Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Environmental
Hydrology
Note

Mamuye Belihu

Email: mamuyeb@hu.edu.et
2022

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ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY

Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL
HYDROLOGY ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY .............................................. 4
1.3 GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES & ITS DISTRIBUTION ....................................................................... 5
2. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 IMPORTANCE OF WATER ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 COMPONENTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE ............................................................................................ 6
2.3 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE ....................................................................................... 7
2.5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF WATER BALANCE ........................................................................................... 8
2.6 PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT & ANALYSIS .............................................................................. 11
2.6.1 FORMATION & FORMS OF PRECIPITATION ............................................................................... 11
2.6.2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION .......................................................................................... 12
2.6.3 ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION (RAIN FALL) DATA .................................................................. 15
2.6.4 ANALYSIS OF POINT PRECIPITATION ...................................................................................... 19
2.6.5 Estimation of missing rainfall data ...................................................................................................... 21
2.7 INTERCEPTION PROCESSES & MEASUREMENT.............................................................................. 22
2.8 Evapo-transpiration processes & measurement ......................................................................................... 23
2.8.1 PROCESSES OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION .......................................................... 23
2.8.2 Actual and Potential Evapotranspiration.............................................................................................. 24
2.8.3 EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 25
2.9 INFILTRATION PROCESSES & MEASUREMENT .............................................................................. 28
2.10. GROUND WATER ................................................................................................................................. 31
2.10.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS................................................................................................................. 31
2.10.2. Components of groundwater ............................................................................................................. 31
2.10.3 DISTRIBUTION & AVAILABILITY OF GROUNDWATER ........................................................ 32
2.10.4. Ground water problems ..................................................................................................................... 32
2.11 RUNOFF ................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.11.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................................................................... 33
2.11.2. CAUSES OF SURFACE WATER FLOW ....................................................................................... 33
2.11.3. FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF ................................................................................................. 33
3. THE CATCHMENT/ DRAINAGE BASIN /STREAM PATTERNS .............................................................. 34
3.1 STREAM/ DRAINAGE PATTERN .......................................................................................................... 34
3.2 STREAM ORDERING .............................................................................................................................. 36

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4. FLOOD ............................................................................................................................................................. 40
4.1 DEFINITION .............................................................................................................................................. 40
4.2 CAUSE OF FLOOD ................................................................................................................................... 40
4.3 Factors affecting floods............................................................................................................................... 41
4.4 IMPACTS OF FLOODING ....................................................................................................................... 41
4.5 FLOOD CONTROL & MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 41
5. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................... 42
5.1 MAIN PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER RESOURCES ................................................................... 42
5.2 WATER POLLUTION & POLLUTANTS ................................................................................................ 42
5.3 EFFECTS/ IMPACTS OF WATER POLLUTION .................................................................................... 43
5.4. WATER CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT ................................................................................... 43
5.5 INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ...................................................................... 43

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND
ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY
In environmental planning, management and restoration, hydrology plays a fundamental role. Collection
of hydrologic concepts that apply to solution of environmental problems constitutes the subject matter
of environmental hydrology.
Definition of hydrology
The word hydrology literally means “water science," encompasses the study of the occurrence and
movement of water on and beneath the surface of the Earth.
Hydrology is the science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of Earth’s water,
including their chemical, biological and physical properties, and their inter-action with the physical
environment.
Scope of Hydrology
In general hydrology deals with
• Estimation of water resources (supply &demand).
• The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapo-transpiration, infiltration and their
interaction.
• The study of water problems such as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them.
• Planning, design, and operation of Hydraulic Structures for control and use of Water
RELATED SCIENCES
Hydrology is an interdisciplinary science because it borrows heavily from many other branches of science and
integrates them for its own interpretation and use. In general, Hydrology drawing support from allied sciences
such as
• Hydrogeology: studies Flow and occurrence of ground water
• Hydroclimatology: Branch of climatology and hydrology that studies how climate influence
hydrological cycle.

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 • Echohydrology : Branch of ecology and hydrology, that study how organisms interacts with
hydrological cycle
• Hydrometry : measurements of hydrological cycle parameters
• Hydrometeorology: studies climatic processes that involve water (e.g. Precipitation, snowmelt,
evaporation)
• Limnology: studies water in lakes & island seas
• Cryology (glaciology): studies snow and ice
• Fluvial hydrology (potamology): studies water process of streams
what is environment?
Environment means the surroundings within which humans exist and that are made up of:
• Land, water and atmosphere of the earth,
• plant and animal life, including micro-organisms,
• Any part or combination of (1) and (2) and the interrelationships among and between
them; and
• The physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions of the foregoing
that influence human health and well-being
Table: The relations b/n Environment & Hydrology
Human Activity Results on environment Some impacts on hydrological elements &
processes
Disruption of natural Floods and related Infiltration, seepage, surface runoff, ground
cover accelerated water erosion water
of the earth’s surface
Application of chemical Degradation of water Surface storage, ground water, soil moisture
fertilizers & pesticides resources
Construction of dams & Change in water regimes Surface runoff, ground water
Reservoirs
Regulation of streams Speeding up surface runoff Surface storage, depression storage
preventing flooding
Urbanization and Creation of waste Surface water, ground water
development of industries Pollution of water
( physical & chemical
change)
Intensive methods of Increase in soil water Soil water
irrigation and cultivation salinity

Definition of Environmental Hydrology

In a broad sense, environmental hydrology is all inclusive-embracing all branches of hydrology.
However, in practice, environmental hydrology has a more restricted connotation. It is primarily
restricted to water-quality hydrology. In this sense, it can be defined as the science dealing with the
space-time variability of water quality and its evolution in the hydrosphere, in streams, in lakes, in soil,
as well as in the lithosphere. Thus, it includes occurrence, distribution, and variability of water quality
in surface water, vadose zone, and ground water. Also included is the water quality in the atmosphere,
e.g., acid precipitation. It is in this sense that environmental hydrology is perceived in this book. It

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should, however, be emphasized that quantity and quality of water are intertwined and should
conjunctively be dealt with.
The emergence of environmental hydrology can be traced to some of the land-mark problems that
aroused public awareness of the environmental contamination caused by both civilian and military
establishments, and of the seriousness of these problems both in terms of human health and economic
costs.
Scope of Environmental Hydrology
Cleaning up of streams, rivers, and lakes has been of growing concern. Clean water is not only essential
to human health and general well being but also to economic welfare. Clean water is essential for
drinking water supplies, agricultural use, industrial use, commercial and residential development,
recreational use, and for a healthier environment.
The subject matter of environmental hydrology can be defined to include chemical as well as biological
quality of surface, unsaturated, and saturated waters. Because of significant pollution occurring in the
atmosphere due to activities on the land, acid precipitation is a legitimate component of environmental
hydrology. Human activities are believed to be also influencing climate and accumulated evidence
points to a likely climate change that may have far reaching hydrological implications. Thus, a
discussion of climate change also constitutes a part of environmental hydrology. A study of eco-
hydrological consequences of the damage done and being done to the environment also lies within the
realm of environmental hydrology.

1.2. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROLOGY

Hydrological information is required for:
1. The assessment of water supply ( to determine quantity, quality, distribution in time and space),
the potential for water-related development, and the ability to supply actual or foreseeable
demands;
2. Planning, designing, and operating water related projects;
3. Assessing the environmental, economic, and social impacts of water resource management
practices, existing and proposed, and adopting sound policies and strategies;
4. Providing security for people and property against water-related hazards, particularly floods ,
droughts, malaria etc
5. Planning for navigation and recreational use of water
Safe waste water disposal and treatment as well as pollution abatement

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 1.3 GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES & ITS DISTRIBUTION

Global Water Distribution is not Uniform. Not evenly distributed or accessible, 1/3rd of the world’s population
does not have access to clean and sufficient water resources ( ‘water, water every where but not a drop to drink’)
Water rich countries:
- Brazil, Russian federation, Canada, Iceland, Gabon, Norway etc
Water poor countries

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 - Middle East (Kuwait, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Israel, Oman), Egypt, Singapore etc
Problems associated with uneven distribution of water resources, conflict over shared water resources ( Jordan,
Tigris- Euphrates, Nile etc)

2. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The fundamental concept of hydrology is the hydrologic cycle: the global scale, endless re-circulatory
process linking water in the atmosphere, on the continents, and in the oceans. This cyclical process is
usually thought of in terms of reservoirs (i.e., oceans, atmosphere, etc.) and the volumetric flows of
water between them. Within the hydrologic cycle, the dynamic processes of water vapor formation and
transport of vapor and liquid in the atmosphere are driven by solar energy, while precipitation and many
of the various flows of water at or beneath the earth’s surface are driven primarily by gravitational and
capillary forces. The area of land in which water flowing across the land surface drains into a particular
stream or river and ultimately flows through a single point or outlet on that stream or river is called the
catchment or the basin or the watershed in American English.
Catchments are delineated on the basis of land-surface topography. The boundary of a catchment is
called a divide or a ridge.

2.1 IMPORTANCE OF WATER

Water is important because it underpins our very existence: It is part of our physical, material and
spiritual lives. The first civilizations and densest populations have always developed on water, especially
the banks of rivers: Egyptians (Nile), Romans (Tiber), Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates), China
(Huang Ho and Yangtze), Pakistan (Indus), and India (Ganges).
Water is a fundamental natural resource that influences human health, ecology and economic
development. Man requires it for his cooking, washing, sanitation, drinking and for growing his crops
and running his factories. Man has used water to generate hydropower or regulate river flow; extensive
groundwater schemes have also been linked to complex multi-source centralized public water supply
systems in some countries. Water has also been used for waste disposal and irrigated agriculture.
On top of these, water plays a large part in the spiritual lives of millions of people. Example, in
Christianity baptism with water is a powerful symbol of cleansing and God offers ‘streams of living
water’ to those who believe. In Islam there is washing with water before entering a mosque for prayer.
In Hinduism bathing in the sacred Ganges provides a religious cleansing. Many other religions give
water an important role in sacred texts and rituals.
Activity
1. Which part of the global water budget has the greatest percentage of water in storage? Which part
has the least?
2. What percent of the total "water in land areas" is contained in the form of groundwater?
3. What percent of the total "water in land areas" is contained in the form of ice caps/glaciers?
4. Freshwater drinking supplies are derived primarily from either rivers or groundwater. Which storage
compartment represents the greatest drinking water resource on the planet?

2.2 COMPONENTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Earth's water is always in movement. The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, is a
conceptual model that describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of
the Earth. It is a unified system which describes the way the hydrosphere (earth’s water bodies). Since
the water cycle is truly a "cycle," there is no beginning or end. Water can change states among liquid,
vapors, and ice at various places in the water cycle, with these processes happening in the blink of an

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eye and over millions of years. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over
time, individual water molecules can come and go in a hurry. The primary source of water into the earth
is the precipitation. Water on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs: atmosphere,
oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, biospheres and groundwater.

Figure: Hydrologic Cycle.

As can be seen from the figure above, the hydrologic cycle describes the storage and movement *of
water between the biospheres, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere. Specifically, water moves
from one reservoir to another by way of processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. The oceans
supply most of the evaporated water found in the atmosphere.

2.3 IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle is very vital to life sustenance on earth. The followings are some of the specific
importance:
1. The circulation of water from the oceans and land surfaces into the atmosphere and back again
creates a resource, which is unlimited in global terms.
2. It is the largest circulation of matter within the earth-atmosphere system. As the ultimate
recycling process, it washes away waste products in rainfall and purifies supplies by evaporation.
3. The supply of freshwater on earth is entirely due to hydrological cycle.
4. By maintaining vapor in the atmosphere, the water cycle creates climate for life. Water vapor
creates a ‘green house effect’ by absorbing heat loss from the surface of the earth.
2.4 CONCEPT OF RESIDENCE TIME
• The residence time is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through a water body. It
is the measure of how long on average a molecule of water spends in a reservoir before moving
in to another reservoir.

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 • Mathematically, the residence time can be derived by dividing the volume of water by the flow
rate as follows:

V= Volume of water in the reservoir

I = Flow rate ( Input/out put)
Table below describes the typical residence times of water in the major reservoirs.
Table: Typical residence times of water found in various reservoirs
Reservoir Average Residence Time
Oceans 2600 to 3200 years
Glaciers 20 to 100 years
Seasonal Snow Cover 2 to 6 months
Soil Moisture 1 to 2 months
Groundwater: Shallow 100 to 200 years
Groundwater: Deep 10,000 years
Lakes 50 to 100 years
Rivers 2 to 6 months
Atmosphere Days

Exercise
• The volume of atmospheric water is 12, 900km3. The evapo-transpiration from the land is
72,000km2/year and that from ocean is 505,000Km3/year. Estimate the residence time of water
molecules in the atmosphere in days?

2.5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF WATER BALANCE

Components

PRECIPITATION
Water that evaporates from the earth is temporarily stored as water vapor in the atmosphere. While in
the atmosphere, this vapor and small water droplets form clouds. As the atmosphere becomes
saturated, water is released back to earth as some form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail).
Some of the water might evaporate before it reaches the ground. Precipitation reaching the ground
can evaporate from anywhere, including bare soil surfaces, plant surfaces, and the surfaces of ponds,
lakes, and streams. Precipitation is a natural phenomenon that humans can do very little to control.

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EVAPORATION
Evaporation occurs when water is changed from a liquid to a vapor. Increases in air and water
temperatures, wind, and solar radiation all increase evaporation rates, while a high water vapor
percentage in the air (high relative humidity) decreases the potential for evaporation. Through the
process of evaporation, water moves back to the atmosphere in the form of vapor.

TRANSPIRATION
Water can take several paths after it enters the soil. Some water becomes part of the soil storage. This
water is not stationary and moves downward at a rate that depends on various soil properties, such
as hydraulic conductivity and porosity. While in storage near the surface, some of this water is used
by plants and is eventually returned to the atmosphere as water vapor. The process by which plants
release water vapor to the atmosphere is called transpiration. This water vapor is a natural by-
product of photosynthesis.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Because of the difficulty in separating the processes of evaporation and plant transpiration, we usually
view these two processes as one process called evapotranspiration (ET). This term includes both the
water that evaporates from soil and plant surfaces and the water that moves out of the soil profile by
plant transpiration. More than half of the water that enters the soil is returned to the atmosphere
through evapotranspiration.

INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the entry of water into the soil. The amount of water that infiltrates into the ground varies
widely from place to place. The rate at which water infiltrates depends on soil properties such as soil
water content, texture, density, organic matter content, hydraulic conductivity (permeability), and
porosity. Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of how fast water flows through certain soils or rock
layers. Infiltration and hydraulic conductivity are greater in porous materials, such as sands, gravels,
or fractured rock than in clay soils or solid rock. Porosity is a measure of the amount of open space in
soil or rock that may contain water.
Conditions at the soil’s surface also influence infiltration. For example, a compacted soil surface
restricts the movement of water into the soil profile. Vegetation can play a prominent role in
infiltration. The surface soil layer in a forest or a pasture will generally have far greater infiltration rates
than a paved parking area or a compacted soil surface. Topography, slope, and the roughness of the
surface also affect infiltration, as do human activities in urban and agricultural areas, where alteration of
soil properties and surface conditions have occurred.

PERCOLATION AND GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

Another path that water can take after it enters the soil surface is percolation, which is water moving
downward through the soil profile by gravity after it has entered the soil. Water that moves downward
through the soil below the plant root zone toward the underlying geologic formation is called deep
percolation. For the most part, deep percolation is beyond the reach of plant roots and this water

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 contributes to replenishing the groundwater supply. The process of replenishing or refilling the
groundwater supply is called groundwater recharge.

RUNOFF AND OVERLAND FLOW

Runoff is the portion of precipitation, snowmelt, or irrigation water that flows over and through the
soils, eventually making its way to surface water systems. Contributions to runoff might include
overland flow, interflow, and ground- water flows. Once the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration
rate of the soil, depressions on the soil surface begin to fill. The water held in these depressions is
called surface storage. If surface storage is filled and precipitation continues to exceed infiltration, water
begins to move downslope as overland flow or in defined channels. A large percentage of surface runoff
reaches streams, where we typically then describe it as streamflow or discharge. Over-land flow can also
occur when the soil is saturated (soil storage is filled). In this case, all the voids, cracks, and crevices
of the soil profile are filled with water, and the excess begins to flow over the soil surface.

INTERFLOW
As water percolates, some of it may reach a layer of soil or rock material that restricts downward
movement. Restrictive layers can be formed naturally (clay pan or solid bedrock) or because of human
activities. Once water reaches a restrictive layer, it may move laterally along this layer and eventually
discharge to a surface water body such as a stream or lake. The lateral movement of water is called
interflow.

GROUNDWATER FLOW
Groundwater comprises approximately 4% of the water contained in the hydrologic cycle and can
flow to surface water bodies such as oceans, lakes, and rivers. This process creates a baseflow for a
surface water body that is an important contribution to groundwater and surface water. More than 50%
of the population depends on groundwater as the primary source of drinking water.
The water balance equation
The total amount of water available on the earth is finite. But it is recycled. Although the total volume
of water in the global hydrologic cycle remains constant, the distribution of this water is continually
changing on continents in regions and local catchments.
• There are numerous ways of representing the water balance equation. In its simplest form, water
balance is defined by the general hydrologic equation as follows:
I = O + ∆ S, where
• I = inflow
• O = outflow,
• ∆ S = change in storage
• I-O= ∆ S
∆T (change in time)
Or
∆ S = Σ Inflow - Σ Outflow
Or

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 • Inflow = outflow + storage OR: Inflow - Outflow = change in storage
o Inflow = precipitation & inflow into a body of surface water.
o Outflow = evaporation, transpiration, surface outflow, soil evaporation, loss of water
through a stream bed, loss to vegetation & removal to a water supply.
o Change in storage = increase or decrease in storage.
• Water balance equations can be assessed for any area and for any period of time.
• A water balance equation is fundamental to understanding and assessing inputs, outputs, and
changes to a particular water resource system.
Activity
A reservoir has the following inflows and outflows (in cubic meters) for the first three months of the
given year. If the storage at the beginning of January is 60m3, determine the storage at the end of March.
Month Jan Feb Mar
In flow 4 6 9
Outflow 8 11 5

Importance of calculating water balance

In addition to protecting sources of drinking water, water budgets can be used for a number of land use
and water use developments including:
- For a quantitative evaluation of water resources
- For design and operation of water structures such as dam and reservoirs
- For agronomic purpose & irrigation
- Municipal water supplies

2.6 PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT & ANALYSIS

• Precipitation is any form of moisture which is reaching to the surface of the earth from the
atmosphere.
• Atmospheric water mostly exists as vapor, but briefly and locally it becomes a liquid (rainfall
and cloud water droplets) or a solid (snowfall, cloud ice crystal and hails).

Forms & Formation of Precipitation

2.6.1 FORMATION & FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

The precipitation may be due to:

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1. Thermal convection (convectional precipitation)- caused by the sun heating the surface, thus resulting in
warm moist air rises and is typical of the tropics.

2. Cyclonic (cyclonic precipitation) or Frontal Storm - results from Conflict between two air masses. When
two air masses with contrasting temperatures and densities clash with each other, warm air passing over cold air
condensation and precipitation occur

3. Orographic Storm – The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain barriers; causes heavy precipitation
on the windward side.

2.6.2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

Knowing quantity, spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation is important in the hydrological
analysis.
Precipitation events are recorded by
Radar- The word radar stands for radio detection and ranging. A weather radar sends electromagnetic waves in
all directions. When these waves collide with raindrops, an echo of the waves is produced which is caught back
by the radar. The strength of echo or returning signal depends on the intensity of the falling rain and the time
taken by the echo to reach the radar to reach the radar depends upon the distance of the rainfall field from the
radar. The main advantage of the weather radar is that it can give the estimates of rainfall over wide areas and
over areas that are difficult to access.
Satellite image- Satellites are also being used to estimate precipitation over large areas and in near real-time.
Images from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites along with cloud top temperature, shape, texture, and
cloud history are used for estimation of precipitation. Another possibility is to combine satellite images with radar
data to obtain improved estimates.
Rain gauges - gives the point value of rainfall

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 The unit of measurement is usually mm. and rainfall data are usually represented as mm/hour, mm/day, etc. The
amount of precipitation is measured on the basis of vertical depth of water which is accumulated on the surface
of the earth.
Types of Rain gauges
The rain gauge may be broadly classified in to two types:
The non-recording rain gauge ( also called symon’s rain gauge) = an ordinary rain gauge
The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special measuring glass graduated
in mm of rainfall.
It gives the total rain fall only.
Cannot provide information regarding
when exactly the rain began,
when the rain end,
what is the intensity of rain fall,
how the intensity of varies with in the duration of the storm
Recording Rain Gauge = self-recording rain gauge
• This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge.
• This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of clockwork, a drum with
a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall.
• From this mass curve,
➢ The depth of rainfall in a given time,
➢ The rate or intensity of rainfall at any instant during a storm,
➢ Time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined.
Sources of errors in rain gauge measurements
Although rain gauges present the most simple and direct way for measuring rainfall amounts
and rates, they are subject to several sources of uncertainties and errors.
1. Wind-induced errors
Since most rain gauges are elevated above the ground, wind eddies form around their orifices which
reduces the catch of small rain drops. This problem is the most common and serious source of rainfall-
measurement errors.
2. Evaporation and Wetting Losses
➢ These losses are encountered in storage-type non-recording gauges, gauges with small orifices,
and gauges recording at long intervals (several days).
➢ The magnitude of these losses depends on temperature, humidity, and time between rain and collection
of the measurement. However, such errors are usually small and can be often neglected except for low-
intensity rainfall events.
➢ This error is encountered in tipping-bucket rain gauges.
3. Other sources of errors in gauge measurements
Other sources of errors include Calibration Errors (adjustment errors), rainfall splashing, evaporation from
gauge, mechanical breakdown of gauges, clogging of gauge orifices and funnels, and observer mistakes
in recording, processing and publishing rainfall measurements. Also, improper sitting configuration of rain
gauges near trees or building can cause significant losses of rainfall amounts.
PLACEMENT OF RAIN GAUGES
Rain gauges:
▪ Should be placed on the level ground
▪ Should be free from wind, any shade, sloppy area
▪ Should stand two times far from the height of any object
o As a general rule, an obstruction object should not be closer to the gauge than twice its
height above the ground
Rain gauge networking (Number and distribution of gauges)

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Rain gauge density/ the network density- the ratio of the total area of the catchment to the total number of gauges
in the catchment
▪ In order to get a reasonably accurate estimate of the average depth of rain fall over an area, it is desirable
to have a large number of gauges as much as possible. It gives the average area served by each gauge.
▪ In general, the number and distribution of gauges need to consider:
➢ size of area
➢ Topography (mountains area may need denser network than flatter area aspect) For level
terrain, sparse network may be sufficient
There are suggestions (guidelines) given by world meteorological organization (WMO) regarding the
minimum number of gauges in a given catchment as follows:

▪ However, the adequacy of the number of gauges in the existing network may be find out by
calculating the optimum ( maximum) number of gauges as follows:

Where, P= desired degree of percentage error in the estimate of the average depth of rainfall over
the basin.
CV = Coefficient of variation of the rainfall of the existing rain gauge stations
N = optimum number of rain gauge stations to be established in the basin, N increases as
the allowable error decreases
▪ The coefficient of variation is the standard deviation of gages data divided by the mean, and
expressed as a percentage (e.g., x 100).
▪ Ex. If there are m stations in the catchment each recording rainfall values P1,P2,…Pm in a known
time, the coefficient of variation Cv is calculated as:

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Activity
1. The average rain falls in cm at 4 existing stations in a basin are 105, 79, 70 & 66. If the average
depth of rain fall over the basin is to be estimated within 10% error, determine the additional
gauges needed?
2. A catchment has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges are
as follows:

2.6.3 ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION (RAIN FALL) DATA

2.6.3.1 Determining areal rainfall

Mean areal depth of precipitation
▪ Precipitation is measured in mm (depth) of water.
▪ Rain gauge measures the amount of rain fall at single point. This means that the unit is non-spatial. Depth
is assumed to be the same as the surrounding areas. Example, 10 mm of rainfall measured at a point by
the rain gauge may fall over a small or large area around that rain gauge.
▪ Since rainfall is an areal phenomenon, the point measurements of rainfall must be transformed to areal
averages. For instance,
o 1 mm of rainfall over 1 m2 is equivalent to 0.1*100*100=1000 cm3 or one liter (1L) of water.
o 1 mm over 1 Hectare is thus 1L*100*100=10, 000 L of water. Thus even small depths of
water can amount to very large volumes as area increases.
2.6.3.2 Estimation of areal precipitation
▪ There are different methods used to convert point rainfall values at different rain gauge stations
into an average value over a catchment. These are:
1. Arithmetical mean method
2. Thiessen polygon method
3. Isohyetal method etc
A. ARITHMETIC AVERAGE METHOD
• Theoretically appropriate only where precipitation gauges are randomly distributed and
the terrain is uniform, as precipitation varies with elevation

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 o It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amounts of rainfall at the individual
rain-gauge stations in the area, i.e.,

Where P ave = average depth of rainfall over the area

Σ P1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations
n = number of rain-gauge stations in the area
Example
Calculate the average rainfall of all the records of the four rain gauges stations shown in the catchment
below?

When can arithmetic mean be useful?

This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges are uniformly
distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary widely from the mean. These limitations can
be partially overcome if topographic influences and aerial representativeness are considered in the
selection of gauge sites.
B. Thiessen polygon/ area-weighted average/ method
o Thiessen was an American engineer working around the start of the twentieth century (1911)
who devised a simple method of overcoming an uneven distribution of rain gauges within a
catchment.
o This method assumes that at any point in a catchment, the rainfall is the same as that at the
nearest rain gauge so the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a distance halfway
to the next gauge in any direction.
o The stations are plotted on a base map and are connected by straight lines.
o Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent stations to form
polygons, known as Thiessen polygons.

16
 o Each polygon area is assumed to be influenced by the rain gauge station inside it, i.e., if P1,
P2, P3, ....are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1, A2, A3, .... are the areas of the
polygons surrounding these stations, (influence areas) respectively, the average depth of
rainfall for the entire basin is given by

Where ΣA1 = A = total area of the catchment

Example 1: Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the area by the Thiessen polygon
method?

Procedures
These areas are found out using a method consisting of the following steps:
1. Locate all rainfall stations on a base map and record the rainfall amount.
2. Joining the rain gauge station locations by straight lines to form triangles
3. Bisecting the edges of the triangles to form the so-called “Thiessen polygons”
4. Calculate the area enclosed around each rain gauge station bounded by the polygon edges (and
the catchment boundary, wherever appropriate) to find the area of influence corresponding to the
rain gauge.
For the above figure, the “weighted” average rainfall over the catchment is determined as,

C. ISOHYETAL METHOD
• This method is the most basic method of representing the spatial distribution.
• Although it is the most accurate method, it is the most laborious.
• This method uses isohyets constructed from the rain gauges by interpolating contour lines
between adjacent gauges. Once the Isohyetal map is constructed, the area between each pair of
isohyets, within the catchment, is multiplied by the average rainfall depths of the two boundary

17
 isohyets. The average rainfall over the whole catchment can be estimated from the weight-
averaged value.
• In this method, the average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the average of the
two Isohyetal values are weighted with the area between the isohyets, added up and divided by
the total area which gives the average depth of rainfall over the entire basin, i.e.,

Where A1–2 = area between the two successive isohyets P1 and P2

This method if analyzed properly gives the best results.

Example
For the problem shown in Figure b, t he following may be assumed to be the areas enclosed between
two consecutive isohyets and are calculated as under:

The areas II and III fall between two isohyets each. Hence, these areas may be thought of as
corresponding to the following rainfall depths:

For Area I, we would expect rainfall to be more than 15mm but since there is no record, a rainfall depth
of 15mm is accepted. Similarly, for Area IV, a rainfall depth of 5mm has to be taken. Hence, the average
precipitation by the isohyetal method is calculated to be

18
2.6.4 ANALYSIS OF POINT PRECIPITATION
Frequency
o analysis of rainfall in a series of time
o how often precipitation of certain magnitude reoccurs
o # of events of a specific magnitude / specific period of time (e.g., once in ten years)
A. Moving average curve
- In this method we can see the trend of rainfall in the area. The moving average curve
avoids the extreme values (variations) and indicates the trend (pattern).
- In order to depict a general trend in the rainfall pattern, the averages of three or five
consecutive years are found out progressively by moving the group averaged, one year
at a time.
- The moving average curve is constructed with a moving period of M year where M is
generally taken to be 3 or 5 years.
- Let x1, x2,x3, …xn be the sequence of given annual rainfall mean chorological order.
𝑥𝑖−1+ 𝑥𝑖+𝑥𝑖+1
- Therefore, 3
Example
Year Annual rainfall 3 years moving average
1999 520
2000 435 520+435+395
= 450
3
2001 395 435+395+290
= 373.3
3
2002 290 395+290+430
=371.3
3
2003 430 290+430+1020
=580
3
2004 1020 430+1020+900
= 783.3
3
2005 900

Therefore, the moving average curve is obtained by plotting the values of the original record and the 3
years moving average in relation to respective years.
B. Mass curve
- It is a graph showing the cumulative depth of rainfall against time.
△𝑃 𝑝1−𝑝2
- Mass curve = △𝑡 = 𝑡1−𝑡2 ; where p = precipitation & t=time
-
Time (min) Precipitation (mm)
5 1.5
10 5.6
15 13
20 5.8
25 5.1

19
 30 9.7
35 4.8
40 1.3
- Duration of the storm= 40min
- The total Rainfall= 46.8mm
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 46.8𝑚𝑚
- Rainfall intensity = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 40 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.17mm/min = 70.2mm/hrs
Intensity
o rate of precipitation; depth / duration (e.g., mm per hour)
o Rain fall intensity is measured in units of mm/hr or inch/hr
- 2.5mm/hr = light rain
- 2.5-7.5 mm/hr = moderate rain
- > 7.5 mm/hr = heavy rain
o there is a negative exponential relationship between intensity and duration; i.e.,
decreasing decrease in intensity with increasing duration; short duration storms (usually
convective) have the highest intensities
- Base on the above table, Calculate:
1. The 5 min peak intensity = the peak is 13mm if it is converted per hour
13𝑚𝑚𝑥60
= 156/hr
5𝑚𝑖𝑛

2. The 10 min peak intensity

Time (min) Amount (mm)
0-10 7.1
5-15 18.6
10-20 18.8
15-25 10.9
20-30 14.8
25-35 14.5
30-40 6.1
3. The 30 min peak intensity

Time (min) Amount (mm)

0-30 40.7
5-35 44
10-40 39.7
44𝑚𝑚
= 1.47mm/min or 1.47x 60 min= 88mm/hrs
30𝑚𝑖𝑛
Rainfall Hyetographs
- A graph showing the variation of rainfall intensity with time.
Time (min) RF (mm) RF interval in 5 min RF intensity (mm/hr)
0 0 0 0
5 1.5 1.5 18
10 7.1 5.6 67.2
15 20.1 13 156
20 25.9 5.8 69.6
25 31 5.1 61.2

20
 30 40.7 9.7 116.4
35 45.5 4.8 57.6
40 46.8 1.3 15.6

2.6.5 Estimation of missing rainfall data

For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently long record is required. It may not happen that a
particular rain gauge is not operative for part of month or so, (since it is broken or for some other
reasons), when it becomes necessary to supplement the missing record by one of the following methods:
1. ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD
o If the normal annual precipitations at adjacent stations are within 10% of the normal
annual precipitation of the station under consideration
o Usually the data from three surrounding gauges will give good results
o Calculated using the following formula:
1
Px = P1 + P 2 + ....... + Pm
M
2. NORMAL RATIO METHOD
The rainfall record at a certain station may become discontinued due to operational reasons. One
way of approximating the missing rainfall record would be using the records of the three rain gauge
stations closet to the affected station by the “Normal Ratio Method” as given below:

Where P4 is the precipitation at the missing location, N1 , N2, N3 and N4 are the normal annual
precipitation of the four stations and P1, P2 and P3 are the rainfalls recorded at the three stations 1, 2 and
3 respectively.
Example: Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred. The
storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5, 6.7 and 9.0 cm,
respectively. If the average annual rain fall for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm, respectively,
estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
Solution: the rain-fall at station D ( PD) is estimated as

Exercise Problem
The annual normal rainfall at stations A,B,C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01cm
respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative and the stations A,B and C recorded annual
precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.
3. Inverse distance weighting (IDW) method Prediction at a point is more influenced by nearby
measurements than that by distant measurements. The prediction at an ungauged point is inversely
proportional to the distance to the measurement points.
Steps:
a. Compute distance (di) from ungauged point to all measurement points.

21
 b. Compute the precipitation at the ungauged point using the following formula:

2.6.6 Recurrence interval & return period

o average time period during which precipitation of a specific magnitude will reoccur (e.g., 100
year flood occurs on average once in 100 years)
o This is determined by analyzing past rainfalls from several events recorded at a stat ion.
o return period and probability are inversely related; i.e., there is a small probability of a storm
with a long return period
Probability of occurrence/Recurrence interval (Fa) in % = 100(2n-1)/2y, where, n = the rank
of each event, y the total number of events/no. of observation years
Return period (R)
o R = 100/fa, where R= return periods in years, fa= probability of occurrence in%
o Example, if there is a 12.5 % probability (chance) that a storm of a certain magnitude
will occur, the return period for that storm is , R = 100/fa = 100/12.5 = 8 years.

2.7 INTERCEPTION PROCESSES & MEASUREMENT

• Process by which incoming Precipitation is captured, stored & ‘lost’ via evaporation or
sublimation back to the atmosphere
Interception loss- that part of the precipitation on the canopy that doesn't reach the ground, because it evaporates
from the canopy (canopy interception loss) and from near-ground plants and leaf litter (litter interception loss) or,
to a lesser extent, is absorbed by plants
Interception components
Interception storage
• water stored on canopy or other components/structures
Interception loss

22
 • The water that is retained by vegetation surfaces that is later evaporated into the atmosphere, or
absorbed by the plant. Interception loss prevents water from reaching the ground surface and is
regarded as a primary water loss.
Through fall
• The water which falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy, or which drips from the leaves,
twigs and stems and falls to the ground.
Stem flow
• The water which trickles along the stems and branches and down the main stem or trunk to the
ground surface.
Controls on interception rate, capacity and loss

Vegetation characteristics
o growth stage
o plant density
o plant community structure
Meteorological factors
o precipitation intensity
o precipitation duration
o wind speed
o type of rainfall: rain versus snow
o precipitation frequency

2.8 Evapo-transpiration processes & measurement

2.8.1 PROCESSES OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
• "all the processes by which water in the liquid or solid phase at or near the earth's land surface
becomes atmospheric water vapour" (evaporation, transpiration, sublimation)
Evaporation (Transition from liquid to vapor)
• Evaporation is the transfer of liquid water into water vapour (a gaseous state) and its diffusion
into the atmosphere.
• For evaporation to occur there must be

23
 o A supply of water
▪ Evaporation can only occur when water is available.
o A source of energy from the sun or atmosphere.
▪ The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the
evaporation of one gram of water requires 600 calories of heat energy.
o Deficit of vapour pressure
▪ It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating
surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation).
Transpiration
• Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata.

2.8.2 Actual and Potential Evapotranspiration

Potential evaporation (PE)
o Potential evaporation ( PE) is that which occurs over the land’s surface, or would occur if the
water supply were unrestricted. This occurs when a soil is wet and what evaporation is able to
happen occurs without a lack of water supply.
Actual evaporation (AE)
o Actual evaporation is that which actually occurs (i.e. if there is not much available water it will
be less than potential). When conditions are very wet (e.g. during a rainfall event)
AE will equal PE; otherwise it will be less than PE.
Why we study evaporation?
Estimation of evaporation is important in planning and designing of water resources such as
• Design of reservoirs
• Schedule frequency of irrigation
• Water supply
Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration
• The rate of Evapotranspiration at any instant from the Earth's surface is controlled by both the
meteorological and physical factors:
A. Meteorological factors
• Energy availability
o The more energy available the greater the rate of Evapotranspiration.
• The humidity gradient away from the surface
o The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become higher in drier air.
• The wind speed immediately above the surface
o Turbulent airflow above moist surfaces removes saturated air replacing it with unsaturated air.
B. Physical factors
24
• Type of vegetation- transpiration is a product of photosynthesis
• Water availability
o Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.
• Water quality
o If there is more solute within the water, evaporation decreases
o Evaporation decreases by one percent for every one percent increase in salinity
• Size of water surface
o The depth of evaporation from large surface area is less compared to evaporation from small surface
area, although the total volume of water evaporated will be more in the former. The reason for this
phenomenon is that the air moving across a large lake or reservoir will gradually increase its water
content and thus loses its water holding capacity.
• Depth of the water body
o influences the annual variation
o given very high heat capacities and thermal conductivities of water, deep lakes maintain a lower
surface temperature in summer than shallow lakes with less heat storage and closer to the surface
• Depth to water table
• water table at the surface (a wetland) or shallow depth provides almost unlimited water
o evaporation falls rapid with increasing depth to the water table to a critical depth below which
groundwater is not involved in the evaporation process
• Nature of evaporating surface
o All surfaces exposed to precipitation are potentially evaporating surfaces. They may be broadly
classified into three groups: land surfaces, snow surfaces and water bodies.
o The rate of evaporation from saturated soil surface is a proximately the same as that from an adjacent
water surface of the same temperature. Evaporation decreases as the soil begin to dry. The rate of
evaporation, therefore, is limited by the availability of water, or evaporation opportunity. The rate of
evaporation from a soil surface is further dependent upon the presence or absence of vegetal cover, soil
color, moisture content etc. Vegetation reduces evaporation by shading soil, reducing wind speed at
the ground surface and increasing vapour pressure by transpiring water vapour. For the same
evaporation opportunity, the evaporation rate decreases in the following order: bare ground, grass, crop
land, light forests and dense forests. Moreover, rate of evaporation decreases exponentially as soil dries
out since further evaporation depends on rise of soil and ground water to the surface. Thus maximum
evaporation is from frequently wetted soil (i.e. irrigation or frequent precipitation). Due to much greater
absorption of heat and lesser albedo, evaporation is high in dark soils.
o Evaporation from snow and ice constitute a special problem since the melting point lies within the
range of temperatures normally experienced. Evaporation can occur only when the vapour pressure of
the air is less than that of the snow surface i.e, only when the dew point is lower than temperature of
the snow.
On a global scale, most of the Evapotranspiration of water on the Earth's surface occurs in the subtropical
oceans. In these areas, high quantities of solar radiation provide the energy required to convert liquid
water into a gas. Evapotranspiration generally exceeds precipitation on middle and high latitude
landmass areas during the summer season. Once again, the greater availability of solar radiation during
this time enhances the Evapotranspiration process.
2.8.3 EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT

A. Direct measurement
1. Lake water balance:

25
 omeasuring inputs and outputs of water, including changes in storage (lake level) caused
by evaporation
o precipitation + groundwater + surface inflow = evaporation -surface outflow - seepage
+/- changes in storage
o seepage through the lake floor is difficult to measure and there may be a large cumulative
error in the measurement of all the variables
2. Evaporation pans ( Evaporimeters)
o water loss from a shallow pan, the simplest and most common method
o evaporation = change in water level – precipitation or

Figure- An evaporation pan. This sits above the surface (to lessen rain splash) and has either an
instrument to record water depth or a continuous weighing device, to measure changes in volume.
3. Lysimeter(evapotranspirometer)
o measuring evaporation from soil
B. Theoretical (physically-based) approaches
1. Turbulent (mass) transfer
o turbulent diffusion as a function of wind speed and vapour pressure gradient
o this approach assumes that heat and vapour move away from the water surface in
response to decreasing air temperature and water vapour pressure; thus it does not apply
to surface temperature inversions or condensation (dew or frost)
o precise measurements of temperature and humidity over short vertical distances restrict
the use of this approach to experimental situations
2. Water balance method
o (Et = (P+I) – (O + ∆S); where Et= evapo-transpiration; p= precipitation; I= inflow; O;
= out flow; & ∆S = change in storage. In most cases, underground inflow and out flow
are not considered.
3. energy balance approach
o net radiation = sensible heat +/- soil or water heat +/- latent heat
o measurement of the first three terms permits the calculation of latent heat, the portion of
the net radiation used for evaporation
4. Empirical methods- using various equations it provides fast estimation of evaporation. However,
their application becomes difficult if the data required in the equation is not available at the place
of interest.
C. Estimating from Satellite Data
Potential evapotranspiration
Thornthwaite defined potential evapotranspiration as the ‘’water loss, which will occur if at no time
there is a deficiency of water in the soil for the use of vegetation’’. Penman has suggested this definition

26
be modified to include the stipulation (requirement) that the surface be fully covered by green
vegetation. This modified definition is generally satisfactory but becomes meaningless during winter in
northern latitudes.
Penman recommends that the annual free-water evaporation computed by his equations be multiplied
by a factor of 0.75(ranging from 0.8 in summer to 0.6 in winter) to obtain potential evapotranspiration.
Under certain conditions potential evapotranspiration may be equal to free water evaporation. In some
application free water evaporation can be used as an index for potential evapotranspiration, e.g in studies
of soil moisture conditions for purpose of forecasting.
Actual evapotranspiration
The effect of moisture deficiency in the soil profile is important to the relations between actual and
potential evapotranspiration. There seems little doubt that the rate of depletion from an initially saturated
heterogeneous area decreases with time in approximately a logarithmic recession because of variations
in root zone depth, in root zone capacity, slope and aspect of the surface, etc.
Methods of estimating potential and actual evaporation
Evaporation is the primary process of water transfer in the hydrogical cycle. The water is tranformed
into vapour and transported of to the sky. The evaporation plus transpiration from a vegetated surface
with unlimited water supply is known as potential evaporation or potential evapotranspiration (PE) and
it constitutes the maximum possible rate due to the prevailing meteorological conditions. Thus, PE is
the maximum value of the actual evaporation (Et): PE = Et when water supply is unlimited. Actual
evaporation is the amount of water which is evaporated a normal day which means that if for instance
the soil runs out of water, the actual evaporation is the amount of water which has been evaporated, and
not the amount of water which could have been evaporated if the soil had had an infinite amount of
water to evaporate.
Because of the variability of region and seasons, water managers who are responsible for planning and
adjudicating the distribution of water resources need to have a thorough understanding of the
evapotranspiration process and knowledge about the spatial and temporal rates of evapotranspiration.
Potential evaporation
Measurement: There are many different ways of measuring evaporation. One of the most common
methods is to use the irrigated lysimeter (it looks like a percolation gauge, the principal difference is in
the operation of the apparatus, with the contained soil being kept at field capacity, the water content of
the soil after the saturated soil has drained under gravity to equilibrum).
Then PE = RF + Irrigation – Percolation.
Calculation of Potential Evaporation
A value of the actual evapotranspiration (Et) over a catchment is more often obtained by first calculating
the potential evapotranspiration (PE), assuming an unrestricted availability of water, and then modifying
the answer by accounting for the actual soil moisture content.
There are several formulae for calculating potential evaporation (based on theoretical or empirical
models), but the most commonly used are the following ones:
Thornthwaite's formula:
This formula is based mainly on temperature with an adjustment being made for the number of daylight
hours. An estimate of the potential evapotransiration, calculated on a monthly basis, is given by:
a
 _

 10Tm 
PEm = 16N m  
 I 
 

27
 where m is the months 1, 2, 3…12, Nm is the monthly adjustment factor related to hours of daylight,

1 .5
 _ 
T 
I =  i m =  m 
 5 
 
Tm is the monthly mean temperature (C), I is the heat index for the year, given by: for
m = 1…12 and: a = 6.7*10-7*I3 - 7.7*10-5*I2 + 1.8*10-2*I + 0.49
Given the monthly mean temperatures from the measurements at a climatologgical station, an estimate
of the potential evaporation for each month of the year can be calculated.

2.9 INFILTRATION PROCESSES & MEASUREMENT

Infiltration Process
Infiltration refers to the movement of water into the soil layer. Infiltration is the means by which
ground water supplies are recharged and water is made available to sustain vegetation.

Infiltration rate is the amount of water able to enter the soil in a specified time period. It is expressed
as depth per time; for example, 10 millimeters per hour.

Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which water can enter the soil is called the infiltration
capacity. It is the upper limit of infiltration rate. It includes surface infiltration and percolation and is
expressed in depth per time; for example, 15 millimeters per hour.
If rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, water will accumulate on the surface and runoff
will begin. For example, if our rainfall rate increases to 25 millimeters per hour but the infiltration
capacity remains at 15 millimeters per hour, then the rainfall rate is 10 millimeters per hour greater than

28
the infiltration capacity. The 10 millimeters per hour that does not infiltrate becomes surface runoff. If
precipitation rate is less than or equal to infiltration capacity, no surface runoff occurs.

Fig. Infiltration & saturation Excess Flow

The rate of infiltration normally declines rapidly during the early part of a rainstorm event and reaches
a constant value after several hours of rainfall. A number of factors are responsible for this phenomena,
including:
• The filling of small pores on the soil surface with water reduces the ability of capillary forces to
actively move water into the soil.
• As the soil moistens, the micelle structure of the clay particles absorbs water causing them to
expand. This expansion reduces the size of soil pores.
• Raindrop impact breaks large soil clumps into smaller particles. These particles then clog soil
surface pores reducing the movement of water into the soil.
The terms infiltration and percolation are often used interchangeably, however, percolation specifically
refers to the movement of water within the soil, while infiltration refers to water entering the soil surface.

• Actual infiltration (Fa)

– The amount of water which is already absorbed in a given soil

29
 – Actual infiltration (Fa) = infiltration capacity (F), if rain fall (Rf) > F
– Fa < F, if Rf < F.
– Infiltration capacity at a given location varies on time, due to change in soil
moisture, land use & cover, temperature etc.
The factors affecting infiltration
The rate at which infiltration occurs is influenced by several factors such as
• Rainfall intensity
• precipitation type;
• Temperature
• Capillarity
o The process by which water is drawn into openings due to the attractive force
between water molecules and the surrounding earth materials. As the particles
decrease, capillarity increases.
o When water moves upward against gravity, it is called capillary action.
• Soil types (Texture & structure, Porosity, Shape etc)
▪ Round particles = more pore space, higher porosity, and more infiltration
▪ Angular particles = less pore space, less porosity, and less infiltration
o Hydraulic conductivity
o Moisture content in the soil/ the initial condition of soil humidity
• The type and extent of vegetal cover;
o Vegetation- Grasses, trees and other plant types capture falling precipitation on leaves and
branches, keeping that water from being absorbed into the Earth. If any water gets through
the vegetation, the velocity of the water will be reduced and this will give the ground more
time to absorb the water. Ground without vegetation usually has high runoff and low
infiltration rates
• The condition of the surface crust
• Land Use- Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that are not longer permeable.
These impermeable surfaces often channel runoff. Farming, cutting down trees and grazing
animals will reduce vegetation and therefore decrease permeability.
• Ground slope
o The steeper the slope (gradient), the less the infiltration or seepage
▪ inverse or indirect relationship
Measurement of infiltration
Why we measure of infiltration?
– Soil moisture budgeting
– Estimation of ground water recharge
– Surface Runoff estimation
• Minimizing impacts of erosion
– For efficiency of irrigation /Irrigation schedule/ and drainage,
• Optimizing the availability of water for plants
Infiltrometer is a device used to measure the rate of water infiltration into soil or other porous media.
Commonly used infiltrometer are single ring or double ring infiltrometer. It is easy to use, but soil
structure could be disturbed.
Limitation of single ring infiltrometer

30
 – The infiltrated water percolates laterally at the bottom of the ring
– Hence, not truly represent the area through which the infiltration is taking place
– This drawback is set right by double ring infiltrometer
• The purpose of outer ring in the double ring is to suppress the lateral percolation
of water from the inner ring2.10. Ground water

2.10. GROUND WATER

2.10.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Groundwater is water occurring in the zone of saturation in an aquifer or soil.
Groundwater flow is a Flow of water in an aquifer or soil.
Underground water is more widely distributed than surface water. The Source of ground water is
recharge through infiltration and percolation
• Aquifer: A permeable subsurface rock layer that can store, transmit, and supply water.
• An aquitard : transmits water at a slow rate compared to an aquifer
• Aquiclude: can absorb water but can not transmit significant amounts.
• An aquifuge: can neither absorb nor transmit Examples are basalts, granites, etc.
The rate of infiltration is a function of precipitation, soil type, rock type, antecedent water, and time.
2.10.2. Components of groundwater

• Unsaturated/ zone of aeration/ vadose zone- The space between the Earth’s surface and the zone
of saturation.
• water table- The upper boundary of the zone of saturation.
• capillary fringe- a layer above the water table where capillary forces pull water in to pore space
Groundwater characteristics:
• Occurs in most geological formations
• Does not occur as an underground river unless it is found in a cave.
• Not unlimited/ limited
• Not stagnant and motionless = in constant motion
• A dynamic part of the hydrologic system
• Gravity is the principal driving force for the flow of groundwater.
• It is an open system
• Water enters the system when surface water infiltrates the ground (recharge);

31
 • Water moves through the system by percolating through the pore spaces of rock and
ultimately leaves the system by seeping into streams, springs or lakes (discharge).
Confined and Unconfined Aquifer
• Unconfined Aquifer:
• overlain by permeable rocks and soils through which it can be recharged
• has no confining layers that retard vertical water movement
• Confined aquifer:
• Sandwiched between impervious strata
• permeable rock units enclosed within impermeable strata.
• These layers restrict vertical water movement. eg. Clay soils, shale, and non-fractured,
weakly porous igneous and metamorphic rocks.
2.10.3 DISTRIBUTION & AVAILABILITY OF GROUNDWATER
– Dependent on:
• Amount of precipitation
• Rate of evaporation
• Amount and type of vegetation cover
• Hydraulic conductivity
– Porosity
– Permeability
Groundwater -- Recharge and Discharge
• Water is continually recycled through aquifer systems.
• Groundwater recharge is any water added to the aquifer zone.
• Processes that contribute to groundwater recharge include
• precipitation
• stream flow
• leakage (reservoirs, lakes, canals)
• artificial means (injection wells).
• Groundwater discharge is any process that removes water from an aquifer system.
• Examples: Natural springs and artificial wells are of discharge processes.
2.10.4. Ground water problems
• A variety of problems resulting from human activities alter the groundwater System
• Pollution problems
– Groundwater pollution/changes in the chemical composition
– Ex. Material that is leached (dissolved by percolating groundwater) from waste disposal
sites such as landfill seepage, septic tanks
– Over pumping /discharge problems
– Depletion
– Changes the groundwater flow direction
– changes in the position of the water table
• Lowers the water table (making it necessary to dig a deeper well)
– Land subsidence
– Saltwater intrusion/saltwater encroachment from the sea.

32
2.11 RUNOFF
2.11.1 DEFINITION
• Runoff is the water discharged through stream or over the land’s surface water flux over the earth's
surface
• Surface runoff
• all overland flow
• Interflow/ subsurface
• water that moves laterally in the subsurface /flow through surficial layers of soil
• It is a slower process than surface runoff.
• Groundwater flow /Base flow
- Water flow in the zone of saturation/ground water seepage from spring & aquifer directly
to stream channel
2.11.2. CAUSES OF SURFACE WATER FLOW

1. Infiltration excess overland flow = PPT > Infiltration Saturated excess overland flow
2.11.3. FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
• Flow characteristics of a stream depend upon:
• Climatic factors
• Rainfall characteristics, magnitude/amount or extent, intensity, distribution in time and space.
• Catchment characteristics/Characteristics of watershed: Geology & Soil type ( texture,
porosity, structure, Vegetation, Slope, Drainage density
• Shape- determine time of concentration to the outlet
Rainfall is a measure factor affect volume of runoff?
- Amount of Rainfall
– Higher rainfall → Greater volume of flow/More river discharge/overland flow/
- Duration of Rainfall
– Longer duration of rainfall → Greater volume of flow/More river discharge
Geological and soil characteristics
• Bedrock permeability:Run-off will occur quickly where impermeable rocks are exposed at the
surface due to limited amount of infiltration).
• Soil permeability: Soils with large amounts of clay do absorb moisture but only very slowly -
therefore their permeability is low
• Thickness: The deeper the soil the more water can be absorbed.

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 • Infiltration capacity
– Soils which have larger particle sizes have larger infiltration capacities.
– Initial conditions (e.g. the degree of saturation of the soil and aquifers)

3. THE CATCHMENT/ DRAINAGE BASIN /STREAM PATTERNS

On the land surface, the basic hydrological unit is the drainage basin, which is topographically bounded
by a watershed and defines the catchment area for one or more streams. Drainage basins vary in size
from a few meters to many thousands of kilometers.The amount of water carried by a stream, the shape
of the channel, the chemical composition of its water, and its ability to support life are determined by its
catchment and what is happening there. A stream is only as healthy as its surrounding catchment.
What is catchment?
• A Catchment ( also called drainage basin, river basin or watershed) is an extent of land where
water from rain or snow melt drains downhill into a body of water such as a rivers, lakes,
reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean. In hydrology, catchment is a hydrological unit of focus
for studding the movement of water with in the hydrological cycle, because the majority of water
that discharges from the catchment outlet originated as precipitation falling on the catchment. It
is the most common spatial unit of consideration in studying hydrology.

Fig. A catchment area

3.1 STREAM/ DRAINAGE PATTERN

Drainage pattern is the arrangement of channels in an area. The nature of the pattern of stream channels
is determined by:
- topography (Relief of the land)
- Underlying bedrock type
- Climate
- soil types
- vegetation cover
Common drainage patterns
Some of the major drainage patterns are identified and illustrated below.
1. Trellis drainage pattern

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In a trellis pattern the distributaries of a stream run almost parallel to each other; hence they join the
main stream at almost right angle. It is characteristics of dipping or folded topography. These patterns
are influenced by rock structure of variable resistance and folded strata.

Fig. Trellis drainage pattern

2. Dendritic drainage pattern ( tree like pattern) Greek term Dendron = tree
This drainage pattern is similar to vein patterns in leaves or the branches of trees. It develops in
regions underlain by homogeneous material (the subsurface geology has a similar resistance to
weathering so there is no apparent control over the direction the tributaries take. Tributaries join
larger streams at acute angle. it is also characterized by irregular branching of the tributaries of
a stream in different directions.

Fig. Dendritic drainage pattern

3. Centripetal drainage pattern

This pattern is characterized by many streams or rivers converging or flowing into a central
depression.

Fig. Centripetal drainage pattern

4. Radial drainage pattern
Develop around a central elevated point. This pattern is common to conically shaped features such
as volcanoes. The tributary streams extend the head ward reaches upslope toward the top of the
volcano.

Fig. Radial drainage pattern

5. Rectangular pattern

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 This drainage pattern is formed a faulted and jointed landscapes, which directs stream courses
in pattern of right angle turns.

6. Parallel drainage patterns form where there is a pronounced slope to the surface. A parallel
pattern also develops in regions of parallel, elongate landforms like outcropping resistant rock
bands. Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like fashion following the slope of the
surface. A parallel pattern sometimes indicates the presence of a major fault that cuts across an
area of steeply folded bedrock.

7. Deranged or contorted patterns develop from the disruption of a pre-existing drainage pattern
by events like glacial activities or volcanic deposition. A deranged drainage system is a drainage
system in watersheds where there is no coherent pattern to the rivers and lakes. It happens in
areas where there has been much geological disruption.

3.2 STREAM ORDERING

- Stream order is a classification reflecting the degree of branching or bifurcation of the stream
channel with in a basin.
• There are several methods of ranking stream segments
• However, two principal stream order schemes are in use today.

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 1. The Shreve Magnitude system designates
2. The Strahler Order system designates
The Shreve Magnitude system
▪ Designates streams that lack a tributary as magnitude 1.
▪ Where streams join, their magnitudes are added together.
▪ Therefore unlike the Strahler system, magnitudes increase at all junctions in the Shreve system.
For instance, where a magnitude 2 stream joins a magnitude 3 stream, the magnitudes are added
to form a magnitude 5 streams
▪ Note that in such a case there is no magnitude 4 stream.
▪ A convenient component of the Shreve system is that a stream's magnitude corresponds to the
number of magnitude 1 or 1st order streams contributing to the channel.

The Strahler Order system

• In this method stream segments are ranked as 1st order, 2nd order, 3rd order, and so on.
o first order stream ( the first finger trip tributaries or the smallest headwater tributaries are
called first-order streams) is any stream segment that does not have any other stream flowing
into it.
o Streams that do not possess a tributary are designated as ‘1st order' or ‘magnitude 1' streams.
o When two first order streams meet they form a 2nd order stream.
o when two 2nd order streams meet they form a 3rd order stream, and so on.
o Stream order is an important characteristic of stream systems because it can be related to drainage
a area and stream size.
o It should also be noted that when a lower order stream joins a higher order stream the resulting
stream segment will still be that higher order stream.
• For instance, if a 1st order stream flows into a 2nd order stream, the stream segment produced
will still be ranked 2nd order.
Example: Fig. Strahler method

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 The Table shows the number of segments in each stream order.

Bifurcation ratio
• Bifurcation ratio (Br) is used to compare the relationship between a stream order
and the next higher stream order.
• it is used to determine the proportion of a stream order say the nth order (i.e. 1st order) in
relation to the (n+1)th order (i.e. 2nd order).
• The formula for calculating the Bifurcation ratio is:

Examples:
Using the information contained in table above the Bifurcation ratio between the first order
stream segment and the second order segment is calculated thus:

Similarly, the Br between the 2nd order streams and the 3rd order streams is:

WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

Interpretation:
• The above Br (1: 1.7) result between the 1st and 2nd order streams indicates that for every
single 2nd order stream there are 1.7 1st order streams.
o In other words, the first order stream segments in the drainage network are 1.7 times
greater than the second order streams.

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 •In the same way, the Br of 1: 2 between the 2nd and 3rd order streams shows that the 2nd order
streams are twice larger in number than the 3rd order streams.
3. DRAINAGE DENSITY (DD)
• This refers to the average or mean length of streams in a drainage basin.
• This gives us an idea of the average length of stream per unit area; e.g. 3.2km of stream per
square kilometer.
• It is a measure of the closeness of the spacing of the stream channel
• Drainage density varies inversely as the length of overland flow and indicates the drainage
efficiency of the basin.
• Drainage density indicates
o how dissected the landscape is by channels, thus it reflects both the tendency of the
drainage basin to generate surface runoff and
o the erodibility of the surface materials
• The stream density is determined by the formula:

o A high value indicates a well-developed network and torrential runoff causing intense
floods while a low value indicates moderate runoff and high permeability of the terrain.
o Higher drainage densities are expected where:
▪ Soils are easily eroded or relatively impermeable (limited infiltration)
▪ Slopes are steep
▪ Vegetation covers are scant
➢ promote considerable run-off
o Low drainage density reflects poor drainage ondition in the watershed
▪ Common in areas where
• soils are resistant to erosion or very permeable
• Slopes are small/gentle
• High vegetation density

4. STREAM FREQUENCY (SF) = also known as stream density

• This is the mean number of stream segments in a drainage basin per unit area of
the basin.

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 • To obtain this index, simply count the number of stream segments in the basin and divide it
by the area of the basin.
o The ratio of the number of streams to the area of the basin
• This will give us an idea of the average number of segments per unit area.

5. STREAM LENGTH
▪ It is the length measured along the main stream from the catchment outlet to the remotest point
on the catchment boundary.
▪ The main stream is distinguished by starting at the outlet and following the stream of highest
order.
▪ When a bifurcation into two streams of equal order is reached, the branch having the larger
catchment is followed.
6. LENGTH RATIO (LR)
• This index measures the relationship or ratio between the average length of all the stream
segments belonging to a particular stream order and the average length of all the stream
segments in the next higher stream order.

7. DRAINAGE INTENSITY (DI)

• This is a product of the drainage density and stream frequency.
• The formula for calculating drainage intensity is:
▪ Di= Dd x Sf, where,
• Di= drainage intensity,
• Dd= drainage density,
• St= stream frequency

4. FLOOD
4.1 DEFINITION
A flood is a process whereby a river outflows its natural or the artificial channel constructed for
it.
• The condition that exists when the discharge of a river can not be accommodated with in the normal
channel
• Rivers carrying more water than the stream channels can hold

4.2 CAUSE OF FLOOD

▪ Meteorological factors
▪ Heavy rainfall
▪ sudden snow melts;
▪ local thunderstorms
▪ Storm surges onto the coast as a result of tropical cyclones

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 ▪ human activity may contribute
▪ increased amounts of impervious surface
▪ increase the risk of flooding
▪ Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
▪ Heavy siltation of the river bed
▪ reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
▪ poor development planning and poor maintenance
▪ Poor or insufficient drainage networks,
▪ Inadequate maintenance of watercourses,
▪ Faulty sewer networks
▪ Construction of dams and reservoirs/dam bursts/

4.3 Factors affecting floods

• Rainfall amount and storm distribution;
• Catchment area size, shape and orientation;
• Ground cover;
• Type of soil;
• Slopes of terrain and stream(s);
• Antecedent moisture condition;
• Storage potential (overbank, ponds, wetlands, reservoirs, channel, etc.); and
Types of Floods
• Flash Floods = flare floods
• Riverine floods = along the river courses
• Storm surge = floods along coastal areas

4.4 IMPACTS OF FLOODING

Flooding has many impacts.
• Damages property
• Endangers the lives of humans and other species.
• Causes soil erosion
– Interfere with drainage and economic use of lands
• Pollution or complete destruction of habitats.
• Damage of structures ( Bridges, sewer lines etc)
• Health impact
Spread of disease/an outbreak of epidemic/
• Financial looses due to floods
– The cost of clean-up
– The costs of living in temporary accommodation
– The loss of services and shops
– Damage the perception of the area as an attractive place for investment
• Social impact includes
– live away from home/relocated household disruption/live in cramped and overcrowded
conditions community and neighbourhood changes

4.5 FLOOD CONTROL & MANAGEMENT

• Planting vegetation to retain extra water,

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 • Terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill, and
• The construction of floodways (man-made channels to divert floodwater).
• construction of levees, dikes, Flood control dams; reservoirs or retention ponds
• Flood warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood proofing

5. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

5.1 MAIN PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER RESOURCES
1. Quality impairment /- the ecological crisis
▪ pollution
2. Quantity - the economic crisis
▪ Population pressure
▪ demands for freshwater exceed the naturally occurring, renewable
supplies
3. Uneven Distribution
▪ water scarcity & variability with respect to time and space
4. Equity - the political crisis
the same water is desired simultaneously by different sectors within a single society or nation or by
different countries.
Water Quality
• water is often qualified as: pure, natural, salt, fresh, polluted
What do all these names mean?
– Pure water :Water molecules (H2O), with no suspended or dissolved material.
– Natural water: contains different minerals and gases.
– Saltwater : contains a certain amount of dissolved salts
– Freshwater: water with a dissolved salt concentration of less than 1%.
– Polluted water: contains harmful bacteriological and/or chemical substances.

5.2 WATER POLLUTION & POLLUTANTS

• Pollution: Introduction of waste matter into the environment
• Pollutants: A substance that have a deleterious effect on the environment.
• Water Pollution
– When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered as polluted.
– Alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water
– Contamination of water bodies
Sources of water pollutants
▪ Emissions from the burning of fossil fuels /Acidic rain/
▪ Floods/rain water
▪ Chemicals applied on the farmlands (including fertilizers and pesticides)
▪ improper disposal of human and animal wastes
▪ Domestic Waste
▪ Pathogens & sediments
▪ Effluent from factories, refineries, injection wells and sewage treatment plants
▪ Watering hole shared by people and animals

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 • underground storage tank leakage, leading to soil contamination, thence aquifer contamination
Water pollution sub divided in to two
1. Point sources
o Discharge pollution from specific location
o Easier to identify, monitor, regulate
2. Non point sources
➢ Can not be attribute to any particular source
➢ Diffused across a broad area and their contamination cannot be traced to a single
discharge point
➢ Control is difficult and expensive

5.3 EFFECTS/ IMPACTS OF WATER POLLUTION

▪ Health Impacts
➢ Water-borne diseases/ health problems like nausea, lung irritation, skin rashes, diarrhea,
vomiting, dizziness, cancer, birth defects and gastro-intestinal diseases. (e.g. like skin
lesion, cholera and diarrhea)
▪ Diseases arising from the ingestion of pathogens
▪ Disease and deaths from consumption of contaminated water
• Environmental Impacts
• poisoning of aquatic organisms by toxic compounds = death of marine plants and
fish
• decline of fishing industry
• Poison the soil and contaminate agricultural crops and plants
• affects the chemistry of water
• Discharges from power stations reduce the availability of oxygen in the water
body
• atmospheric air pollution
• deforestation from acid rain
• Economic Impacts
• Impaired health often lowers human productivity
• environmental degradation reduces the productivity of water resources used
directly by people.
• decline of tourism industry
• costs of treatment
• workdays may be lost due to water-related diseases
• decrease in production

5.4. WATER CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT

• Water conservation
• The minimization of loss or waste
• The care and protection of water resources
• The efficient and effective use of water

5.5 INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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 Management considers all the different uses of water resources together. Integrated water
resources management is a systematic process for the sustainable development, allocation and
monitoring of water resource use in the context of social, economic and environmental
objectives.
Water resource management options
• Reused of water
• Recycling of water
• Rainwater harvesting
• Diverting surface water into the ground
• Desalinated water
• Building dams and reservoirs
– To store water for irrigation, drinking, provide power and help control floods,
• But they can also bring about undesirable social and environmental impacts.
Watershed Management
– Limiting the impacts of drought and flood
– Slow soil erosion in the watersheds,
– Augment groundwater recharge
– Moderate runoff and potential flood damage,
– Improve infiltration of water into soils and groundwater acquifers.
– Reduce sedimentation rates, (increase useable capacity of reservoirs and reducing water
treatment plant costs)

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