as an exercise.
Theorem 5.3.1: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let T and S be linear
transformations from V in to W and K. Then
i) the function T + S is a linear transformation from V in to W.
i.e T + S L (V, W).
ii) the function T is a linear transformation from V in to W.
i.e T L (V, W).
iii) L (V, W) the set of all linear transformations from V in to W with
respect to the operation of vector addition and scalar multiplication
defined as (T + S) (v) = T(v) + S(v) and (T (v) = T(v) for all v V,
is a vector space over K.
Note: In the above theorem, we have asserted that L(V,W) is a vector space over K.
With this we can consider every linear transformation in L(V, W) as a vector. The
zero vector in this vector space will be the zero transformation that sends every
vector of V in to the zero vector in W.
Theorem 5.3.2: Let V, W and Z be vector spaces over the field K. Let T and S be linear
transformations from V in to W and from W into Z respectively. Then
the compose function SoT defined by (SoT) (v) = S(T(v)) for all v V
is a linear transformation.
Proof: Let T and S be as in the hypothesis of the theorem Let v1, v2 V and r K
Then (SoT) (v1 + v2) = S(T(v1 + v2))
= S(T(v1) + T(v2)) why?
= S(T(v1)) + S(T(v2)) why?
= (SoT) (v1) + (SoT) (v2)
and (SoT) (rv1) = S(T(rv1))
= S(rT(v1)) because T is a linear transformation.
= rS(T(v1)) why?
= r(SoT) (v1)
Therefore SoT is a linear transformation.
Notation: For the sake of brevity we shall simply denote the composition SoT of S and T
by ST.
Activity 5.3.1:
1) Give two linear transformation S and T from 3 in to it self such that ST TS.
From this you may conclude that composition of linear transformations is not
commutative.
2) Is composition of linear transformations associative? Justify your answer!
3) Let U, V and W be vector spaces over the field K.
Let S, S' L (U,V) and T, T' L (V, W)
Example 5.3.2: Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V over the field F.
(i) If T2 = O the zero mapping then what can you say about the
relation of the range of T to the kernel of T?
ii) Give an example of a linear operator on 2 such that
T2 = O but T O.
Solution: i) Method 1: T2 = O T2(v) = O(v), v V
T(T(v)) = Ov – zero vector in V.
T(v) ker T v V
But T(v) is an arbitrary element of Range of T for any v V.
Therefore Range of T ker T.
Method 2: Let w Range of T. Then T(v) = w for some v V.
So T(w) = T(T(v)) = T2(v) = Ov as
T2(v) = Ov v V. Hence T(v) = wkerT
Therefore, Range of T is a subset of kerT
= T(T(a, b))
= T(0, a)
= (0, 0)
So, T2(a, b) = (0, 0) (a, b) 2
Hence, T2 = O
Activity 5.3.2:
1. Let T and S be linear operators on 2. Does TS = O imply either T = O or S = O?
Explain! Give a counter example if your answer is No.
2. Let V be finite dimensional vector space over the field F and T be a linear
operator on V. Suppose that rank (T2) = rank T. Prove that the range and null
space of T have only the zero vector in common.
Now let us discuss about inverse of a linear transformation. Recall that a function T from
V in to W is called invertible if there exists a functions S from W in to V such that ST is
the identity function on V and TS is the identity function on W. If T is invertible the
function S is unique and is denoted by T-1and is called the inverse of T.
T-1(w) = v T(v) = w whenever T-1 exists. Furthermore we know that T is invertible iff
T is one- to- one and on to.
Theorem 5.3.3: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F and Let T be a linear
transformation from V in to W. If T is invertible then the inverse
function T-1 is a linear transformation.
Proof: Suppose T : V W is invertible then there exists a unique function
T-1: W V such that T-1(w) = v T(v) = w for all w W. Moreover
T is 1-1 and on to. We need to show that T-1 is linear. Let w1, w2 W and F
Then there exist unique vectors v1, v2 V such that T(v1) = w1 and T(v2) = w2
as T is 1-1 and on to. So T-1(w1) = v1 and T-1(w2) = v2.
T(v1 + v2) = T(v1) + T(v2) because T is linear
= w1 + w2
Thus T-1(w1 + w2) = v1 + v2 = T-1(w1) + T-1(w2) for any w1, w2 W.
Since T( v1) = w1, T-1 (w1) = v1 = T-1(w1). Therefore T-1 is a linear
transformation.
= (a, b, c) 3
| a 0, 3b 0 and c 0
= (0,0,0).
Therefore T is one to one.
Moreover from rank-nullity theorem, dim(3) = dim (kerT) + dim (ImT).
3 = 0 + dim(ImT). So dim(ImT) = 3. Since ImT is a subspace of 3
v
Thus T-1 (u, v, w) = u, , w.
3
Activity 5.3.3:
Prove theorem 4.4.4. Follow the following steps
1. Show that (iv) (i)
2. Show that (i) (ii)
3. Show that (ii) (iii)
4. Show that (iii) (iv)
5. Form 1, 2, 3 and 4, can we conclude that (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)? How?
Remark: For finite dimensional vector spaces V and W over the field K with
dimV = dimW, we have the following results about any linear
transformation T : V W.
a) T is 1 – 1 T is invertible
b) T is on to T is invertible.
Exercise:
1. Let T and S be linear operators on 2 defined by T(x, y) = (y, x) and S(a, b) = (a, 0)
i) How do you describe T and S geometrically?
ii) Give rules like the one defining T and S for each of the linear
transformations S – 2T, ST, TS, T2, S2.
b) L( x, y, z ) (2 x y z , x y, 3x y z )
7. Let F and G be linear operators on a vector space V over the set of real numbers..
Assume that FG = GF. Show that
i) (F + G)2 = F2 + 2FG + G2
ii) (F + G) (F – G) = F2 – G2
In this section we shall investigate the strong relationship that exists between linear
transformation and matrices.
T A : K n K m defined by TA ( X ) AX X K n is called
the linear transformation associated with the matrix A.
Note: In this definition, each element X of Kn should be considered as column vector
otherwise AX is not defined.
1 0
Example 5.4.1: a) Let A . Then T A : 2 2 is an identity linear
0 1
transformation.
1 0 1 0 x
x x
b) Let B 2 1 . Then T B y 2 1 y 2 x y
3 0 3 0 3x
x
x
Thus T B : given by T B 2 x y is the linear
2 3
y 3x
transformation associated with matrix B.
1 3 0 2 2
c) Let A , u , v , w and TA be the linear
0 1 2 0 2
transformation associated with matrix A.
Find i) TA ( u ), TA ( v ) and T A ( w )
ii) The image of the square with vertices
0 2 2 0
, , and .
0 0 2 2
Solution:
1 3 0 6
i) T A ( u ) Au
0 1 2 2
1 3 2 2
T A ( v ) AV
0 1 0 0
1 3 2 8
TA ( w ) Aw
0 1 2 2
ii) T A deforms the given square as if the top of the square were
pushed to the right while the base is held fixed (see the figure
below).
Activity 5.4.2:
1 0
2. Let A . Give a geometrical description of the linear transformation TA
0 1
associated with A.
1 3 1
3. Let B , b
3 1 7
i) Find the linear transformation T associated with B.
In view of definition 4.5.1 we can study system of linear equations with the help of linear
transformation associated with the coefficient matrix of the system. Consider the system
AX b where A is an m n real matrix. Then AX b iff TA ( X ) b where TA is the
linear transformation associated with matrix A. Thus the system AX = b has a solution iff
b is in the range of TA. If there is exactly one element X n whose image is b under
TA then the system AX b has exactly one solution. But if b has more than one pre-
images under TA then the system has more than one solution. If there is no X n such
that TA ( X ) b , (i.e b is not in the range of TA), then the system has no solution.
Activity 5.4.3:
Prove that if ker TA {} , then the system AX b has at most one solution.
subspace of n . Suppose dim ker TA k and v1 , v 2 , v 3 ,..., v k is a basis of ker TA.
v1 ,v2 ,v3, ..., vk is a basis ker TA and 1 , 2 , 3 ,..., k are scalars.
This called the general solution of the non homogeneous system AX b .
Example 5.4.2
1 0 3 4
Let A , b and T A be the linear transformation associated
2 1 3 9
with matrix A.
i) Find ker TA ?
ii) Is b Im TA ?
iii) Is there more than one X whose image under TA is b?
iv) Describe the solution set of AX b
Solution: T A : 3 2 is given by
x1 x
1 0 3 1 x1 3 x 3
T A x 2 x 2
x 2 1 3 x 2 x 1 x 2 3 x 3
3 3
i) ker TA X 3 TA ( X ) 0
a
a 3c 0 a 3c 0
So b ker T A
c 2a b 3c 0 2a b 3c 0
a 3c b
3c 3
Thus ker T A 3c c = c 3 c
c 1
ii) Since dim(ker TA) = 1 and 3 = dim (ker TA) + dim(ImTA),
3
T A ( x o ) b . Moreover for any , w x o 3 is a pre-image of b, as
1
3 3
T A ( w ) T A ( x o 3 T A ( x o ) T A 3 = b . = b
1 1
Exercise:
1 0 1
1) Let A 3 1 5 and TA be the linear transformation associated
4 2 1
with matrix A. Find X such that TA (X )
1 3 4 3 1
2) Let A 0 1 3 2 , b 1 and TA be the linear
3 7 6 5 7
transformation associated with matrix A.
i) Find ket TA ii) Is b in the range of TA
iii) Describe the solution set of AX = b
In the previous subsection we have seen that associated to any given m n matrix A
mean by ordered basis? Suppose b1 , b2 ,..., bn is an ordered basis for a finite
dimensional vector space V over a field K and v is in V. The coordinates of v relative to
the basis (or the coordinates of v) are the scalars c1 , c 2 ,..., c n in K such that
v c1b1 c 2 b2 ... c n bn .
c1
c2
.
v
.
.
cn
Example 5.4.3: (i) The coordinates of (x, y, z) relative the standard basis
Activity 5.4.4:
5
1) Find the vector X determined by the coordinate vector X where
3
3 4
, 6
5
3
2) Find the coordinate vector X of X 5 relative to the basis
4
1 2 1
0 , 1 , 1
of
3
3 8 2
f o , f 1 , f 2 where f o ( t ) 1, f 1 ( t ) t and f 2 ( t ) t 2 .
where g o ( t ) 1 t 2 , g1 ( t ) t t 2 and g 2 ( t ) 1 2 t t 2
Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field K and let W be an m-dimensional
vector space over K. Let v1 , v 2 ,..., v n and ' w1 , w2 ,..., wm be ordered bases of
That is M T (v1 ) ' T (v2 ) ' ... T (v j ) ' ...T (vn ) '
The matrix M in (2) is called a matrix representation of T or the matrix for T relative
to the bases and ' . If and ' are standard bases of V and W respectively, we
call the matrix M in (2) the standard matrix for the linear transformation T.
Our next task is to examine how the matrix M in (2) determines the linear transformation
T. If x = x1v1 + x2v2 + …+xnvn is a vector in V, then the coordinate vector of x relative to
x1
x2
X
.
.
.
x n
and T(x) = T(x1v1 + x2v2 + …+xnvn) = x1T(v1) + x2T(v2) + …+xnT(vn) ….. (3)
Using the basis ' in W, we can rewrite (3) in terms of coordinate vectors relative to '
as T ( x ) ' x1 T ( v1 ) ' x 2 T ( v 2 ) ' ... x n T ( v n ) ' … (4)
Thus if X is the coordinate vector of x relative to , then the equation in (5) shows
Note: In case when W is the same as V and the basis ' is the same as , the matrix M
Activity 5.4.5: Using equation (3), verify equations (4) and (5).
B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0) of 3 and B2 = {(1, 3), (2, 5)} of 2 .
Solution: T(1, 1, 1) = (1, -1) = -7(1, 3) + 4(2, 5)
T(1, 1, 0) = (5, -4) = -33(1, 3) + 19(2, 5)
T(1, 0, 0) = (3, 1) = -13(1, 3) + 8(2, 5)
The matrix M of T relative to the bases B1 and B2 is:
7 33 13
M
4 19 8
Example 5.4.6: Let b1 , b2 , b3 be a basis for a vector space V over the set of real
numbers. Find T(3b1 – 4b2), where T is a linear transformation
form V in to V whose matrix relative to is
0 6 1
T 0 5 1
1 2 7
3
Solution: Let x = 3b1 - 4b2. Then the coordinate vector of x relative to X 4
0
and the coordinate vector of T(X) relative to is
0 6 1 3 24
T ( X ) T X = 0 5 1 4 = 20
1 2 7 0 11
Exercise:
1. Let F : 3 2 be defined by F(x, y, z) = (z - x, x + y). Find the matrix
associated with F with respect to the standard bases of 2 and 3 .
2. Let T : 2 3 defined by T(a, b) = (a, b, a+2b). Find the matrix of T relative
to the bases B1= {(1,1), (2,0)} and B2 = {(1,1,1), (1,1,0), (0,1,1)}.
1 2 1
3. Let A and TA be a linear mapping from 3 to 2 defined by
3 4 0
TA ( v) Av where v is a column vector in 3. Find the matrix of TA relative to
1 0 0
1 2
the bases B1 0 , 0 and B 2 , of and respectively.
3 2
1 ,
0 0 1
3 5
4. Suppose that b1 , b2 , b3 and ' d1 , d 2 be a basis for real vector spaces V
Definition 5.5.1:
Let T: V V be a linear operator on a vector space V over a field K. An eigenvalue of T
is a scalar in K such that there is a non-zero vector v in V with T(v) = v. If is an
eigenvalue of T, then
a) any vector v in V such that T(v) = v is called an eigenvector of T associated with
the eigenvalue ;
b) the collection of all vectors v of V such that T(v) = v is called the eigenspace
associated with .
Note:
1. One of the meanings of the word “eigen” in German is “Proper”. Thus eigen
values are also called proper values or characteristic values or latent roots.
2. If and w are eigenvectors associated with eigenvalue . Then:
i) + w is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue , because:
T( + w) = T() + T(w) = + w = ( + w)
ii) each scalar multiple k, k 0, is also an eigenvector with
eigenvalue , because: T(k) = kT() = k() = (k).
Activity 5.5.1: Let T: V V be a linear operator with ker T {0}. Prove that every non
zero vector in ker T is an eigenvector of T with eigenvalue 0.
Example 5.5.1:
a) Let id: V V be the identity operator.
Every non-zero vector in V is an eigenvector of id with an eigenvalue 1, since:
Id() = = 1.
b) Let T: 2 2 be a linear operator which rotates each 2 by an angle of
90o.