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ALUMINIUM-BASED FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS

Article · October 2014

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Anna Bouzekova-Penkova Adelina Miteva Miteva

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Space Research and Technology Institute – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
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 ALUMINIUM-BASED FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS

Anna Bouzekova-Penkova, Adelina Miteva

Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Acad. Georgy Bonchev Str., bl. 1, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
e-mail: a_bouzekova@abv.bg; ad.miteva@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper is motivated by the present tremendous interest in the functionally graded
materials (FGMs). The overall properties of FMGs are unique and different from any of the individual
materials that form it. One unique characteristic of FGMs is the ability to tailor the materials for specific
applications. There is a wide range of applications of FGMs. Here we present a brief overview on the
most distinguished properties and applications of the FGMs. Planed future works in the area of FGMs
include deeper study of the matter and consequently looking for new aluminium-based FGMs for
potential space and other applications.
Keywords: functionally graded materials (FGMs), properties of FGMs, applications of FGMs,
aluminium-based (Al-based) FGMs.

1. Introduction.
The present work is motivated by the tremendous interest in a new class of composite materials
called functionally graded materials (FGMs) [1-20]. The information contained in this paper has been
compiled from the existing literature and it may be considered as a brief introduction to the subject
mentioned above. Functionally graded material (FGM) is an advanced material which exhibit a
continuous variation in material properties (see Fig. 1. and Fig. 2. [1]) and in material composition, as the
dimension varies. In a FGM the properties change gradually with the position. The property gradient in
the material is caused by a position-dependent chemical composition, microstructure or atomic order. The
overall properties of FMG are unique and different from any of the individual material that forms it.
FGMs are now recognized as important composite materials throughout the world. There is a wide range
of applications for FGM and this range in the future is expected to increase. In this paper, an overview of
the most promising properties and applications of FGM is presented.

2. Some Properties of FGMs.

FGMs are an advanced, a novel and an artificial class of engineered materials characterized by
variation in properties as the dimension varies. FGMs are a novel generation of materials having unique
characteristics. FGMs occur in nature as bones, teeth etc. In a FGM the properties change gradually with
the position. The property gradient in the material is caused by a position-dependent chemical
composition, microstructure or atomic order. The overall properties of FMG are unique and different
from any of the individual materials that form it. FGMs may be characterized by the variation in their
composition and structure gradually over the volume, resulting in corresponding changes in their
properties. FGMs are composites or single-phase materials, whose functional properties change uniformly
at least in one dimension of the particle, film or a bulk sample. These materials can be designed for
specific functions and applications. Various efforts and approaches based on the bulk (particulate
processing), preform processing, layer processing and melt processing are used to fabricate the FGMs.

Fig. 1. Traditional composite and its final properties [1].

 Fig. 2. Functionally graded material and its final properties [1].

FGMs can be obtained by mechanically joining materials with very different physicochemical
properties, for example, by soldering glass and metal. As a rule, a change in the properties of an FGM is
associated with a corresponding variation of the chemical composition or physical structure of the
material. These materials can be produced by layer coating with materials of variable composition or by
sintering (fusing, welding) of several plates or tablets of different composition. A gradient of material
properties can be created by changing the degree of cross linking (for polymers) or the degree of filling,
and along the surface – for example, by changing the degree of modification. A smooth change of these
characteristics leads to a smooth variation of the properties, and irregular changes correspond to an
irregular form of dependence of the properties on the composition or structure.
There is a substantial difference between FGM and traditional composite material (CM). CM is a
class of advanced material, made up of one or more materials combined in solid states with distinct
physical and chemical properties. CM offers an excellent combination of properties which are different
from the individual parent materials. Wood is a CM from nature. CM will fail under extreme working
conditions through a process called delamination (separation of reinforcement from the matrix) [2]. To
solve this problem, researchers in Japan in the middle of 1980s,confronted with this challenge in an
hypersonic space plane project requiring a thermal barrier (with outside temperature of 2000K and inside
temperature of 1000K across less than 10 mm thickness), came up with a novel material called
Functionally Graded Material (FGM) [3,4]. The results and development of this research project were
spread worldwide via papers, media and international conferences.
The gradation of properties in an FGM reduces the thermal stresses, residual stresses, and stress
concentrations found in traditional composites. FGM may include more than two constituent phases (as
CM). FGMs are innovative composite materials whose composition and microstructure vary in space
following a predetermined law. The gradual change in composition and microstructure gives place to a
gradient of properties and performances [3].
FGM eliminates the sharp interfaces existing in CM which is where failure is initiated. It replaces
this sharp interface with a gradient interface which produces smooth transition from one material to the
next. One unique characteristic of FGM is the ability to tailor a material for specific application. Such
unique characteristics possess also graded semiconductor superlattices and graded quantum wells, which
electronic structure may tailor for specific applications (as for example: the quantum confined Stark
effect).
Depending upon the nature of gradient, the FGMs (composites) may be grouped into following
types :
1) Fraction gradient type;
2) Shape gradient type;
3) Orientation gradient type;
4) Size (of material) gradient type.
Depending on the number of directions the proprieties changed, we can discriminate as 1-
dimensional, 2- dimensional or 3-dimensional FGMs.
A FGM’s gradation in material properties allows the designer to tailor material response to meet
design criteria. For example, the Space Shuttle utilizes ceramic tiles as thermal protection from heat
generated during re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. However, these tiles are prone to cracking at the
tile / superstructure interface due to differences in thermal expansion coefficients. An FGM made of ceramic and
metal can provide the thermal protection and load carrying capability in one material thus eliminating the problem
of cracked tiles found on the Space Shuttle.
There are different methods for producing FGMs. FGMs can be divided into two broad groups
namely: thin and bulk FGM. Thin FGM are relatively thin sections or thin surface coating, while the bulk
FGM are volume of materials which require more labour intensive processes. Thin section or surface
coating FGM are produced by physical or chemical vapour deposition (PVD/CVD), plasma spraying,
self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) etc [6]. Bulk FGM is produced using powder
metallurgy technique, centrifugal casting method, solid freeform technology etc [7].

3. Some applications of FGMs.

FGMs find various applications in aerospace, automobile, medicine, sport, energy, sensors,
optoelectronic etc. Owing to the importance of FGM applications, there are lots of research efforts at
improving the material processing, fabrication processing and properties of the FGM. Some of the
application areas of FGMs are highlighted below.

3.1. Aerospace
FGMs possess very high thermal gradient resistivity, which makes them suitable for thermal
protection of space vehicles, for use in structures and materials for space plane body, rocket engine
component and are promising in wider areas of aerospace industry [8]. Ceramic-metal FGMs are
particularly suited for thermal barriers in space vehicles. They have the added advantage that the metal
side can be bolted onto the airframe rather than bonded as are the ceramic tiles used in the Orbiter. Other
possible uses include combustion chamber insulation in ramjet or scramjet engines
3.2. Medicine
FGMs have found a wide range of applications and mostly are used as medical implants, in dental
[11] and orthopedic applications for teeth and bone replacement [12].
3.3. Defense
FGMs have the strong ability to inhibit crack propagation. This property makes them useful in
defense applications, as a penetration resistant materials used for armour plates and bullet-proof vests
[13].
3.4. Energy
FGMs are used in energy industry as energy conversion devices and as thermoelectric converter
for energy conservation. They also provide thermal barrier and are used as protective coating on turbine
blades in gas turbine engine [3].
3.5. Optoelectronics
FGMs are used in optoelectronics as graded refractive index materials and in audio-video discs
magnetic storage media. They are now used as nano, optoelectronic and thermoelectric materials also.
Other areas of application are: cutting tool insert coating, automobile engine components, nuclear reactor
components, turbine blade, heat exchanger, tribology, sensors, fire retardant doors, etc [2]. The list is
endless and more application is springing up as the processing technology, cost of production and
properties of FMGs improve [2].
4. Examples of some materials for FGMs.
The carbon nanotubes (CNT) reinforced functionally graded composite materials (FGCM) is
expected to be the new generation material having a wide range of unexplored potential applications in
various technological areas such as aerospace, defence, energy, automobile, medicine, structural and
chemical industry. They can be used as gas adsorbents, templates, actuators, catalyst supports, probes,
chemical sensors, nanopipes, nano-reactors etc. [14].
CNT reinforced metal matrix functional graded composites due to their unique combination of
hardness, toughness and strength are universally used in cutting tools, drills, machining of wear resistant
materials, mining and geothermal drilling. Some of the current and futuristic applications of FGM are
listed as follows [14].
1) Commercial and industrial: pressure vessels, fuel tanks, cutting tool inserts, laptop cases, wind
turbine blades, firefighting air bottles, MRI scanner cryogenic tubes, eyeglass frames, musical
instruments, drilling motor shaft, X-ray tables, helmets.
2) Automobiles: (SiC-SiC) combustion chambers, (AISiC) engine cylinder liners, (SiCw / AI-
alloy) diesel engine pistons, (E-glass / epoxy) leaf springs, (AI-C) drive shafts, (AI-SiC) flywheels, racing
car brakes, (SiCp / AI-alloy) shock absorbers.
3) Aerospace equipment and structures: (TiAl-SiC fibers) rocket nozzle, heat exchange panels,
spacecraft truss structure, reflectors, solar panels, camera housing, turbine wheels (operating above
40,000 rpm), nose caps and leading edge of missiles and Space shuttle.
 4) Submarine: (carbon and glass fibers) propulsion shaft, (graphite / epoxy) cylindrical pressure
hull, (glass / epoxy) sonar domes, composite piping system, (AI-SiC) diving cylinders.
5) Biotechnology: the functional gradient nanohydroxyapatite reinforced polyvinyl alcohol
(nanoHA / PVA) gel biocomposites can be prepared through a layer-by-layer casting method combining
with freeze/thaw cycles technology. nanoHA / PVA gel biocomposites have been a promising and
excellent artificial articular cartilage repair material. Compared to hydrogel-based materials such as poly
(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly (lactic acid) and chitosan, nanoHA / PVA gel biocomposites possesses
superior bioactivity and mechanical properties because of the nanoHA existence in the composites [15].
Some more applications of CNT in FGM having recent applications are the following [14]:
1) CNT reinforced functionally graded piezoelectric actuators.
2) As furnace liners and thermal shielding elements in microelectronics.
3) CNT reinforced functionally graded tools and dies for better thermal management, better wear
resistance, reduce scrap, and improved process productivity.
4) CNT reinforced functionally graded polyestercalcium phosphate materials for bone
replacement.
FGMs in optoelectronic devices
FGMs can be presented as a composition of several connected thin layers. Nowadays the graded
materials are widely used for antireflective layers, fibers, GRIN lenses, GRINSCH lasers, peltier
junctions, fuel cells and many other passive elements made from dielectrics, and also for sensors and
energy applications. For example, the modulation of refractive index can be obtained in such components
through the change in material composition. Another possibility is to apply concept of gradation in
semiconductor active devices. In semiconductors the material function can describe energetic bandgap,
refractive index, carrier concentration, carrier mobility, diffusion length, built-in electric field and another
property which influence the parameters of optoelectronic devices.
In the paper [6] is presented a review of possible applications of AIII-BV group materials with
graded composition for optoelectronic devices such as p-n diodes. By using FGM we can obtain higher
sensitivity of detectors. It became possible to fabricate photonic devices which could operate in a wide
spectral range (also voltage tuneable photodetectors). The important application area of usage of FGM is
photovoltaics. Thin-layer photovoltaic cells made from FGM can overcome theoretical limit of 20%
quantum efficiency specified for silicon homogenous elements. Moreover, gradation of composition and
doping concentration in semiconductor materials makes possible to modify their electrical properties i.e.
the modulation of built-in electric field and carrier concentration in FGM structures fabricated from
AIIIBV and AIIIN compounds.
High-efficient photodetector and solar cells
The fundamental limitation of the efficiency of homogenous silicon solar cells is the constant energetic
band-gap width in bulk material. Because the high-energetic radiation is absorbed in a shallow layer
under surface, it is necessary to form electric field in close vicinity to the surface. Generated carriers can
effectively be separated in electric field; therefore the diffusion length of carriers should be longer than
junction depth.
Another factor which decreases carrier generation efficiency is the difference of energetic band-
gap and absorbed photons energy. By using materials with gradation of energetic band-gap, it is possible
to match the absorption edge with band-gap, which improves generation efficiency. The appliance of
cascade of junctions with different energetic band-gap width can be one of the solutions. Another way to
overcome this limitation is the use of graded material. The idea of such device is shown in Fig. 3. [20].

Fig. 3 Schematic structure of p-n photodiode with graded layer electric field, therefore the diffusion
length of carriers should be longer than junction depth [20].
The article [16] describes the concept of creating ultrasonic waveguides based on uniform
composition FGMs, such as an alloy Cu-Al-Mn by changing of mechanical properties generated by the
gradient thermal treatment.
 FGMs - alloys consisting of hard grains of carbides, nitrides and borides of transition metals
(tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, titanium carbonitride, titanium diboride, etc.) forming a continuous
strong frame, and the metal binder (cobalt, nickel, titanium, aluminum, and etc.), the content of which
varies continuously in the volume of the material. As a result FGM materials possess properties as
carbide or metal, i.e. have a high hardness and high toughness. Because of these properties, as well as
high thermal stability, FGM alloys can be used effectively in the following areas: military equipment
(body armor and protection of tanks and helicopters from a gunshot and shrapnel injury); metalworking
(making cutters for machining difficult steels and alloys); mining (cutters for rock drilling); processing
industry (facing grinders for grinding solids) etc. [17].
FGM based on Bi - Te for thermoelectric cooling mode with the maximum differential
temperatures is presented in [18].
An in situ Al-Al3Ni FGM was produced by centrifugally casting an Al-20 mass% Ni alloy into a
thick-walled tube [19]. Four specimens, 90 mm long, with rectangular cross-sections (width × thickness)
of 6 × 6, 6 × 5, 6 × 4 and 6 × 3 mm2 were machined from the tube such that the thickness direction of the
specimens was in the radial direction of the tube. The microstructure of the FGM tube consisted of
granular morphology Al3Ni as a second phase distributed within the aluminium matrix with an increasing
volume fraction gradient from the inside to the outside of the tube. Thus, the thicker the specimen, the
greater was the composition gradient and the thinner the specimen, the greater was the volume fraction of
Al3Ni. The dependence of the Young's modulus and internal friction on the composition gradient of the
FGM was determined by a flexural forced-resonance technique from the resonant frequency and the
resonance peak width, respectively, as a function of nominal specimen thickness. The Young's modulus
of the Al3Ni second phase was determined from a correlation plot of assumed Al3Ni Young's modulus
values against the calculated resonant frequency values corresponding to the associated FGM Young's
modulus values. The latter were calculated using a rule of mixtures with a fixed matrix Young's modulus
and a gradient volume fraction of Al3Ni for each specimen thickness. By plotting the experimental FGM
specimen resonant frequencies on this plot, the average Al3Ni Young's modulus was found to be 140 GPa.
The Young's modulus of the FGM was found to vary between 81.5 and 100.8 GPa across the 6 mm tube-
wall thickness from the inner to outer surface, reflecting the 15.2 and 43.2 vol % Al3Ni second phase,
respectively. The measured internal friction increased with the volume fraction of Al3Ni, and owing to the
relatively large Al3Ni particle size, was thereby dependent on the resultant increase in the second phase-
matrix interface number density rather than the dislocation density.
In our department in SRTI-BAS we also aim to obtain the novel FGMs based on Al materials with
high hardness, high density and high thermal stability, for space applications. With the nanodiamond
particles modification of various Al based composites is expected to obtain Al-based FGMs. Such
materials will be of considerable interest for their application in space technology and in particular for
aerospace instrumentation.
The emergence of functionally graded materials (FGMs) [1, 2] has revolutionized the aerospace
and aerocraft industry. The FGMs used initially as thermal barrier materials for aerospace structural
applications and fusion reactors are now developed for general use as structural components in high
temperature environments. FGMs are manufactured by combining metals and ceramics.

5. Final remarks and future works on FGMs.

This brief survey of some FGMs and their applications could enhance the common understanding
of some modern and contemporary knowledge and materials.
In the literature, there has been a lot of research work and developments, which has been done by
different investigators on the analysis of FGMs. Most of these works focus on 2D models. There is a need
to develop 3D models to understand the full response to different loadings. There is also need to use
higher order theories combined with no local stress analysis. In general, FGMs holds a good potential in
many applications. Research work now should progress combining the modelling of FGMs with
substantive experimental work.
Last but not at least, both experimental and theoretical studies of the FGMs are quite important and need
to be developed in order to seek unknown and possible FGM properties for new potential FGMs
applications. Future applications demand materials having extraordinary mechanical, electronic and
thermal properties which can sustain different environment conditions and are easily available at
reasonable prices.
 6. References.
1. E. Cantergiani, Functionally graded composites: carbon gradient inside interstitial free steel,
University of Ottawa, www.uOttawa.ca
2. R. M. Mahamood, E. T. Akinlabi, M. Shukla, S. Pityana, Functionally Graded Material: An
Overview, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering, III, London, U.K., 2012.
3. 13th International Symposium on Multiscale, Multifunctional and Functionally Graded
Materials, Taua Resort, SP, Brazil, October 19-22, 2014.
4. V. Cannillo, L. Lusvarghi, T. Manfredini, M. Montorsi, C. Siligardi, A. Sola , Functionally
Graded Materials: prevision of properties and performances, OOF Workshop–24, Dipartimento di
Ingegneria dei Materiali e dell’Ambiente University of Modena and Reggio Emilia –Italy, 25 August
2006.
5. A. M. Miteva, A. M, Tribological Journal BULTRIB, 4, 203, (2014)
6. Bharti, I., N. Gupta, K. M. Gupta, Novel Applications of Functionally Graded Nano,
Optoelectronic and Thermoelectric Materials, Int. J. of Materials, Mechanics and Manufacturing, 1,
2013, 221-224.
7. Ivosevic, M., R. Knight, S. R. Kalidindi, G. R. Palmese, J. K. Sutter, Solid particle erosion
resistance of thermally sprayed functionally graded coatings for polymer matrix composites, Surface Coat
Tech, 2005.
8. Knoppers, R., J. W. Gunnink, J. Van den Hout, W. Van Vliet, The reality of functionally graded
material products, TNO Science and Industry, The Netherlands, 38-43.
11. L. Marin, Numerical solution of the Cauchy problem for steady-state heat transfer in two
dimensional functionally graded materials, Int. J. Solids Struct, 42, 4338, (2005)
12. S. Matsuo, F. Watari, N. Ohata, Fabrication of functionally graded dental composite resin post
and core by laser lithography and finite element analysis of its stress relaxation effect on tooth root,
Dental Mater J, 20, 257, (2001)
13. F. Watari, A. Yokoyama, M. Omori, T. Hirai, H. Kondo, M. Uo, et al. Biocompatibility of
materials and development to functionally graded implant for bio-medical application, Compos Sci
Technol, 64, 893, (2004)
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Engineering, Science and Management, ICAESM -2012, March 30-31, 2012.
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(vinyl alcohol) based hydrogels for potential use as an articular cartilage replacement, Mater. Sci. Eng. C,
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материалов, 23, 2013, 19-23.
18. Компьютерная программа проектирования FGM на основе Bi-Te для
термоэлектрического охлаждения в режиме максимального перепада температур, ite@inst.cv.ua.
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