Dr. Ghusoon Mohsin Ali: Al-Mustansiriya University College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department

Al-Mustansiriya University
College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Dr. Ghusoon Mohsin Ali

Electronic Physics Dr. Ghusoon Mohsin Ali
The pn Junction
nn0, pp0 Thermal equilibrium majority carriers

np0, pn0 Thermal equilibrium minority carriers
Fig. 6.1 A simplified 1-D sketch of a p-n junction (a) has a

doping profile (b). The 3-D representation (c) shows the cross
sectional area of the junction.
Most semiconductor devices contain at least one junction

between p-type and n- type semiconductor regions. The pn
junction diode itself provides characteristics that are used in
rectifiers and switching circuits. Figure shows The pn junction.
It is important to realize that the entire semiconductor is a single
crystal material in which one region is doped with acceptor
impurity atom to form p region and the adjacent region is doped
with donor atoms to form the n region. The interface separation
the n and p regions is referred to as the junction.
2
Majority carrier electrons in the n region will begin to diffusing

into the p region and majority carrier holes in the p region will
begin to diffusing into the n region. As electrons diffuse from n
region, positively charged donor atoms left behind. Similarly, as
holes diffuse from p region, negatively charged acceptor atoms
left behind. The net positively and negatively charged regions
induce an electric field in the region near junction. This region
referred to as the depletion region or space charge region.
Since it is depleted of any mobile.
Fig. 6.2 The space charge region, the electric field, and the
forces acting on the charged carriers.
3
The diffusion forces acting on electrons and holes at the edge of

depletion region are shown in the figure. The electric field in the
depletion region produce another force on the electrons and
holes which is in opposite direction to the diffusion force. In
thermal equilibrium the diffusion forces and E-field force
exactly balance each other.
Zero applied bias
Fig. 6.3 Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in thermal

equilibrium.
If we assume that no voltage is applied across pn junction, then

the junction is in thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is
constant throughout the entire system. The conduction and
4
valence band energies must bend as we go through the depletion

region.
Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential
barrier in trying to move into the conduction band of the p
region. The potential barrier referred to as the built-in potential
barrier
(Vbi) and is given as
kT æç N a N d ö
÷
Vi = ln
e çè ni2 ÷
ø
From this point Nd and
Na will denote the net donor and acceptor concentrations in the
individual n and p regions.
Example
Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at
T=300K, Na=1018/cm3 and Nd=1015/cm3, ni=1.5×1010/cm3
Solution
kT æç N a N d ö
÷
Vbi = ln
e çè ni2 ÷
ø
æ (1018 )(1015 ) ö
Vbi = 0.0259 lnçç 10 2 ÷
÷ = 0.754V
è (1.5 ´ 10 ) ø
5
If we change the acceptor doping from Na=1018/cm3 to

Na=1016/cm3 then the built-in potential barrier becomes Vbi
=0.635V.
ρ(C/cm2)
+eNd
-xp +
+xn
-
-eNa
r dE
=
e dx
Fig.6.4. The space charge density in a uniformly doped pn

junction assuming the abrupt junction approximation.
Electric Field
An electric field is created in the depletion region by the
separation of positive and negative charge densities. The figure
shows the volume charge density distribution in the pn junction.
We will assume that the space charge region abruptly ends in
the n region at x=+xn and abruptly ends in the p region at x=-xp.
The electric field in the p region is then given by
6
p n
x=0
-xp +xn
dV
E=
dx
Fig.6.5.Electric field in the space charge region of a uniformly

doped pn junction.
E=
- eN a
es
(x + x ) p
- xp £ x £ 0
The electric field in the n region is then given by
0 £ x £ xn
- eN d
E=
es
(xn
+x )
The maximum electric field at the junction is
- eN d xn - eN a x p
Emax = =
es es
7
Space charge width

We can determine the distance that the space charge region
extends into the p and n regions from the junction
N d xn
xp =
Na
1/ 2
ì
ï 2e V é N ùé 1 ùüï
xn = í s bi ê úê a
úý
ï
î
e êë N d úû êë N a + N d úû ï
þ
1/ 2
ì
x p = í s bi ê úê d
úý
ï
î
e êë N a úû êë N a + N d úû ï
þ
The total depletion or space charge width (W) is the sum of two
components
W = xn + x p
1/ 2
ì
ï 2e V é N + N ùü
d ï
W = í s bi ê a úý
ï e N N
êë a d úû ï
î þ
8
Example
A silicon pn junction at T=300K with zero applied bias has
doping concentration of Na=5×1016/cm3 and Nd=1015/cm3,
εr=11.7 , ni=1.5×1010/cm. Determine xn, xp,W and Emax.
Solution
kT æç N a N d ö
÷
Vbi = ln
e çè ni2 ÷
ø
æ (1016 )(1015 ) ö
Vbi = 0.0259 lnçç 10 ÷
÷ = 0.635V
è (1.5 ´ 10 ) ø
1/ 2
ì
ï 2e V é N + N ùü
d ï
W = í s bi ê a úý
ï e N N
êë a d úû ï
î þ
1/ 2
ì 2(11.7)(8.85 ´ 10-14 )(0.635) é1016 + 1015 ù ü
W =í -19 ê 16 15 ú ý
î 1 .6 ´ 10 ë 10 ´ 10 ûþ
W=0.951×10-4cm=0.951µm
1/ 2
ì
xn = í s bi ê úê a
úý = 0.864 µm
ï
î
e êë N d úû êë N a + N d úû ï
þ
9
x p = W - xn = 0.086 µm
- eN d xn - (1.6 ´ 10-19 )(1015 )(0.086 ´ 10-4 )

Emax = =
es 11.7 ´ 8.85 ´ 10-14
Emax = -1.34 ´ 104V / cm
Problems
Q1: Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a silicon pn
junction at T=300K, Na=5×1017/cm3 and Nd=1016/cm3,
ni=1.5×1010/cm.
(Ans:0. 769V)
Q2: A silicon pn junction at T=300K with zero applied bias has

doping concentration of Na=5×1016/cm3 and Nd=5×1015/cm3,
εr=11.7 , ni=1.5×1010/cm. Determine xn, xp,W and Emax.
(Ans:xn=4.11×10-6cm , xp=4.11×10-5cm,W=4.52×10-5cm and
|Emax |=3.18×104 V/cm)
10
pn junction current
If we apply a potential difference between p and n regions, we
will no longer be in equilibrium condition-the Fermi level
energy will no longer constant through the system.
For Fig. 7.1 the potential barrier seen by electrons in the n
region, holds back the large concentration of electrons in the n
region and keeps them from flowing into p region. Similarly, the
potential barrier seen by holes holds back the large
concentration of holes in the p region and keeps them from
flowing into the n region. The potential barrier, then, maintains
the thermal equilibrium.
Fig. 7.1 A pn junction with zero-bias voltage showing the the space
charge electric field and Energy-band diagram of the thermal equilibrium
pn junction.
11
Fig. 7.2 A pn junction with an applied

forward-bias voltage showing the
directions of the electric field induced
by V, and the space charge electric
field. Energy-band diagram of the
forward-biased pn junction. (b) pn
junction diode symbol in forward-
biased condition.
(b)
Fig. 7.2 shows the energy band diagram for the case when a
positive voltage is applied to the p region with respect to n
region. The total potential barrier now is reduced. The smaller
potential barrier means that the electric field in the depletion
region is also reduced. There will be a diffusion of holes and
electrons across the space charge region. The flow of charge
generates a current through the pn junction. The negative
voltage applied to the n-type end pushes electrons towards the
junction, while the positive voltage at the p-type end pushes
holes towards the junction. This reduces the width of the
depletion zone. This has the effect of shrinking the depletion
region. As the applied voltage exceeds the internal electrical
imbalance, current carriers of both types can cross the junction
into the opposite ends of the crystal. Electrons flow through the
12
circuit from the negative battery terminal to the positive

terminal of the battery. The I-V characteristics of a junction
diode is given by:
æ æ eV ö ö
I = I s çç expç ÷ - 1÷÷
è è kT ø ø
Where Is reverse saturation current
Fig. 7.3. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode.
The plot shows that when the diode is forward biased, the
current increases exponentially with applied voltage.
13
Example
A Germanium diode draws 40mA with the forward bias 0.3V,
T=300ok, calculate the reverse saturation current Is.
Solution
æ æ eV ö ö
I = I s çç expç ÷ - 1÷÷
è è kT ø ø
40 ´ 10-3 = I s (exp(38.69 ´ 0.3) - 1)
I s = 0.36 µA
Fig. 7.4 A pn junction, with an applied reverse-bias voltage, showing the directions of
the electric field induced by V, and the space charge electric field pn junction diode
symbol in forward-biased condition. Energy-band diagram of pn junction under
reverse bias.
14
Fig. 7.4 shows the energy band diagram of pn junction for the
case when the a positive voltage is applied to the n region with
respect to p region. The connections are illustrated in the
following diagram. Because the p-type material is now
connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the
'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction,
causing the width of the depletion zone to increase. Similarly,
because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal,
the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction.
Therefore the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly
with increasing reverse-bias voltage. The net effect therefore is
widening of depletion layer will establish too great a barrier
reducing the majority flow to zero. The minority carriers flow
cause current called reverse saturation current Is.
éD p Dn ù
J s = eê p n + n p ú
êë L p Ln úû
where Ln and Lp are diffusion lengths of holes and electrons.

The diffusion lengths are given by
Ln = Dnt L p = D pt
Where τn and τp are the carrier life time of electrons and holes.
15
Fig.7.5. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode with standard

diode symbol.
Example
A pn junction with NA=1024/m3, ND=1022/m3, A=16mm2, µn=0.4
m2/V.s, µp=0.2 m2/V.s. Ln=3×10-4m, Lp=2×10-4m, ni=1019/m3,
T=300°K Calculate pp, np, nn, pn, σn, σp, Dn, Dp, Is, Vbi, I if V=
Vbi.
Solution
p p = N A = 1024 / m3
np =
ni
2
=
(10 )
19 2
= 1014 / m3
24
pp 10
nn = N D = 1022 / m3
pn =
ni
=
2
1019 ( )
= 1011 / m3
2
22
nn 10
16
s n = N D eµn = 1022 ´ 1.602 ´ 10-19 ´ 0.4 = 640Sm -1
s p = N Aeµ p = 1024 ´ 1.602 ´ 10-19 ´ 0.2 = 3.2 ´ 104 Sm -1
µn
Dn = = 0.01m 2 s -1
39
µp
Dp = = 0.005m 2 s -1
39
éD P D n ù
J s = eê p n + n p ú
êë L p Ln ú
û
éD P D n ù
I s = Ae ê p n + n p ú = 0.64 µA
êë Lp Ln ú
û
kT æç N D N A ö÷
Vbi = ln = 0.34V
e ç ni 2 ÷
è ø
æ eV ö
I = I s ç exp( ) - 1÷ = 70mA
è kT ø
Depletion Width and Electric Field

Fig. 7.4 shows pn junction with an applied reverse-bias voltage
VR. The electric field originates on positive charge and
terminates on negative charge. The width (W) of the space
charge region increasing due to the increasing of the number of
17
the positive charge and terminates on negative charge in the

depletion region. The width (W) of the space charge region is
given by replace the built in potential barrier by the total
potential barrier as
ì
ï 2e V + VR
W = í s bi
( )é N + Nd ùü ï
1/ 2
ê a
úý
ï e êë N a N d úû ï
î þ
Example
Calculate the space charge width in silicon pn junction when a
reverse bias with 5V is applied at T=300K. Assume that
NA=1022/m3, ND=1021/m3, ni=1.5×1016/m3.
solution
kT æç N D N A ö÷
Vbi = ln
e ç ni 2 ÷
è ø
(
æ 1022 1021 ö
Vbi = 0.0259 lnç
)( )
÷ = 0.635V
(
ç 1.5 ´ 1016 2 ÷
è ø)
ì (
ï 2e V + VR
W = í s bi
)é N + Nd ùü
1/ 2
ï
ê a
úý
ï e êë N a N d úû ï
î þ
( )
1/ 2
ì 2(11.7 ) 8.85 ´ 10-12 (0.635 + 5) é 1022 + 1021 ù ü
W =í 21 ú ý
î 1.602 ´ 10 -19 ê 22
ë 10 10 (
ûþ )( )
18
W = 2.83µm
Junction Capacitance
Since we have a separation of positive and negative charges in
the depletion region, a capacitance is associated with pn
junction. The junction capacitance is also referred to as the
depletion layer capacitance and can be written as
1/ 2
ì
ï ee s N a N d ü
ï
C' = í
( )(
î 2 Vbi + VR N a + N d
ï )
ý
ï
þ
(F/m2)
Example
Calculate the junction capacitance for previous example if the
cross section area is 0.1µA.
Solution
1/ 2
ì
ï ee s N a N d ü
ï
C' = í
( )(
ï )
ý
ï
þ
( )(
ì 1.602 ´ 10-19 11.7 ´ 8.85 ´ 10-12 1022 1021 ü
C' = í
)( )( ) 1/ 2
î 2(0.635 + 5) 1022 + 1021( ý

þ )
C ' = 3.66 ´ 10-5 F / m 2
C = C ' A = 3.66 ´ 10-5 ´ 0.1 ´ 10-6 = 3.66 pF

19
Comparing the equation of for the total depletion width (W) and
the junction capacitance (C') we can write
es
C' =
W
Fig.7.6. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode shows

breakdown voltage.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as

the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field
intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p-n junction
depletion zone breaks-down and current begins to flow,
usually by either the Zener or avalanche breakdown processes.
Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are
reversible, so long as the amount of current flowing does not
20
reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat

and cause thermal damage.
The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied
before entering the zener region is called peak inverse voltage
PIV.
Silicon versus Germanium
Silicon diodes have higher PIV, current rating and wider
temperature range than Germanium diodes.
PIV(Si)=1000V, PIV(Ge)=400V. Temperature may rise 200oC for
Si, whereas 100oC for Ge. The disadvantage of Si is VT(si)=0.7V
while VT(Ge)=0.3V.
Problems
Q1: A pn junction with NA=1022/m3, ND=1021/m3, A=10-6m2,
T=300°K, Ln=7.1×10-4m, Lp=3.5×10-4m, ni=1.6×1016/m3.
Calculate barrier potential and the reverse saturation current.
(Ans: 0.63V, 1.6×10-13A)
Q2: Calculate forward current in Ge diode at 20oC when the
forward bias 0.3V, compare this value with that after a
temperature rise of 50oC. Assume that reverse saturation current
doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature, Is=1µA.
(Ans: 0.143A, 0.811A)
Q3: Calculate the space charge width in silicon pn junction
and junction capacitance when a reverse bias with 8V is applied
at T=300K. Assume that NA=5×1022/m3, ND=5×1021/m3,
ni=1.5×1016/m3.
(Ans: 1.57µm)
21
Resistance level of the diode

As operating point of a diode moves from one region to another
the resistance of the diode will also change due to the nonlinear
shape of the characteristics curve. The type of applied voltage or
signal will defined the resistance level.
40
DC or Static Resistance
Fig. 8.1. Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular

operating point.
The DC resistance (RD) of diode at the operating point can be found
simply by finding the corresponding level of VD and ID. The DC
resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance
levels obtained for the vertical rise section.
VD
RD =
ID
Fig. Example 8.1
41
Example 8.1
Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of the
figure shown if
(a) ID=0.2mA
(b)ID=5mA
(c) VD=-10V
Solution
(a) At ID=0.2mA VD=0.5V from the curve
VD 0.5
RD = = = 2.5kW
ID 0.2 ´ 10- 3
(b) At ID=20mA VD=0.8V from the curve
VD 0.8
RD = = = 40W
ID 20 ´ 10- 3
(c) At VD=-10V ID =-1µA from the curve
VD 10
RD = = = 10 MW
ID 1 ´ 10- 6
AC or Dynamic Resistance
If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the varying input will move
the instantaneous operating point up and down region of the
characteristics and thus define a specific change in current and voltage.
The ac resistance (rd) can be define as
42
Fig. 8.3, Defining the dynamic or ac resistance.

Dv dv
rd = =
Di di
di
gd =
dv
æ eV ö
I D = I s ç exp( ) - 1÷
è kT ø
eV
= I s exp( ) - I s
kT
æ eV ö
d ç I s exp( ) - I s ÷
di kT ø = e I exp( eV )
gd = = è s
dv dv kT kT
43
eV
I D = I s exp( ) - Is
kT
eV
@ I s exp( )
kT
Fig. 8.4, Determining the ac resistance at a Q-point.

e
gd = I = 38.7 I D
kT D
1 26mV
rd = =
38.7 I D ID
Example
Determine the ac resistance levels for the diode if ID=13mA
Solution
26mV 26
rd = = = 2W
ID 13
Diode equivalent circuit

The equivalent circuit means that, the device symbol can be removed
from a schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without
affecting the actual behavior of the system. The result is often a network
that can be solved using traditional circuit analysis techniques.
• Ideal diode
44
Ideal diode conduct current in forward biasing and act like an

open circuit like an open circuit in the reverse biasing. The
characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can
conduct current in only one direction.
Fig. 8.5. Ideal diode and its characteristics.
Approximate equivalent model
Fib. 8,7 Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon

semiconductor diode.
45
In this case, the practical diode is modeled by an ideal diode and a

voltage source. The magnitude of the voltage source is usually equal to
the forward voltage drop across the diode. The voltage drop across the
diode remains the same regardless the current through it when it
conducts.
• Piecewise Linear Model
The simplest possible piecewise linear model of a diode is obtained
by using two straight lines to approximate its voltage-current
characteristic. However, the point has to be on the right-hand side of the
current axis (y-axis) as shown. In this figure, line (1) corresponds to the
OFF state of the diode, line (2). The intersection of the two lines on the
Fig.8.8. Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent

circuit
using straight-line segments to approximate the
characteristic curve.
voltage axis is taken to be the forward

voltage drop of the diode for this model.
From the slope of the line (2), we can
compute the resistance that must be
included in series with the diode model.
According to this model, the voltage drop
across the diode must exceed VDO for the diode to begin conducting.
46
SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS WITH DC INPUTS

In general a diode is in the "on" state if the current established
by the applied sources is such that its direction matches that of
the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD= 0.7 V for silicon and
VD= 0.3 V for germanium.
Fig.9.1 Series diode configuration and Substituting the

equivalent model for the “on” diode
• If a diode in the on state place 0.7 V or 0.3 V drop across

the diode
E - I D Rs - VD = 0
E - I D Rs - 0.7 = 0
E - 0.7
ID =
Rs
• If a diode ( has been reversed) is the off state place an open

circuit across the diode
VD=E
47
E - I D Rs - VD = 0
ID = 0
E - VD = 0 Fig. 9.2 Reversing the diode
Example 9.1
E = VD
Determine (a)VD,ID,VR and (b) if
E ID
the diode reversed VD,ID,VR. For E=8V, VD
Rs=2.2k
Solution
(a)For forward bias VD=0.7V
Fig. 9.3 Example 9.1
E - 0.7 8 - 0.7
ID = = = 3.3mA
Rs 2.2k
VR = 8 - 0.7 = 7.3V
(b) For reverse bias VD=8V

ID=0
VR=0
Notes
• An open circuit can have voltage a cross its terminals but
the current is always 0A
• An short circuit has 0V voltage drop a cross its terminals
but the current is limited surrounding networks.
48
Fig. 9.4 Source notation.

Example 9.2
Determine VR, ID
Solution
Fig. 9.4 Example 9..2
Fig. 9.5 Determining the unknown quantities for Example 9.2
E - I D Rs - VD1 - VD 2 = 0
12 - I D 5.6k - 0.7 - 0.3 = 0
E - 0.7 - 0.3
ID =
Rs
12 - 0.7 - 0.3
= = 1.96mA
5.6k
VR = I D Rs
= 1.96 ´ 5.6 = 11V
49
Example 9.3
Determine ID ,V1,V2,
Vo.
F
i
g
.
9.6 Example 9..3
Solution
E1 - I D Rs - VD - I D R + E2 = 0
10 - I D 4.7 k - 0.7 - I D 2.2k + 5 = 0
50
15 - 0.7
ID = = 2.07 mA
(4.7 + 2.2)k
V1 = I D Rs = 2.07 ´ 4.7 = 9.73V
V2 = I D R = 2.07 ´ 2.2 = 4.55V
- E2 + I D R - Vo = 0
Vo = -5 + 4.55 = -0.45V
PARALLEL AND SERIES- PARALLEL DIODE

CONFIGURATIONS
Example 9.4
Determine VO, I, ID1, ID2.
Fig. 9.8 Example 9..4
Solution
Fig. 9.9
Determining the
51
unknown quantities for Example 9.4
Vo=0.7V
E - IRs - VD1 = 0
10 - I 0.33k - 0.7 = 0
10 - 0.7
I=
0.33k
= 28.18mA
Diodes of similar characteristics
I
I D1 = I D 2 = = 14.9mA
2
Example 9.5
Determine I
Solution Fig. 9.10 Example 9..5
E1 - I D Rs - VD - E2 = 0
20 - I D 2.4k - 0.7 - 4 = 0
16 - 0.7
ID = = 6.8mA 52
2.4k
Fig. 9.11 Determining the unknown quantities for

Example 9.5
Example 9.6
Determine Vo
Solution
The applied voltage will turn both diodes. But the voltage
across parallel elements must be the same, when the supply
turned on it will increase from 0-12V over a period time (ms).
53
At the instant during the rise that 0.3V is established a cross Ge

diode it will turn on maintain a level 0.3V, the silicon diode
remain open circuit
Vo = 12 - 0.3 = 11.7V
Example 9.7
Determine I1,I2 and ID.
Solution

VD 2
I1 =
3.3k
0.7
=
3.3k
= 0.212mA
E1 - 0.7 - 0.7 - I 2 (5.6k ) = 0
I 2 = I D 2 + I1
I D 2 = I 2 - I1 = 3.32 - 0.212 = 3.108mA
54
Problems
Q1: Determine the current
I for the configuration of
the figure using the
approximation equivalent
model for the diode.
(Ans:IDQ=0A)
Q2: Determine the voltage Vo for each configuration of the

figure.
(Ans:9.5V, 7V)
Q3:
Determine Vo
and I for each
configuration
of the figure
.
(Ans:(a) 9.7V, 9.7 mA, (b) 14.6V, 0.553 mA)
Q4: Determine Vo and I for each configuration of the figure
55
(Ans: 6.2V, 1.55mA)
Q5: Determine Vo and ID for the networks
56
A sinusoidal inputs:
Fig.10.1 Half-wave rectifier.

Half wave rectifier
With an ideal diode and sinusoidal input voltage Vin as shown.
During the time when Vin>0 the diode is forward biased and so
the voltage across this “ideal” diode is zero. This observation is
also represented by the equivalent circuit shown on Figure,
which clearly indicates that the output voltage Vo is equal to the
input voltage Vin.
Fig 10.2. Conduction region (0 → T/2).
Similarly during the time when Vin<0, the diode is reverse

biased and so the current flowing through the diode is zero, see
equivalent circuit on Figure and the output voltage is zero.
57
Fig 10.3. Conduction region (T/2→T).

The total response of the circuit to the input signal Vin is shown
on Fig. 10.4. Note that the presence of the diode alters the
output signal in a profound way: it converts an AC (alternating
current) input voltage, whose average value over time is zero,
into an output voltage whose polarity does not change over time,
and which has a non-zero average value. This type of voltage
signal is called DC (direct current) since the direction of the
current does not change over time. We have just taken the first
step in the design of an AC to DC converter.
Fig.10.4 Half-wave rectifier signal.
58
The output signal Vo is a rectified signal of the input Vin and the
circuit that generated this signal, the circuit, is called Rectifier
circuit. Furthermore, since it passes only half of the input signal
it is called a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit.
A dc voltmeter is constructed to read the average values
1 2p
VDC = ò v da
2p 0 o
1 p
VDC = ò V sin ada
2p 0 m
Vm
VDC = (- cos a )p0
2p
Vm Vm Vm
VDC = (- cos p + cos 0) = (- (-1) + 1) =
2p 2p p
VDC = 0.318Vm
The effect of using silicon diode (VT=0.7V). The applied signal

must now be at least 0.7V before the diode can turn on. For
levels of vi
• vo = vin-VT for Vin> VT, iD = iL =(vin- VT)/RL
• vo = 0 for Vin < VT (Open circuit) Diode in off state: iD=iL=0
and vo = 0
VDC = 0.318(Vm - VT )
59
Fig.10.5. Effect of VT on half wave rectified signal.
Example 10.1
Fig.10.6. Example10.1
a- Sketch vo and determine Vdc.
b- Repeat (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by silicon diode.
c- Repeat (a)and (b) if Vmi=200V.
Solution
a- The diode will contact during the negative half of input.
VDC = 0.318Vm = -0.318(20) = -6.36V
Fig.10.6. Resulting vo for the circuit of Example10.1
60
Fig.10.7 Effect of VT on output of Fig. 10.6
b- Using a silicon diode

Vmo=20-0.7=19.3V
VDC = -0.318(20 - 0.7) = -6.14V c-
VDC = -0.318(200) = -63.6V
VDC = -0.318(200 - 0.7) = -63.38V
PIV
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV).
The voltage rating must not be exceeded in the reverse–bias and
diode enter the zener avalanche region therefore PIV>Vm .
Fig. 10.8 Determining the required PIV rating for the halfwave
rectifier.
61
A full-wave rectifier
Bridge rectifier
Fig. 10.9 Full-wave bridge rectifier.
The dc level obtained from sinusoidal input can be improved

100% using full-wave rectifier, this circuit called bridge circuit.
During the positive half cycle D2and D3 are conducting while D1
and D4 are in the off state the current pass through RL, since the
diodes are ideal vi=vo.
Fig. 10.10 Conduction path for the positive region of vi.

During the negative half cycle D4 and D1 are conducting, the
important result that the current pass through RL is in the same
direction, establishing the second positive pulse.
62
( )
VDC = 2 0.318Vm = 0.636Vm
Fig. 10.11 Conduction path for the negative region of vi.
Fig.10.12 Input and output waveforms for a full-wave rectifier.
If silicon rather than ideal diodes, an application of Kirchhoff's

voltage law
vo= vi-2VT
(
VDC = 0.636 Vm - 2VT )
Fig.10.13
Determining
Vomax for
silicon diodes
in the bridge
configuration.
PIV
The required peak inverse voltage (PIV)
of each ideal diode for the indicated
63
Loop the maximum voltage a cross R is

Vm and the (PIV) rating is defined by
PIV>Vm .
Fig.10.13 Determining the required PIV for the bridge
configuration.
Center tapped transformer (CT)
Fig.10.14 Center-tapped transformer full-wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier with only two diodes but required CT

transformer. During a positive half cycle D1 assume short circuit
equivalent and D2 open circuit equivalent. The output voltage
appears as shown.
64
Fig.10.15 Network conditions for the positive region of vi.
During a negative half cycle reversing the roles of diodes but

maintaining the same direction of current through R, the output
voltage as shown with the same Vdc
Fig.10.16 Network conditions for the negaitive region of vi.
PIV
The required peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each ideal diode for
the indicated Loop the maximum voltage a cross R is vm and the
(PIV) rating is defined by
PIV-Vm- vR=0
PIV=Vm+ Vm=2 Vm .
PIV>2Vm .
Fig.10.17 Determining thePIV

level for the diodes of the CT
transformer full-wave rectifier.
65
Example
10.2
Determine
Vo, Vdc, and
PIV.
Figure
10.18 Example 10.2
Solution
During the positive half cycle
Figure 10.19 Network of Fig. 10.18 for the positive region of vi.
region of vi.
R1 2
Vo = Vi = 10 = 5V
R1 + R 2 2+2
Figure 10.20 Resulting output for the Example
66
During the negative half cycle the roles of the diodes will be
interchanged and Vo appear as
( )
VDC = 0.636 Vm = 0.636(5) = 3.18V
PIV=5V
Problems
Q1: Sketch vo and
determine Vdc.
(Ans: Vpeak =155.56V, Vdc
=49.47V )
Q2:Assuming an ideal
diode, sketch vi, vd, and id for the half-wave rectifier 7. The
input is a sinusoidal waveform
Q3: Determine vo and the required PIV rating for each for each
67
diode.
(Ans: Vpeak =-100V, PIV =100V )
Q4: Sketch vo and determine Vdc.

(Ans: Vpeak =56. 67V, Vdc =36.04V )
68
Clippers
Clippers are diode circuit that have the ability to clip of a
portion of input signal.
-Series clipper:-series clipper is defined as one where the diode
is in series with the load.
Fig. 11.1 Series clipper.
The addition of a dc supply have an effect on the output of a

clipper our initial discussion will be limited to ideal diodes.
Fig. 11.2 Series clipper with dc supply

.
To analyzing networks as figure shown there are a few thought
to keep in mind as you work toward a solution.
69
1-Make a mental sketch of response of the network based on

the direction of the diode and applied voltage levels. The
direction of the diode suggests that the signal vi must be positive
to turn it on and the voltage vi must be greater than V volt to
turn it on. The negative region of the input signal the diode is an
open circuit off.
2-Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will
cause a change in state of diode.
. Fig. 11.3 Determining the transition level for the circuit
For the ideal diode the transition between states will occur at
the point on the characteristics where
id=0A at vd=0V. Applying the condition
Fig. 11.4 Determining vo.
70
id=0A at vd=0V to the network will result.
vi - V - vo = 0
vi - V - idR = 0
vi -V = 0
vi = V
The level of vi that will cause the transition. For an input voltage
greater than V the diode is in on state (vi >V ), while for input
voltage less than V the diode is in off state (vi < V).
3-Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to define (vo) in each
state.
-Diode on
vi - V - vo = 0
vo = vi - V
- Diode off
vo = 0
4-Sketch the input signal above the output signal and

determine the output at instance values of the input.
Fig.11.5 Determining
vo when vi _ Vm
71
Fig.11.6
Sketching
vo.
Example 11.1
Determine the output waveform for the network
Fig.11.7
Example 11.1
Solution
Fig.11.8 vo with diode in
the “on” state.
-The diode will be in the on state for the positive

half cycle vi
vi + V - idR = 0
-Applying id=0 and vd=0 to obtain transition level
vi + V - 0 = 0
72
vi = -V = -5V
Fig.11.9 Determining the transition level for the clipper
For vi more than -5V the diode on, for vi less than -5V the diode
off.
-When diode on
vi + 5 - vo = 0
vo = vi + 5
-When diode off

vo = 0
Fig.11.10 Sketching vo
Clippers with square wave

73
The analysis of clippers with square wave inputs is much easier

than
clippers with sinusoidal input, the network can be analyzed as if
it had
only two dc level inputs.
Example 11.2
Repeat the example for the square wave input
Fig 11.11 Applied signal for Example 11.2.

Solution
Fig 11.12 Determining vo
-For vi=20V the diode on

vo = vi + 5 = 20 + 5 = 25V
-For vi=-10V the diode of
74
vo = vi + 5 = 20 + 5 = 25V
-Parallel:- parallel clipper is defined as one where the diode is

in branch parallel with the load.
Fig 11.13 Response to a parallel clipper.
Example 11.3
Determine vo
Fig 11.14 Applied

signal and circuit for
Example 11.2.
Solution
-The direction of the diode Strongly suggested that the
diode on for the negative cycle
-The transition state id=0 and vd=0
75
Fig 11.15 vo for the

negative region of vi.
vi - idR - 4 = 0
vi = 4
For (vi>4) Diode off,
vo = vi
Fig 11.16 Determining the
transition level
For(vi<4) Diode on,
vo = 4V
Fig 11.17 Determining vo for

the open state of the diode.
-Sketching
Fig 11.18 Sketching vo
76
Example
Repeat example using a silicon diode
Solution
-The diode on for the negative cycle
-The transition state id=0 and vd=0.7V
Applying Kichhoff's law
Fig 11.19 Determining the transition level

vi - idR + 0.7 - 4 = 0
vi = 4 - 0.7 = 3.3V
For (vi > 3.3V) Diode off, v o = vi
For (vi< 3.3V) Diode on, vo = 3.3V
Fig 11.20 Determining vo

-Sketching
Fig 11.21 Sketching vo
Note:-Including the effect of VT will complicate the analysis

somewhat, but once the analysis is understand with the ideal
diode the procedure including the effect of VT will not be that
difficult.
77
Problems
Q1: Sketch and determine vo for configurations shown.
(Ans: positive pulse 3.28V, positive pulse 14.3V )

(Ans: clipped at 4.7V, positive clipped at 0.7V; negative-12V )
Q3: Sketch iR and vo for the network
78
Clampers
Fig. 12.1 Clamper.
The clamping network is one that will clamp a signal to a

different dc level. It must have a capacitor a diode and resistance
but it can also employ dc supply to introduce additional shift.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen because the time
constant τ,
t = RC
Fig. 12.2 not Diode “on” and the capacitor charging to V volts.
And the capacitor will fully charge or discharge in 5τ, τ must be

large enough to ensure that the voltage a cross capacitor does
discharge significantly during the interval the diode off.
79
Fig.12.3 Determining vowith the diode “off.”
During the positive half cycle the network will appear as shown
with the diode in on state, τ is very small that the capacitor will
charge very quickly vo=0.
During the negative half cycle the network will appear as
shown, diode off, τ is large, the capacitor hold during the period
- V - V - vo = 0
vo = -2V
The following steps may be helpful to

analysis clampers.
-Start analysis by the part of input
signal that will forward bias the diode
-During the period assume that the
capacitor will charge to voltage level
determined by the network(vc,vo)
- Assume that during the diode OFF Fig. 12.4 Sketching vo
the capacitor will hold to its established
80
voltage level.
-Keep in mind the general rule that the total swing of the output
must match the swing of input signal.
Example
Determine vo
Fig 12.5 Applied signal and network for Example 12.1.

Solution
1 1
T= = = 10- 3 s Half time-period=
f 1000 T
= 0.5 ´ 10- 3 s
2
-Begin with forward bias, 2nd half Period, the network will
appear as shown
vo=5V
20 + 5 - vc = 0
vc = 25V
Fig 12.6 Determining vo and VC with the diode in the “on” state.
81
-During the positive half cycle Diode reverse bias
10 + 25 - vo = 0
vo = 35V
Fig 12.7 Determining vo with the diode in the “off” state
The output swing of 30V match the swing of input signal.
Time constant of the discharge network
t = RC = (100k )(0.1µ ) = 0.01s = 10ms
The total discharge time
5t = 50ms
Half time-period=T/2=0.5×10-3s
It’s a good approximation that the capacitor will hold its voltage
during the discharge period.
82
Fig 12.8 vi and vo for the clamper
Example
Repeat example using a silicon diode
Solution
Fig 12.9 Determining vo and VC

with the diode in the “on” state.
For short circuit state
5-0.7-vo=0
vo=4.3V
for input section
- 20 - vc + 0.7 - 5 = 0
vc = 24.3V
-For open circuit state Diode reverse bias
83
10 - 24.3 - vo = 0
vo = 34.3V
The output swing of 30V match the

swing of input signal.
Fig 12.10 Determining vo with the
diode in the “off” state.
Fig 12.11 vo for the clamper

Note:-
For sinusoidal signal one approach to the analysis of clamping
networks is to replace the sinusoidal signal by a square wave of
the same peak value.
Fig 12.12 Clamping network with a sinusoidal input.
84
Problems
Q2: Sketch vo for each network of Figure for the input shown.
Would it be a good approximation to consider the diode to be
ideal for both configurations? Why?
Q3. For the network of Figure:

(a) Calculate 5.
(b) Compare 5 to half the period of the applied signal.
(c) Sketch vo.
85
Reverse Bias Operation. Zener Diode
Zener Diodes
Zener diodes are specially manufactured to operate in the Zener
region. These diode are made by means of heavily doped regions
near the metal contacts to the semiconductor. The high density of
charge carriers provides the means for a substantial reverse
breakdown current to be sustained. These diodes are useful in
applications where one would like to hold some load voltage
constant, for example, in voltage regulators. If the voltage a cross
zener diode less than Vz but greater than 0 with the polarity
indicated the zener diode is in off state and the equivalent circuit
is at open circuit.
Fig. 13.1 IV characteristics
Fig. 13.2 Zener diode

equivalents for the (a) “on”
and (b) “off” states
86
Voltage Regulator Circuit using

a Zener Diode
Vi and R fixed
To analysis of zener diode circuits
can be broken into steps:-
(a)
1-Remove zener diode from the
(a)
Circuit and calculate open circuit voltage
RL
V = VL = Vi
RL + R
-If V>Vz the zener diode is on (b)

and can be substituted.the
equivalent model of (a)
-If V<Vz the zener diode is off and the

equivalent model of (b) can be
substituted.
2-Substitute the a appropriate

equivalent model for the
network of on state (c)
.
Fig. 13.3 (a) Basic Zener
IR = Iz + IL regulator
(b) Determining the state of the
VL = Vz Zener diode
(c) Substituting the Zener
VL equivalent for the “on”
IL = situation
RL
87
VR Vi - Vz
IR = =
R R
The power P=IV

The power dissipated by zener diode Pz=Iz Vz must be less than
Pzm specified for the device.
Example 13.1
Determine VL,VR, Iz and
Pz. If Vi=16V, Vz=10V,
R1=1k, Pzmax=30mw
a-RLoad=1.2k, b- RLoad=3k
Fig. 13.4 Example 13,1
Solution
Fig. 13.5
Determining V for the
regulator
(a)
RL 1.2
V L = Vi = 16 = 8.73V
R L + R1 1.2 + 1
V=8.73V Less than Vz=10V then diode off

88
VL=8.73V
VR=Vi-Vz=16-8.73=7. 27V
Iz=0
Pz=0
(b)
RL 3 Fig. 13.6 Resulting
VL = Vi = 16 = 12V operating
RL + R1 3 +1 point for the network
V=12V more than Vz=10V then diode on

VL=Vz=10V
VR=Vi-Vz=16-10=6V
I R = Iz + I L
VL
10
IL = =
= 3.33mA
RVL 3k
6
IR = R = = 6mA
R 1k
Fig. 13.7 Network in the “on” state
.
I z = I R - I L = 6 - 3.33 = 2.67 mA
Pz=Iz Vz=2.67×10-3×10=26.7mw Which is less than Pzmax 30mw
Note :- The zener is in the on state as soon as the voltage a cross

the zener diode is Vz volt. It will then lock in at this level and
89
never reach the higher level. Zener diode used in regulator

networks to maintained a fixed voltage a cross RL.
Vi fixed, variable RL
Too small RL will result VL less than Vz and the zener device
will be in the off state. To determine the minimum load
resistance that will turn the zener diode on, simply calculate the
value of RL that will result VL=Vz
RVz
RL min =
Vi - Vz
Any load resistance value greater than RLmin will ensure that the
zener diode on.
VZ
I L max =
RL min
Since Iz is limited to Izmax as provided in data sheet

VR
IR =
R
I L min = I R - I Z max
And maximum resistance load

Vz
RL max =
I L min
90
Example 13.2
Determine the (a) range
of RL and IL that will
result in VRL
maintained at 10V, (b)
maximum wattage Fig. 13.8 Example 13.2
Solution
RVz 1k ´ 10
RL min = = = 250W
Vi - Vz 50 - 10
Vz
RL max =
I L min
I L min = I R - I Z max
Vi - Vz
I L min = - I Z max
R
50 - 10
I L min = - 32m = 8mA
1k
10
RL max = = 1.25kW
8m
VZ 10
I L max = = = 40mA
RL min 250
Pzmax =IzmVz=32×10-3×10=320mw
91
Fig. 13.9 VL versus RL and IL for the regulator
RL fixed, variable Vi
For fixed values of RL, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large
to turn the zener diode on. The minimum turn on voltage
Vi=Vimin
Vi min =
(R L
)
+ R Vz
RL
Vi max = I R max R + VZ
I R max = I z max + I L
Example 13.3
Determine the range of
Vi that will maintain
zener diode in the on
state
Solution Fig.13.10 Example 13.3
Vi min =
(R L
)
+ R Vz
RL
92
Vi min =
(1200 + 220)20 = 23.67V
1200
Vi max = I R max R + VZ
Fig. 13.11 VL versus Vi for the regulator
I R max = I z max + I L
20
I R max = 60m + = 76.67 mA
1.2k
Vi max = 76.67 m ´ 220 + 20 = 36.87V
Fig.13.12 Waveform generated by a filtered rectified signal
Note:-The input could appear as shown and the output would

remain constant at 20V.
Two or more reference level can be established by placing
zener diodes in series. As long as Vi is greater than the sum of
Vz1 and Vz2 both diodes will be in the on state and the three
reference voltages will be available.
93
Fig. 13.13 Establishing three reference voltage levels.
Two back to back zener diodes can also be used as shown As

long as Vi is greater than the Vz, Z2 turn on as a zener diode
while Z1 is forward bias as short circuit, if Vi (Vi=10V) is
smaller than the Vz, Z2 turn off as a open circuit and then
Vo=10V.
Fig. 13.14 Sinusoidal ac regulation: (a) 40-V peak-to-peak

sinusoidal ac regulator; (b) circuit operation at vi = 10 V.
94
Fig. 13.15 Simple square-wave generator.

Problem
Q1: Design a voltage regulator that will maintain an input
voltage of 20V across 1kΩ load with an input that will vary
between 30 to 50V. Determine the proper value of Rs and the
maximum current.
(Ans: Rs=0.5kΩ, Izm=40mA)
Q2. (a) Design the network to maintain VL at 12 V for a load
variation (IL) from 0
to 200 mA. That is, determine Rs and VZ.
(b) Determine PZmax for
the Zener diode of part (a).
95
Optical Devices
Semiconductor devices can be designed and fabricated to detect and
generate optical signals (detect; solar cells and photodetectors convert
optical power into electrical power): (generate; light emitting diodes and
laser diodes convert electrical power into optical power).
The characteristics of solar cells and photodetectors are a function of
optical energy, which is absorbed in a semiconductor and generates
excess electron-hole pairs producing photocurrent. The excess carriers are
separated very quickly by the electric field so that a photocurrent is
generated.
The inverse mechanism of photodetector is electroluminescence. Excess
carriers are generated and then recombine, which may result in the
emission of photons in a forward biased pn junction, such as light
emitting diode (LED) and Laser diode.
The energy of photon is given by
12400
E( eV ) =
l( nm )
There are several possible photon-semiconductor interaction mechanisms.

When photon collides with a valence electron, enough energy may be
imparted to elevate the electron into the conduction band. Such a process
generates electron-hole pairs and creates excess carrier concentration.
96
If the photon energy (hf) is equal Eg, the photon can interact with valence
electron and elevate the electron into the conduction band. This
interaction create an electron in conduction band and hole in valence
band an electron-hole pair. When hf>Eg an electron-hole pair is created
and the excess energy may give the electron or hole additional kinetic
energy, which will be dissipated as heat in the semiconductor.
Ec
hf
Ev
hf<Eg hf=Eg
hf>Eg
Fig. 15.1 Optically generated electron-hole formation in a semiconductor

.
Fig. 15.2 Current-voltage characteristics of optoelectronic diodes
Solar Cells
Photovoltaics (PV) for short, is a solar power technology that uses solar
cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert light from the sun directly
into electricity. A solar cell is the smallest basic solar electric device,
which generates electricity when exposed to light. The current-voltage
97
(IV) characteristics are generally measured in the dark as well as under

monochromatic and solar spectrum illuminations. In the dark, the cell
displays regular diode-like characteristics with the curve passing through
the origin. Under illumination, a non-zero photocurrent, called the short
circuit current (Isc), is observed for zero applied voltage. The value of the
external bias at which the photocurrent is zero is called the open circuit
voltage (Voc) and when the biasing crosses this value, majority carriers
take over and an exponentially increasing current in the forward bias
direction.
Fig. 15.3 The IV characteristics of Solar cell.

The fill factor (FF), which is the measure of the quality of the IV
characteristics of a solar cell, is then given by:
Pmax VMP I MP
FF = =
Pideal Voc I sc
The power conversion efficiency (η), which is the overall efficiency of a

solar cell under illumination, is given by:
98
Pmax VMP I MP FFVoc I sc

h= = =
Psource Psource Psource
Photodetector
Photodetectors are semiconductor devices that also convert optical power
to electrical power.
In this type of device each photon absorbed in the photosensitive
semiconductor creates electron-hole pair. The pn junction is the basis of
several photodetector devices including photodiode and phototransistor.
If electrons and holes are generated within the space charge region of pn
junction, then they will separated by the electric field and a current will
be produced.
Voc
Isc
Fig. 15.4 The IV characteristics of photodiode.
Quantum efficiency, (η) of a photodetector is defined as the number of

carriers (electron-hole pairs) collected to produce the photocurrent (Iph)
generated per the number of incident photons. The equation of quantum
efficiency is given by
99
I ph / e I ph hf
h= = ×
Pinc / hf e Pinc
where Pinc is the incident optical power.

Responsivity of the detector is the ratio of the photocurrent flowing in the
detector to the incident optical power:
I ph
R=
Pinc
Then, responsivity can be rewritten as
he hel hl( µm )
R= = =
hf hc 1.24
For a given value of quantum efficiency, the responsivity increases
linearly with wavelength.
Luminescence
The figure shows the electromagnetic spectrum of the optical region. The
detectable range of light by the human eye extends only from
approximately 0.4µm to 0.7µm. The figure shows the major color band
from violet to red in the expand scale.
100
Fig. 15.5The Electromagnetic Spectrum. Notice how small the

visible region of the spectrum is, compared to the entire range of
wavelengths.
Luminescence Mechanism
There are three process for the interaction between a photon and electron
in a solid: absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
Consider two energy level E1 and E2 of an atom, where E1 corresponds to
ground state and E2 corresponds to excited state. Any transition between
these states involves the emission or absorption of a photon with
frequency f is given by hf=E2-E1.
An atom in state E1 absorbs the photon and thereby goes to the excited
state E2. The change in the energy state is the absorption process, as
shown in the figure. The excited state of the atoms is unstable. After short
time, without any external stimulus, it makes transition to the ground
state, giving off a photon of energy hf. This process called spontaneous
emission, which shown in the figure (b). When a photon of energy hf
react with an atom while it is in the excited state, as shown in the figure
(c), the atom can be a stimulated to make a transition to the ground state
101
and gives off a photon of an energy hf which in phase with the incident
radiation. This process called stimulated emission. The radiation from
stimulated emission is monochromatic because each photon has an the
same energy hf and is coherent because all photons emitted are in phase.
Fig. 15.6 Diagram showing (a) induced absorption, (b) spontaneous

emission and (c) stimulated emission processes.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The LED converts input electrical energy into output optical radiation in
the visible or infrared region of spectrum, depending on the
semiconductor material. The wavelength of light emission required
usually dictates the semiconductor materials required in terms of their
bandgap energy. Lower bandgap materials are required for infrared
102
applications, and larger bandgap materials are needed for a light source in
the visible part of spectrum.
Fig. 15.7 Symbol of the LED, (b) typical LED, and (c) LED construction
shown in the figures.
Laser diode
LASER is a acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission or
Radiation. The laser, in principle, is an optical wave terminated by
mirrors or reflecting facets to form a resonant cavity. In stimulated
emission, if there is an incident photon at the time when an electron is in
the higher energy as shown in the Fig. 15.6 (c), the incident photon can
interact with the electron, causing the electron to make a transition
downward. The downward transition produces a photon. Since this
process was initiated by the incident photon, the process called stimulated
emission. Note that, this stimulated emission process has produced two
photons; thus we can have optical amplification. The two emitted photons
are in phase so that the spectral output will be coherent.
The Tunnel Diode

Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors
In previous extrinsic semiconductors we assumed that the
concentration of dopant atoms added is small when compared
with the density of host semiconductor. There is no interaction
103
between donor electrons in n-type semiconductor, so we have

assumed that the impurities introduce discrete donor energy
state in the n-type. Similarly, for p-type semiconductor. These
types of semiconductors are referred to as nondegenerate
semiconductor. If the impurity concentration increases, the
distance between the impurty atoms decreases and will begin
interact with each other. When this occurs, the single discrete
donor energy will split into a band of energies. As the donor
concentration further increases, the band donor state widens and
may overlap the bottom of the conduction band and the Fermi
level lies within the conduction band. In similar way, in p-type
the Fermi level will lie within the conduction band. These types
of semiconductors are referred to as degenerate semiconductor.
The Tunnel Diode

The tunnel diode is a pn junction in which both the n and p
regions are degenerately doped, the figure shows the energy
band diagram of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium and the
typical IV characteristics. The depletion region width decreases
as the doping increase.
Fig. 15.8 Simplified energy band

diagram for degeneratey doped (a)
n- type semi-conductor (b) p- type
semi-conductor
104
1/ 2
ì
ï 2e V é Na + Nd ùü
ï
W = í s bi ê úý
ï
î e ë Na Nd ûï þ
The barrier width is small and the electric field in the space
charge region is quite large: the electrons may tunnel through
the forbidden band from one side of junction to the other. The
IV characteristics of this device has a negative resistance. From
IV characteristics we see that the tunnel diode is an excellent
conductor in the reverse condition. Also, for small forward
voltages, the resistance remains small. At peak point Ip
corresponding to the voltage Vp. If the V is increased beyond Vp,
then the current decreases. As consequences the device exhibit a
negative resistance between the peak current Ip and minimum
value Iv called a valley current. At larger voltages the current
increases.
Fig. 15.9 (a)

Symbol and (b)
IV characteristics
105
of the tunnel diode,

Varactor Diode
We observe from the equation of junction capacitance is not a
constant but varies with applied voltage. The larger the reverse
voltage, the larger is the space charge width W, and hence
smaller capacitor. The voltage variable capacitance of pn
junction biased in the reverse direction is useful in a number of
circuits. Diodes made for such applications which are based on
the voltage variable capacitance are called varactor or varicap
diode.
1/ 2
ì
ï ee s N a N d ü
ï es
C'= í =
( )(
ï )
ý
ï
þ W
Fig. 15.10 (a) Symbol and (b)

CV characteristics
of the varactor diode,
Problems
Q1: Identify the photodetector enrich your explanation with
related equations and diagrams
Q2: Identify the solar cell with related equations and diagrams.
Q3: Identify the following with related equations and diagrams
106
1) The process for the interaction between a photon and electron

in a solid.
2) Degenerate semiconductors give an example of a device use
such type of the semiconductors.
107

Dr. Ghusoon Mohsin Ali: Al-Mustansiriya University College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department

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Al-Mustansiriya University

Dr. Ghusoon Mohsin Ali

nn0, pp0 Thermal equilibrium majority carriers

Fig. 6.1 A simplified 1-D sketch of a p-n junction (a) has a

Most semiconductor devices contain at least one junction

Majority carrier electrons in the n region will begin to diffusing

The diffusion forces acting on electrons and holes at the edge of

Zero applied bias

Fig. 6.3 Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in thermal

If we assume that no voltage is applied across pn junction, then

valence band energies must bend as we go through the depletion

If we change the acceptor doping from Na=1018/cm3 to

Fig.6.4. The space charge density in a uniformly doped pn

Fig.6.5.Electric field in the space charge region of a uniformly

The electric field in the n region is then given by

Space charge width

- eN d xn - (1.6 ´ 10-19 )(1015 )(0.086 ´ 10-4 )

Emax = -1.34 ´ 104V / cm

Q2: A silicon pn junction at T=300K with zero applied bias has

Fig. 7.2 A pn junction with an applied

circuit from the negative battery terminal to the positive

Where Is reverse saturation current

Fig. 7.3. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode.

where Ln and Lp are diffusion lengths of holes and electrons.

Fig.7.5. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode with standard

s n = N D eµn = 1022 ´ 1.602 ´ 10-19 ´ 0.4 = 640Sm -1

s p = N Aeµ p = 1024 ´ 1.602 ´ 10-19 ´ 0.2 = 3.2 ´ 104 Sm -1

Depletion Width and Electric Field

the positive charge and terminates on negative charge in the

î 2(0.635 + 5) 1022 + 1021( ý

C ' = 3.66 ´ 10-5 F / m 2

C = C ' A = 3.66 ´ 10-5 ´ 0.1 ´ 10-6 = 3.66 pF

Fig.7.6. The I-V characteristics of a junction diode shows

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as

reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat

Resistance level of the diode

Fig. 8.1. Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular

Fig. Example 8.1

(b) At ID=20mA VD=0.8V from the curve

(c) At VD=-10V ID =-1µA from the curve

Fig. 8.3, Defining the dynamic or ac resistance.

Fig. 8.4, Determining the ac resistance at a Q-point.

Diode equivalent circuit

Ideal diode conduct current in forward biasing and act like an

Fig. 8.5. Ideal diode and its characteristics.

Approximate equivalent model

Fib. 8,7 Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon

In this case, the practical diode is modeled by an ideal diode and a

Fig.8.8. Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent

voltage axis is taken to be the forward

SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS WITH DC INPUTS

Fig.9.1 Series diode configuration and Substituting the

• If a diode in the on state place 0.7 V or 0.3 V drop across

• If a diode ( has been reversed) is the off state place an open

E - VD = 0 Fig. 9.2 Reversing the diode

(b) For reverse bias VD=8V

Fig. 9.4 Source notation.

Fig. 9.5 Determining the unknown quantities for Example 9.2

12 - I D 5.6k - 0.7 - 0.3 = 0