SECTION A: MECHANICS

Physical quantities.

Fundamental quantity Symbol of quantity Name of SI unit Symbol of SI unit

Length l Metre m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time t Second s
Current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K

 Fundamental quantities cannot be further broken down into other quantities.

Derived quantity Symbol of quantity Name of SI unit Symbol of SI unit

Density  kg/m 3 OR kg m 3
Speed OR Velocity v m/s OR m s 1
acceleration a m/s 2 OR m s 2
Force F Newton N
moment M Nm
Linear momentum p kg m s 1
Impulse Ns
Work W Joule J
Power P Watt W
Pressure P Pascal Pa

 Impulse  change of momentum (N s  kg m s 1)

Questions:

1. The figure below shows some physical quantities and their units. Draw an arrow from EACH
quantity to its unit.

Metre

Newton-Metre Force

Newton Displacement

Moment

Metre

Newton-Metre Force

Newton Displacement

Moment

2. Complete the graphic below by drawing an arrow from each physical quantity to its respective
unit.

Physical Quantity Unit

Acceleration m3

Volume Ns

Linear Momentum m s‒2

 Physical Quantity Unit

Acceleration m3

Volume Ns
Linear Momentum m s‒2

2. Complete the bubbles in the figure below by inserting the SI unit which matches EACH of the
physical quantities.

Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Submultiple Prefix Symbol Multiple

nano n 10 9 Tera T 10 12
micro µ 10 6 Giga G 10 9
milli m 10 3 mega M 10 6
centi c 10 2 kilo k 10 3

Density and relative density

Density is the mass per unit volume

Relative density is a ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a base substance such as
water.

Finding density and relative density

 : density /kg m3
m m: mass /kg
 =
V
V: volume /m3

density of substance
Relative density =
density of base substance

 Relative density is unitless

Questions:
Scalars and vectors

Scalars are quantities that have magnitude only.

Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

Examples of scalars and vectors

Scalars Vector
mass weight, force, thrust
length, distance displacement
time
temperature temperature change
speed velocity
area, volume acceleration
work, energy, power momentum
current, voltage, resistance electric field, magnetic field

Resolution of vectors - To resolve vectors into two components (vertical and horizontal)

Parallelogram Law of Forces - If two forces are represented in magnitude and directions by an
adjacent side of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram

Quantity Scalar Vector

Load
Extension
Forces. Moments of a force. Hokes’s law. Centre of gravity

A force is an action that changes the size, shape or motion of a body.

Moment is the turning effect of a force about a pivoting point.

The moments of a force, about a point, is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of
line of action from the point.

Equilibrium is the state of a body at rest or in uniform motion; the resultant of all forces, in all
directions, is zero.

Deformation is any process that  affects the shape, size or volume of an object.

Hooke's law states that the force applied to a spring is proportional to its extension.

A point through which the resultant weight of all particles in the body appear to act is the body’s
centre of gravity.

Graph of Force versus extension

1. The proportional limit (P) is the point beyond which any further Increase in the load applied to
a spring will produce an extension that is no longer proportional to the force.

2. The elastic limit (E) is the point beyond which any further increase in the load applied to a
spring will produce a permanent stretch.

Equilibrium. Moments in equilibrium (Condition of equilibrium)

1. The sum of the forces in any direction is equal to the sum of the forces in the opposite
direction (translational equilibrium).

2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about that same point (rotational equilibrium).

List of formulae

W: weight /N

W = m×g m: mass /kg

g: gravitational field strength /N kg3
M: Moment of a force /N m

M = F×d F: Force /N
d: perpendicular distance from the pivot /m
F: Force / N
F = k×e k: constant of spring/ N m1
e: extension of spring /m

Examples of forces

1. mechanical; push, pull, twist, frictional, tension, normal reactions, etc.

2. gravitational; weight,
3. electromagnetic; electrostatic, electric, magnetic
4. nuclear

 Mechanical forces are those that exist between bodies in contact.

 Friction is a force (mechanical) that opposes the relative motion of the surfaces of
bodies in contact with each other.

 Gravitational forces are attractive forces that exist between bodies due to their masses.

E.g. The Moon is kept in orbit around the Earth by gravitational force.

 Magnetic forces are attractive or repulsive forces that exist between bodies due
to their magnetic polarities.
  Electrostatic forces are attractive or repulsive forces that exist between bodies
due to their electric charge.

E.g. Electrons are kept in orbit around the atomic nucleus by such forces.

 Nuclear forces are extremely strong attractive forces which bind together the
subatomic particles of an atomic nucleus.

 Elastic forces are restoring forces produced when a body is stretched or

compressed.

 The weight of a body is the force of gravity on the body.

3. Stability

Stability is the ability of an object to retain its original position after being displaced slightly.

Stable Unstable Neutral

line of contact or point(s)

Base Area Large Small
of contact with surface

Height of centre of gravity Low High –

Slight displacement from Return to

Topple over Stay in new position
equilibrium position original position

Common devices that use the principle of moments

1. spanner
2. wheelbarrow
3. crowbar
4. bottle opener
5. claw hammer, etc.
Questions

1. Complete the table below to show the names of three forces and a situation in which EACH
force acts.

Force Situation

1. A javelin falling in the air

2. Upthrust

3.

Force Situation
Gravitational force (weight) Drag
1. A javelin falling in the air
force (air resistance)
2. Upthrust An object immersed in a fluid
 Centripetal  Object in circular motion

 magnetic  between magnets or current carrying

conductors
3.
 nuclear  nucleus of atoms

 tension  stretched springs

, , , , etc

2. For a popular amusement park ride, patrons board a carriage at the top of a high tower and are
subjected to a wild ride of ‘terror’.

Name and state the Newton’s Law which applies if the

(a) (i) carriage is moving horizontally at a constant speed in a straight line

For carriage moving horizontally at a constant speed in a straight line 

Newton’s first law

A body continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless

compelled by an external force to act differently.

(ii) carriage is in free fall.

Carriage is in free fall  Newton’s second law

The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts.

(b) (i) Calculate the length of time that the carriage in Part (a) is allowed to
free fall if it reaches a speed of 64.8 km h–1 from rest. [Use g = 10 m s–2]

length of time, t = ?

speed, v = 64.8 km h–1

u = 0 m s–1

 Convert 64.8 km h–1 to m s–1

1 km = 1 000 m.

1 hour = 3 600 s.

64.8× 1 000 m
64.8 km h–1 = = 18 m s–1
3 600 s

 Use the formula v = u + g t (acceleration due to gravity, g = a)

v = u + gt

18 = 0 + 10 × t
 18
t = s = 1.8 s
10

(ii) Determine the distance the carriage falls in (b) (i).

1 2
s = ut + gt
2

1
s = × 10 × 1.82 = 16.2 m
2
Motion in a straight line. Distance and displacement. Speed and velocity. Acceleration

Distance is the length between two points.

Displacement is the distance in a specific direction.

Speed is the rate of change of distance.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

1. Motion at constant (uniform) speed or velocity

v: speed or velocity /m s1

s
v = s: distance travelled /m
t
t: time of journey /s

2. Motion at constant (uniform) acceleration

v = u + at v: final velocity /m s1

OR u: initial velocity /m s1

a: acceleration /m s2
∆v v−u
a = = t: time of journey /s
∆t t

Other equations of motion

1 s: distance OR displacement /m
s = (u + v) × t
2
v: final velocity /m s1
1 2 u: initial velocity /m s1
s = ut + at
2
t: time of journey /s
v2 = u2 + 2 a s a: acceleration /m s2

3. Motion under the influence of gravity

NB: Replace a with g.

Graphs of motion
NB:
Distance - time graph

 The gradient of the graph = speed of the motion.

Speed (velocity) - time graph

 The gradient of the graph = the magnitude of the acceleration if the motion is in a
straight line.

 distance = area between graph line and time axis (all areas are positive)

 displacement = area between graph line and time axis (areas above time axis are
positive; areas below time axis are negative)
Linear momentum. Newton’s laws of motion. Impulse and change of momentum

The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its velocity.

In the absence of external forces, the total momentum of a system of bodies is constant; the total
momentum before is equal to the total momentum after.

A body continues in its slate of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by a resultant
force.  Newton’s law #1.

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction of the force.  Newton’s law #2

If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but oppositely directed force on body
A. In other words, 'every action has an equal, but oppositely directed reaction.  Newton’s
law #3

Impulse is the change of momentum

p: linear momentum /kg m s1

p = m× v m: mass /kg
v: velocity /m s1
m A: mass of object A /kg
uA: initial velocity of object A /m s1

m A u A + mB u B = ( m A + mB ) v mB : mass of object B /kg

u B: initial velocity of object B /m s1
v: final velocity /m s1

F: Force /N
t: time /s
Ft = Δp = m v  m u m: mass /kg
v: final velocity /m s1
u: initial velocity /m s1

 N s  kg m s 1
Work, Energy and Power. Efficiency

Work is the product of a force and the distance moved by Its point of application in the direction of the
force.

Energy is the ability to do work.

Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy.

Forms of energy

Gravitational, elastic, chemical, electrical, magnetic, electro-magnetic, thermal, nuclear, kinetic,

sound.

Formula SI unit Formula SI unit

1 work = force × displacement Energy used = work done
2.
. E = Fs
W = Fs
J Gravitational potential energy
1 J
3 kinetic energy = mass × speed 2 = weight × height
2 joules
4.
. 1 = mass × gravity × height
Ek = mv2
2
Ep = m g h

 One joule (1 J) of work is done when the point of application of a force of one newton (1 N)
moves through a distance of one metre (1 m) in the direction of the force.

 One walt (1 W) is the power used in doing one joule (1 J) of work per second (1 s).

Conservation of energy (gravitational potential - kinetic)

Falling objects:
When something is ________ from a height it is accelerated by ________. The ________ ________
does work.
As it falls, energy from the object’s ________ ________ energy store is transferred into its ________
energy store.
When there is no ____ resistance:

Energy ____ from gravitational potential energy = energy _______ in the k.estore.

1
mgh = mv2 (mass is constant of both sides)
2
 1
 mgh = mv2
2

1 2
 gh = v (mass is independent of conservation of energy)
2

Formula SI unit
work
power =
time W
W E watts
P = = = Fv
t t

4. Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio output power to input power.

Formula SI unit
output energy
efficiency =
input energy
unitless
output power
=
input power
Pressure. Upthrust. Archimedes’ principle

Pressure

Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area.

Formula SI unit Formula SI unit

Force
Pressure = 2 Pressure in fluids
Area Pa
1. = density × gravity × depth in fluid Pa
pascals .
F
P =
A

NB: Pa  kg m  1 s 2

Archimedes’ principle

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is completely' or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an
upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Formula SI unit
Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced
1. N
U =  g V
 SECTION B: THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC THEORY

Temperature

Archimedes’ principle

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness.

According to the Kinetic Theory, temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules.

The upper fixed point (100 °C) is the temperature of steam from pure boiling water at standard atmospheric
pressure.

The lower fixed point (0 °C) is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure.

Gas laws

Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional to
its volume.

Charles' law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

Pressure law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

Formula law Formula law

V
1 V  T or = constant
P  or P V = constant T
V 2
1. Boyle’s V1 V2 Charles’
P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = constant . = = constant
T1 T2
(When T is constant)
(when P is constant)
P
P  T or = constant
T general gas law
3. P1 P2 Pressure P1V 1 P2V 2
= = constant =
T1 T2 T1 T2

(when V constant)
Thermal energy

Heat is the energy in the process of transfer from a point of higher temperature to one of lower temperature,
due to the temperature difference between them.

NB: A body possesses thermal energy, but not heat energy.

The thermal energy of a body can rise or fall, by the absorption or emission of heat.

Formula SI unit
Kelvin = Celsius + 273
1. K
T =  + 273

Heat capacity. Specific heat capacity

Heat capacity (C) is the heat capacity of a body is the heat needed to change the body by unit temperature. It is
the property of a BODY.

Specific heat capacity (c) is the specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat needed to change unit mass of
the substance by unit temperature.

Formula SI unit Formula SI unit

EH = C ΔT
2 EH
1. J C =
EH = m c ΔT . ∆T J K1

EH 4 Joules per kelvin

3. c = J kg1 K1 C = mc
m ∆T Joules per kelvin .

NB: Specific heat capacity is a property of a matter.

Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by the method of mixtures

Assumptions

1. energy gained by the water is equal to energy lost by the metal

(mass of water) × (specific heat capacity of water) (mass of metal) × (specific heat capacity of metal)
=
× (temperature change of water) × (temperature change of metal)

2. Initial temperature of metal will be equal to temperature of boiling

Measurements

masses
m m, m w [ g ]  Masses of metal and water respectively

Temperatures
1  Initial temperature of metal
(temperature of hot metal)

2  Initial temperature of water

(temperature of cold water)

3  Temperature of mixture

(final temperature of metal and water)

Specific heat capacities

c m, c w [ J g1 C1 ]  specific heat capacities of metal and water respectively

Formula SI unit Formula SI unit

mm c m  m = m w c w  w
2 EH
1. J C =
mw c w (❑3−❑2 ) . ∆T
cm = J K1
mm (❑1−❑3 )
J kg1 K1 4 Joules per kelvin
3. c = EH C = mc
Joules per
m ∆T .
kelvin

Precautions to minimise errors

• Some energy from the hot metal is lost to the surrounding air. To keep this to a minimum, the hot metal
object is quickly transferred to the cool water.

• The object is briefly shaken to remove water from its surface since this water is not considered in the
calculation.

• The water is stirred with the thermometer to ensure that the temperature recorded is the mean (average)
temperature reached.

Sources of error

• Thermal energy is transferred by conduction to the cup and to the bench top. Thermal energy is also
transferred by radiation to the surrounding air.

• Evaporation of water from the surface of the metal on transferring it to the cool water removes latent
heat of vaporisation. The temperature of the metal on reaching the cool water is therefore less than  1.
Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by electrical method

Assumptions

1. increase in thermal energy of block is equal to electrical energy

(mass of block) × (specific heat capacity of block)

= (voltage) × (current) × (time)
× (temperature change of block)

2. Initial temperature of metal will be equal to temperature of boiling

Data for metal

mm [ g ]  Mass of metal

c [ J g1 C1 ]  specific heat capacity

1  Initial temperature of metal

(temperature of hot metal)

m m c m  m = Data for water

m w c w (❑3−❑2 ) mw [ g ]  Mass of water

cm =
m m (❑1−❑3 )
c w [ J g1 C1 ]  specific heat capacity of water

2  Initial temperature of water

(temperature of cold water)

Data for mixture

3  Temperature of mixture
(final temperature of metal and water)
 The specific heat capacity of a metal by
V [V]  voltage in volts
VIt
cm = I [A]  current in amperes
mm ( θ 2−θ1 )
t [s]  Time in seconds
Ee = V i t
 1 [ °C ]  Temperature in celcius
1  Temperature of hot metal
2  Temperature of cold water Ee [ J ]  Electrical energy in joules
2  Temperature of hot mixture

Determining the specific heat capacity of a metal by the method of mixtures

The specific heat capacity of a liquid by the method

of mixtures

m w c w (❑3−❑2 )
cL =
m L (❑1−❑3 )

Latent heat. Specific latent. Specific latent heat of fusion. Specific latent heat of vaporization

Latent heat is the heat energy necessary to change the state of a body without a change of temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion of a SUBSTANCE is the heat energy needed to change unit mass of the substance
from solid to liquid without a change of temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization of a SUBSTANCE is the heat energy needed to change unit mass of the
substance from liquid to gas without a change of temperature.

mass m [ kg ]
E H = m lF or
J J
E H = m lv specific latent heat lF [ ] or l v [ ]
kg kg
 voltage V [V]
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice by an
electrical method current I [A]

VIt Time t [s]

lF =
mw
mass of water mw [ g ]

The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water by

an electrical method mass of hot water m1 [ g ]

VIt new mass of hot water m2 [ g ]

lV =
m1 −m2

Evaporation: Evaporation is the escape of molecules from the surface of a liquid.

Boling: Boiling is the escape of molecules from the body of a liquid and occurs only at a particular
temperature for a given pressure.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Parameter of Comparison Boiling Evaporation

Boiling creates an extremely rapid
movement of water particles as this
Molecules are always moving, but at a
Movement of Particles is an endothermic process which
much slower rate than boiling.
signifies the addition of heat to a
substance.
is a natural process; it is typically known
Natural or Unnatural is an unnatural process.
as the first step in the Water Cycle.
occurs all throughout the liquid due
Where it Occurs occurs at the surface of the liquid
to the addition of so much heat.
Time takes shorter period of time takes longer to complete.
requires a temperature that is
Temperature requires little change in temperature.
greater than the boiling point.
Energy requires lots of energy being added. requires little to no energy being added.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

1. Temperature. Temperature change is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

2. Humidity. Humidity is inversely proportional to the rate of evaporation.

3. Wind. Wind is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

4. Surface area. Surface is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between two points in a medium by the relaying of
energy between adjacent particles of the medium, with no net displacement of the particles.
Conduction occurs significantly in solids (to a greater extent in metals than in non-metals),
less in liquids, and very little in gases. Cannot occur through a vacuum.

Convection: Convection is the transfer of thermal energy between two points in a medium by the movement
of the particles of the medium due to existing regions of different density. Convection occurs in
liquids and gases. Cannot occur through a vacuum.

Radiation: Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by means of electromagnetic waves. Radiation
occurs readily through gases and through a vacuum.

Factors affecting the absorption or emission of radiation

Factors Good absorbers / emitters Good reflectors

Texture (rough or smooth) rough smooth
Colour (black or white/silver) black white/silver
Nature (dull or shiny) good emitters shiny
Area (large or small) large small
SECTION C: WAVES AND OPTICS

Pulse: A pulse is a single disturbance that propagates from point to another.

Waves: A wave is a continuous stream of regular disturbances.

Progressive wave: Progressive waves are those that transfer energy from one point to the next.

Transverse wave: A transverse wave is one that has vibrations perpendicular to its direction of
propagation.

Longitudinal wave A longitudinal wave is one that has vibrations parallel to its direction of propagation

Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the vibration or oscillation from its
mean position.

Wavelength: The wavelength is the distance between two successive waves in phase.

Phase: Points in a progressive are in phase if the distance between then along the direction of
propagation is equal to a whole number of wavelengths.

Period: The period is the time for one complete vibration of oscillation.

Frequency: The frequency is the number of vibrations or oscillations per second.

Speed The speed of a wave is the rate at which the wavefronts of a wave propagate.

Wavefront: Wavefronts are taken as the line perpendicular to the propagation of a wave on which all
points are in phase.

The speed, frequency and period of a wave

speed v [ m s 1 ]
λ
v = f =
T frequency f [ Hz ] or [s 1 ]

1 Period T [ s]
f =
T
Sound: Sound is produced by vibrating systems and is transmitted as a longitudinal wave.

Loudness: Loudness is related to the amplitude of sound.

Pitch: Pitch is related to the frequency of sound.

Infrasound: infrasound is the classification of frequency of sound below 20 Hz

Audible range: This is the range of frequency of sound between 20 Hz and 20K Hz.

Ultrasound: Frequency range above 20K Hz.

Uses of ultrasound

 Communication.

 Measurement of distance and estimating speed of sound.

 Testing materials.

 Diagnostic imaging.

 Cleaning.

Electromagnetic waves: Group of frequency transverse waves consisting of of an electric field and a
magnetic field which vibrate perpendicular to each other and to their direction of propagation.

Properties of electromagnetic waves

 Transverse waves.
 Travel at the speed of light (3 × 10 8 m s 1).

 Propagate through vacuum.

 Consist of varying electric and magnetic fields.

 Reflect, refract, diffract and interfere.

Wavelengths and frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum

 Radio waves (10 8 Hz or ).

 Microwave (10 8 Hz or ).

 Infrared rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Visible light rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Ultraviolet (UV) rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 X- rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Gamma () rays (10 8 Hz or ).

Uses of electromagnetic waves

 Broadcasting and communication  Radio waves

 Communication and warming food  Microwave

 Heater; Night vision equipment; Remote control; Fibre optics communication; Infrared cameras;
Infrared thermometers; Heat-seeking sensors  Infrared rays.

 Human vision; Photography; Remote control; Fibre optics communication 

Visible light.

 Fluorescent lamps; Bank notes; Detergents, chemicals inside them absorb UV rays and convert the
energy to visible light  Ultraviolet (UV) rays.

 Security scanning of passengers and luggage; Medical imaging of dense materials such as bones or
tumours within flesh; X-ray crystallography: a method of investigating the structure of crystals, etc.
 X- rays.

 Cancer therapy; Imaging using a gamma camera; Tracers; Sterilisation  Gamma () rays.

Light waves: Two theories of light are light wave theory (Huygens) and corpuscular (particle) theory
(Newton).

light Theories

Huygens: Huygens supported the wave nature of light based on the evidence that light can undergo
reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.

Newton: Newton supported the particle theory of light based on the evidence that light travels in straight
lines and can travel through a vacuum. It is also supported by the phenomena of photo electric
effect.

Reflection: Reflection is the throwing back by a body or surface of light without absorbing it, is known as
reflection of light.
Laws of reflection

 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

 The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same
plane.

Reflection in a plane
Characteristics of the image formed in a plane mirror

 Same size as object

 Same distance perpendicularly behind the mirror as the object is in front

 Virtual

 Laterally inverted

In a virtual image, the rays appear to diverge from behind the mirror, so the image appears to come from
behind the mirror.

Laterally inverted means reversed side to side, so that the image of a word placed to face a mirror is
reversed.

Refraction: When light is travelling obliquely from one medium to another, then the direction of
propagation of light changes in the second medium, the phenomenon is known as refraction of
light.
For a given frequency of light, the wavelength is proportional to the wave speed:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength ( v = f ×  )

The relative refractive index of the second medium with

respect to the first medium angle of incidence i [ degrees ]

 1 sin i =  2 sin r angle of refraction r [ degrees ]

η2 sin i Refractive index  [ no unit ]

= = 
η1 sin r

For light travelling from one medium to another, the ratio:

speed ∈incident medium η2

= = 
speed ∈refractive medium η1

Laws of refraction

 The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in the same
plane.

sin i
 The ratio is a constant, for the light of a given color and for the given pair of media. This law
sin r
is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Critical angle: The critical angle is the angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction of 90° for light
travelling from one medium to an optically less dense medium

Total internal reflection: Total internal reflection occurs when incident angle is greater than the critical angle.

Applications of total internal reflection:

 Telecommunications.

 Endoscopic diagnostic imaging.

 Endoscopic therapy.

Reflecting prisms
Diffraction: Diffraction is the spreading of waves as they pass through obstacles. The smaller the
wavelength of the wave relative to the gap, the lesser is the diffraction.

Question: Why the diffraction of light is not normally observed?

Answer: Because the wavelength of the light waves might be considerably smaller than the gap in the
obstacle?

Interference: When two waves meet and pass through each other, the waves superimpose. The two
displacements caused by the separate waves are simply added together. This phenomenon is
known as interference

Lenses: A lens is a shaped piece of transparent glass or plastic that refracts light.

 Convex or converging lens is thicker at the optical centre and converges parallel rays of to produce a
real image.

 Concave or diverging lens is thinner at the optical centre and diverges parallel rays of to produce a real
virtual.

 Optical centre is the point at the centre through which all rays pass without deviation.
Quantity Positive sign (+) (Real) Negative sign (–) (Virtual)
1 Object distance, u Object is in front of lens Object is at the back of lens
2 Image distance, v Image is at the back of lens Image is in front of lens
3 Focal length, f Converging (convex) lens Diverging (concave) lens
 Principal axis is the line that passes through the centre and is perpendicular the face of the lens.

 Principal focus is also called the focal point. It is to this point that all of the rays converge (for a convex
lens) or from which they all diverge (for a concave lens)

 Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus

 Focal plane is an imaginary plane located at the principal focus and perpendicular to the principal axis.

 Magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.

The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object magnification m [ no unit ]

image height I image height I [ cm ]

magnification = = 
object height O
object height O [ cm ]
image distance v
magnification = =  image distance v [ cm ]
object distance u
The lens formula

1 1 1
=  + object distance v [ cm ]
focal length oject distance image distance
focal length f [ cm ]
1 1 1
=  +
f u v