Artículo 2 - Polímero

materials
Article
Modeling and Model Verification of the Stress-Strain State of
Reinforced Polymer Concrete
Kassym Yelemessov 1 , Layla B. Sabirova 2 , Nikita V. Martyushev 3, * , Boris V. Malozyomov 4 ,
Gulnara B. Bakhmagambetova 5 and Olga V. Atanova 6
1 Institute of Energy and Mechanical Engineering, Satbayev University, Almaty KZ-050000, Kazakhstan;
k.yelemessov@satbayev.university
2 Department of Oil and Gas Production, Satbayev University, Almaty KZ-050000, Kazakhstan; slb2609@mail.ru
3 Department of Advanced Technologies, Tomsk Polytechnic University, 634050 Tomsk, Russia
4 Department of Electrotechnical Complexes, Novosibirsk State Technical University, 20, Karl Marks Ave.,
630073 Novosibirsk, Russia; borisnovel@mail.ru
5 Department of Mining, Satbayev University, Almaty KZ-050000, Kazakhstan
6 Scientific Department, Satbayev University, Almaty KZ-050000, Kazakhstan
* Correspondence: martjushev@tpu.ru
Abstract: This article considers the prospects of the application of building structures made of
polymer concrete composites on the basis of strength analysis. The issues of application and structure
of polymer-concrete mixtures are considered. Features of the stress-strain state of normal sections of
polymer concrete beams are revealed. The dependence between the stresses and relative deformations
of rubber polymer concretes and beams containing reinforcement frame and fiber reinforcement has
been determined. The main direction of the study was the choice of ways to increase the strength
characteristics of concrete with the addition of a polymer base and to increase the reliability of
structures in general. The paper presents the results of experimental and mathematical studies of
the stress-strain state and strength, as well as deflections of reinforced rubber-polymer beams. The
peculiarities of fracture of reinforced rubber-polymer beams along their sections have been revealed
according to the results of the experiment. The peculiarities of fracture formation of reinforced
Citation: Yelemessov, K.; Sabirova, rubber-polymer beams have also been revealed. The conducted work has shown that the share of
L.B.; Martyushev, N.V.; Malozyomov,
longitudinal reinforcement and the height of the fibrous reinforcement zone are the main factors.
B.V.; Bakhmagambetova, G.B.;
These reasons determine the characteristics of the strength of the beams and their resistance to
Atanova, O.V. Modeling and Model
destructive influences. The importance and scientific novelty of the work are the identified features of
Verification of the Stress-Strain State
the stress-strain state of normal sections of rubber-concrete beams, namely, it has been established that
of Reinforced Polymer Concrete.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494. https:// the ultimate strength in axial compression and tension, deformations corresponding to the ultimate
doi.org/10.3390/ma16093494 strength for rubber concrete exceed similar parameters for cement concrete 2.5–6.5 times. In the case
of the addition of fiber reinforcement, this increase becomes, respectively, 3.0–7.5 times.
Academic Editor: Raul D. S.
G. Campilho
Keywords: geopolymer concrete; rubber polymer concretes; composite materials; concrete structures;
Received: 31 March 2023 strength analysis
Revised: 27 April 2023
Accepted: 29 April 2023
Published: 1 May 2023
1. Introduction
Sustainable economic development of the countries in the world has become one of
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the main global environmental problems in many countries, and in the last decade, it has
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
been paid much attention. There is an urgent need to develop appropriate strategies for the
This article is an open access article disposal of various types of waste such as plastic, tires, rubber, and glass. It is estimated
distributed under the terms and that around 1.5 billion rubber tires are disposed of worldwide every year. The materials
conditions of the Creative Commons used in the production of tires are made up of complex mixtures. As a result, the share of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// discarded recycled tires is relatively low, with over 50% remaining unused.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Rubber industry waste and used tire rubber (UTR) is a non-degradable material
4.0/). that is not properly recycled. UTR also takes a significant amount of time to naturally
Materials 2023, 16, 3494. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093494 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 3494 2 of 24
degrade due to the cross-linked structure of the polymer material and additives such as
stabilizers. Burning UTR releases toxic gases. Landfills and waste disposal cause serious
environmental pollution of soil, water, and air. It pollutes the soil by killing beneficial
bacteria and releasing toxic gases. Waste can be considered a potential resource and
valuable material. A logical way to reduce the negative impact of rubber waste and its cost
is to use it in construction and industry. Natural aggregates are more valuable than waste.
When looking for economically viable deposits to extract non-metallic materials, factors
such as transportation costs, the quality of the aggregate suitable for mining, government
regulation, and the cost of operating and maintaining vehicles are taken into account.
At the same time, transport costs for aggregates are very high. In addition, the energy
required to crush the rock into aggregates is proportional to the area of the new surface,
and therefore it constitutes a significant part of the energy consumed in the production of
aggregates [1]. UTR easily absorb energy and have excellent sound and heat insulation
properties, making them suitable for use in a variety of applications screens, and asphalt
concrete mixtures [1,2]. Over the past 20 years, researchers have studied the possibility
of using UTR as an aggregate in polymer concrete mixes. The use of rubber additives in
concrete structures provides concrete products with new properties, including strength,
reliability, and resistance to aggressive environments.
Polymer concretes are widely used in the construction industry and other industries.
To date, a large amount of experimental data on the study of their structure and proper-
ties has been accumulated [1]. At the same time, despite a sufficiently large number of
already conducted studies, there are difficulties in selecting optimal compositions for man-
ufacturing the structures. Insufficient elaboration and studying the law of the structure’s
formation and properties of polymer concrete create complexities in their application [2].
The establishment of such regularities is an extremely difficult task.
Polymer concretes are a type of polymer composite material. The main area of applica-
tion of such composites is construction. In modern representation, polymer composites
are a rather complex hierarchical system formed as a result of physical and chemical in-
teractions between its structural components [3]. The main feature of composites is their
ability to form specific structures responsible for the acquisition of non-additive, some-
times unique properties of the composite. Such structures may include fractal, cluster,
and lattice structures, the analysis of which is paid more and more attention in modern
construction material science [4]. Properties of polymer concrete at the microstructure level
are determined by the phenomena occurring during the contact of liquid and solid phases,
i.e., they depend on the amount of filler, its dispersity, and physical and chemical activity.
There is no universal optimal filler content for composites. Depending on the conditions of
application of polymer concretes, this value can take different values. Usually, the optimal
content of the filler provides the highest performance indicators of polymer concretes [5].
In this regard, the use of fillers having discontinuous granulometry, i.e., having different
geometric fractions, is effective. The study of the influence of aggregates and their role
in the structure formation of polymer concretes is an important problem considered in
this article.
In this paper, the most promising polystructural theory of construction composites is
taken as the basis. It is based on the concept that consists of the representation of construc-
tion composites as polystructured. They are composed of many structures, passing one
into another according to the “structure-in-structure” principle, in which there are fractions
of additional composite materials of several sizes (powder and granules) [6]. There is an
organic connection between the structures of different levels and sublevels. The formation
of structures of a higher scale level occurs under the influence of structures of a lower level.
At the same time, the higher-level structures may determine the substructure formation
conditions by the feedback principle. At present, based on the results of numerous practical
and theoretical studies, ideas about the optimal structure of construction composites as a
matrix medium with dispersed particles evenly distributed in it are being revised [7]. The
practical unattainability of such an “ideal” structural situation has been established. On the
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 3 of 24
contrary, during the technological processes of preparation and the curing of construction
composites, the structural components of composites tend to combine various kinds of
heterogeneities, differently affecting the properties of composites. It is possible to change
the structure of construction composites by changing the formulation and technological
factors. New structural heterogeneities can be introduced, or existing structural hetero-
geneities can be changed at various structural levels. The formation of boundary transition
layers of the polymer matrix in polymer concretes has a direct impact on their performance
properties (flexibility, elastic deformations, cracking resistance). Therefore, the analysis
of their formation requires a more detailed consideration. The recommended methods
of selecting the particle size distribution of aggregates are difficult to implement and do
not guarantee to obtain the smallest intergranular hollowness, since they do not consider
the properties of individual fractions of aggregates and their mutual distribution. The
properties of polymer concretes depend not only on the quality of the initial components
and their mutual arrangement but also on the nature of the interaction between them [8].
To create high-quality polymer concretes, it is necessary to have a strong, chemically and
thermally, stable bond between the surface of aggregates and the polymer matrix. The
considered modern methods of predicting the properties and calculation of compositions
of polymer concretes are almost all based on the selection of the mineral mixture with the
lowest hollowness by the method used for cement concrete. Recently, the methods for
predicting the properties and calculating compositions of composite materials of reduced
polymer capacity, provided that there is a given set of properties based on the models of
different types obtained as a result of research, have become widely used. This depends
not only on the material properties, but also on the technology of its production and, most
importantly, on the purpose and application of polymer concrete structures [9].
To ensure a reliable efficient operation of elements made of new types of concrete, it
is necessary to study the stress-strain state arising under the action of forces of various
kinds, in particular, a bending moment. In this connection, the study of resistance to
the bending moment action of normal sections of beams made of reinforced polymer
concrete (ACRP) (beams containing a reinforcement frame and fiber reinforcement located
at different heights of the section relative to the bottom edge) is of scientific interest and a
practical important research task.
The conducted research analysis of force resistance of polymer concrete and reinforced
concrete bendable elements has shown that the application of polymer concretes and struc-
tures on their basis is actually because of their inherent high operational characteristics. It is
important to study the degree of influence of dispersed reinforcement on the performance
characteristics of polymer concrete structures. The main methods existing today for poly-
mer concrete structures’ calculation are quite limited in terms of the used materials. Their
main scope is structures made of furfural acetone concrete, polyester, and epoxy concrete.
This is due to the existing wide experimental base containing these materials and a large
number of obtained empirical dependences [10].
In this regard, to improve the strength of polymer concretes and the reliability of
structures, as well as to predict the properties of the material and products made of it, the
following tasks were set in this article:
• to carry out an analysis of force-resistance studies of polymer concrete and reinforced
concrete beams;
• to evaluate the physical conditions of polymer concrete structures based on rubber
additives;
• to conduct experimental studies of the stress-strain state and strength and deflections
of ACRP beams;
• to reveal the peculiarities of failure of ACRP beams by their cross-sections;
• to reveal the peculiarities of the formation of the failure of ACRP beams;
• to reveal the peculiarities of the development of deflections of ACRP beams.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 4 of 24
2. Methods and Materials

There is a sufficiently large production and waste volume of synthetic rubber and
rubber products in modern industry [2,3]. Their use as a binder in the production of
polymer concrete is therefore of practical interest. They have a low cost in comparison
with that of used polymer resins. It is also possible to use liquid rubbers having specified
properties. However, in this work, rubber was chosen as a binder. It is important to note
that the production of polymer concretes based on rubbers due to the high filling of the
mixture can reduce the cost of the composite [11,12].
2.1. Rationale for the Material Choice

Based on previous studies, the optimum ratios of hardening group components con-
taining a binder, aggregate, and filler were determined [13]. It was found that the introduc-
tion of fly ash, which is a hard-to-dispose waste, into the composition of rubber polymer
concrete (RPC), has a positive effect on its strength and chemical properties. Moreover, in
these works, studies were conducted to study the chemical resistance of polymer concrete
and it was found that polymer concrete has almost universal chemical resistance to various
inherently aggressive environments.
Based on the analysis of literary sources and in the course of experimental studies,
the authors obtained a comparative table (Table 1) of polymer concretes based on rubbers,
which have the potential to be used for the manufacture of structures [2,3,6,7,12]. The main
characteristics of rubber concrete used in the work are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Main characteristics of used rubber polymer concrete.
Indicators for Rubber Concrete Based on Rubber Grades

Properties
Cis-Butadiene Low Molecular Weight
Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (NBR)
Rubber (CBLMW-R)
Compressive strength, MPa 60–110 76.9–100.3
Tensile strength, MPa 8–20.0 13–18
Modulus of elasticity, MPa (2.0–3.5) ×104 (1.5–1.8) × 104
Compression duration factor 0.77–0.78 0.72–0.76
Poisson’s ratio 0.18–0.35 0.2–0.3
Heat resistance, ◦C 90–100 100–110
Freeze resistance, many cycles of a
500 500
thawing and freezing process
Abrasibility, g/cm2 0.15–0.30 0.25–0.79
Water suction, wt. % 0.05 0.05
Reduction, mm/m 0.17–0.21 -
In practice, the property that determines the scope of polymer concrete is heat resis-
tance at 80–150 ◦ C. At the same time, when the operating temperature of polymer concrete
increases, its strength, and modulus of elasticity decrease. Having low heat resistance,
polymer concretes nevertheless belong to the class of non-combustible materials, since
the content of organic matter in them is low as compared to the proportion of inorganic
components.
Since a promising direction in the study of polymer concretes is to reinforce them
with dispersed reinforcement, additional reinforcement was used in the fabrication of
specimens [14]. As a result, the beam specimens were made of reinforced rubber fiber
reinforced concrete (ACPBF). The dispersion reinforcement fiber was made from tire
industry waste metal cord. A chaotic orientation of fibers along the volume of the element
was used. It allows perceiving and redistributing efforts of different orientations, appearing
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 5 of 24
was used. It allows perceiving and redistributing efforts of different orientations, appear-
ing in the
in the sample,
sample, thereby
thereby preventing
preventing the appearance
the appearance and development
and development of cracks.
of cracks. It
It should
should
also bealso be noted
noted that,
that, for for a tensile
a tensile element,
element, the failure
the failure of specimens
of specimens occurs occurs either dur-
either during fibers
rupture
ing fibers or when or
rupture violating their adhesion
when violating to the RPC
their adhesion to [15].
the RPC [15].
2.2.Calculation
2.2. CalculationofofPolymer
PolymerConcrete
ConcreteStructures
Structures
The basis of the methodology
The basis of the methodology for forcalculating
calculatingpolymer
polymerconcrete
concretestructures
structuresisisset
setout
out
inin[16].
[16].The
Thestrength
strengthcalculation
calculationmethodology
methodologyisisbased
basedon:
on:
normal
– 1. normal stresses,
stresses, corresponding
corresponding inin shapetotothe
shape thediagram
diagramofofmechanical
mechanicaltests
testsfor
foraxial
axial
compression
compression andand tension
tension ofof polymer
polymer concrete;
concrete;
– 2. the
the hypothesis
hypothesis ofof planar
planar sections
sections [16].
[16].
– 3. Three
Three equations
equations weremade
were madebybythetheauthors
authorstotoobtain
obtaincalculation
calculationformulas:
formulas:
– 4. moments
moments ofof forces
forces equilibrium;
equilibrium;
– 5. projections
projectionsofof forces
forces onon the
the neutralplane
neutral planeequilibrium;
equilibrium;
– 6. equations of a ratio of boundary deformations
equations of a ratio of boundary deformations or heights of compressed
or heights and stretched
of compressed and
zones of the element cross-section. The scheme of forces and the
stretched zones of the element cross-section. The scheme of forces and the stress stress diagram dia-in
the cross-section
gram normalnormal
in the cross-section to the longitudinal axis of the
to the longitudinal axisbendable polymerpolymer
of the bendable concrete
element,
concrete when calculating
element, its strength,
when calculating is shown
its strength, is in Figure
shown in 1.
Figure 1.
The
Figure1.1.The
Figure scheme
scheme ofof forcesand
forces andthethestress
stressdiagram
diagramininthe
thesection
sectionnormal
normaltotothe
thelongitudinal
longitudinalaxis
axis
ofofthe
thebendable
bendablepolymer
polymerconcrete
concreteelement,
element,when
whencalculating
calculatingitsitsstrength.
strength.
Firstofofall,
First all,letletususwrite
writeananequation
equationfor
forthe
themoments
momentsofofforces
forcesequilibrium.
equilibrium.
When reinforcing the tensile and compressed zones of the bendable
When reinforcing the tensile and compressed zones of the bendable polymer polymerconcrete
concrete
element(Figure
element (Figure1),1),the thecalculation
calculationformula
formulaisisasasfollows:
follows:
MM≤≤ σσs s· A
⋅ As s((hh00 − 0.375⋅· x ) ++RRs s⋅ ·AAs 0s'(0.375
− 0.375 (0.375⋅· x −−aa' )0 ) (1)
(1)
where aa'0 represents

where representsthethedistance
distancebetween
betweenananadjacent
adjacentcompression-deformed
compression-deformed fiber and
fiber the
and
axis of the compression reinforcement;
the axis of the compression reinforcement;
a aisisa atension
tensionregion
regionheight;
height;
xx is
is the
the height
height of
of the
the compressed
compressed zone, zone, determined
determined by by the
the formula:
formula:
MMisisa abending
bendingofofthe
thebeam
beamduring
duringtests;
tests;
RR s is
s is a adesign
designresistance
resistanceofofthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinalbar;bar;
A is an area of reinforcement in the tension
A s is an area of reinforcement in the tension region;
s region;
A’ s is an area of reinforcement in the compression
A’s is an area of reinforcement in the compression region; region;
ξ is a relative height of the compression region of thecross-section
ξ is a relative height of the compression region of the determined
cross-section determined byby
the
formula [17]:
the formula [17]: x Rs
ξ= = 1.5 ( µ − µ 0 ). (2)
h0 Rcompr
where µ is a reinforcement ratio in the tension region;
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 6 of 24
µ’ is a reinforcement ratio in the compression region;

Rcompr is a design resistance in the compression region.
The calculation procedure [17] for the formation of cracks normal to the longitudinal
axis of the element is based on a rectangular stress diagram in the tensile zone and a
triangular diagram in the compressed zone at the height of the tensile zone a, equal to:
a = h0 − x. (3)
Let us express x based on Formula (3) and use it in Formula (2). Let us also express
Rs
(µ − µ0 ) using the same formula, transferring the values 1.5 Rcompr to the opposite part of the
formula. Then, the difference in reinforcement coefficients in the tensile and compressed
zones (µ − µ0 ) is determined by the formula:
Rcompr
0.67 Rs
(µ − µ0 ) = E Rs
. (4)
1+ ·
Es Rcompr
According to [18], the stresses in the longitudinal reinforcement (σs ) do not reach
the yield strength. Let us substitute expression 3 for expression 1 and convert decimals
to natural fractions. When converting, the following facts must be considered. To use
polymer concrete most completely, it is advisable to provide a clearly defined curved shape
of the stress epure in the compression cross-section region, which requires a rather high
percentage of reinforcement of about 15% or more. In the case of lower reinforcement
percentages, the triangular shape of the epure is to be used. Therefore, the calculation of
crack formation is based on a rectangular stress epure in the tension region and a triangular
one in the compression region at the height of the tension region. Proceeding from this fact,
the bending moment before the formation of cracks is determined by the formula:
x 3· h + x
M ≤ σs · As (h0 − ) + Rs ·b ( h − x ). (5)
3 6
Stresses in the longitudinal reinforcement (σs ) are found owing to the deformation of
the reinforcement (ε s ) and polymer concrete at the reinforcement level of:
σs = ε s · Es . (6)
The reinforcement deformations are equal to:
h0 − x
(ε s ) = ε bt , (7)
h−x
where ε bt is the deformation of the lower tensile edge of the bendable polymer concrete
element. It follows from the hypothesis of flat sections that:
εb σ εs ε
= b = = bt , (8)
x Eb · x h0 − x h−x
where ε b is the deformation of the upper compressed face of the bendable polymer concrete
element;
σb is stresses in the upper compressed face of the bendable polymer concrete element.
Based on this, we determine the β0 as the height of the compressed zone:
εs ε s · Eb
β0 = = . (9)
εb σb
In the first case, the height of the compressed zone is expressed through the deforma-
tion of the reinforcement:
εs ε s · Eb
β0 = = . (10)
εb σb
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 7 of 24
On the other hand, it is possible to make through the deformation of the outermost
stretched fiber, that is, through the ultimate tensile strength:
ε bt ε ·E
β= = bt b . (11)
εb σb
By projecting the forces onto the neutral plane, we obtain:
σs · As + Rbt ·b(h − x ) = 0.5·σb ·b· x. (12)
The reinforcement factor is determined by the formula:
As 0.5· x − Rbt (h − x )
µ= = . (13)
b · h0 σs ·h0
The compressive edge stresses (σb ) are set from the calculation so that they do not go
beyond the linear section of the diagram, i.e., “σ − ε”σb < 0.75R [19]. Let us substitute the
obtained Formula (6) into expression 5. Let us also consider the fact that the calculation
formula for the bending moment, when reinforcing the compression region of the beams
before the formation of cracks, will receive an additional summand. The formula for
determining the moment will take the following form:
x 3· h + x x
M = ε s · Es · AS (h0 − ) + Rs ·b (h − x ) + σs0 · A0s ( − a0 ), (14)
3 6 3
where σs0 is stress in the compressed reinforcement, determined by the formula:
Es x − a0
σs0 = σb · . (15)
Eb x
2.3. Experimental Design and Research Program

BHP has a high tensile strength [19], as well as a higher ultimate tensile strength,
compared to cement concrete. These properties can be effectively used to increase the crack
resistance of bendable elements. In addition, if the fiber is added to the bent element in
this way, the dispersion increases in the height of the cross-section (partial or full). An
element or a two-layer structure having a fibrous reinforcement in the stretching zone is
obtained, whose function will increase even more [20]. To achieve this goal, we decided to
determine the normal cross-section of the ACPBF bending element, having the performance
characteristics of dispersed steel bars over the entire height of the cross-section, and to
obtain data on its tensile strength, resistance to cracking, and deformability [21].
The testing of beams made of rubber concrete involved test specimens-beams of all
series made having a section size of 6 × 12 cm and a total length of 140 cm. The beams were
manufactured according to the Central Asian standards, GOST 948-2016 (ICS 91.080.40), the
Interstate Standard of Reinforced-Concrete, and Polymer-Concrete Lintels. The determining
parameters of the beams are the following: the length (L) is from 1030 (mm) to 5950 (mm);
the width (B) is from 120 (mm) to 250 (mm); the height (H) is from 60 (mm) to 585 (mm).
The beams are tested by means of two symmetrically applied forces in the thirds of the
span (pure bending test procedure). In this way, the samples of the beam were made of
reinforced rubber fiber concrete. The dispersion reinforcing fiber was made of waste metal
cord from the tire industry. Various parameters are assigned in the experiment:
• the percentage of the longitudinal gain that has the greatest effect on the resistance of
the normal part bending element;
• the height of the dispersion reinforcement zone (measured from the bottom edge) with
the same percentage of fiber reinforcement over the volume of the reinforced part
(µv = 1%, according to composition optimization [22]).
were made of reinforced rubber fiber concrete. The dispersion reinforcing fiber was made
of waste metal cord from the tire industry. Various parameters are assigned in the exper-
iment:
– the percentage of the longitudinal gain that has the greatest effect on the resistance
of the normal part bending element;
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 – the height of the dispersion reinforcement zone (measured from the bottom8 edge) of 24
with the same percentage of fiber reinforcement over the volume of the reinforced
part (µv = 1%, according to composition optimization [22]).
The responsefunction
The response function isisthe
thestrength;
strength;they theycombine
combinethe thecrack
crackresistance
resistanceofofananelement
element
of the normal cross-section, as well as their good deformability.
of the normal cross-section, as well as their good deformability. The boundary conditions The boundary conditions
ofofthe
theareaareaofofvariation
variationofofthe theexperimental
experimentalparameters
parametersare areestablished
establishedononthe thebasis
basisofofthethe
analysisofofthe
analysis theliterature
literature[23].[23].TheTheprocedure
procedurefor fortesting
testingbeams
beamscomplies
complieswith withthetheCentral
Central
AsianStandards
Asian Standards GOSTGOST 10180-2012
10180-2012 andandICSICS 91.100.30,
91.100.30, Methods
Methods for Strength
for Strength Determina-
Determination
tion Using
Using ReferenceReference Specimens.
Specimens. TheThe percentage
percentage of longitudinal
of longitudinal reinforcementgradually
reinforcement gradually
increases
increases from0%
from 0%(no (nolongitudinal
longitudinalreinforcement)
reinforcement) toto8.4%
8.4%(compression
(compression zonefailure).
zone failure).TheThe
height
heightofofthe thedispersed
dispersedreinforcement
reinforcementzone zoneisisdetermined
determinedbased basedononthe thetesting
testingofofAKPBF
AKPBF
samples,
samples,which whichare arereinforced
reinforced along the entire entirelength.
length.ToTodetermine
determine thethe physical
physical andand me-
mechanical propertiesofofthe
chanical properties thematerial
material used used for the manufacture
manufacture of ofthethetest
testbeam,
beam,together
together
with
withthe thebeam,
beam,a acontrol
control sample
sample ofofa 4a cm
4 cm × ×4 4cmcm××16 16cmcmprism
prismisismade madeand andtested
testedfor for
compression, and a control 8 cm × 4 cm × 40 cm sample
compression, and a control 8 cm × 4 cm × 40 cm sample is tested for tension. is tested for tension.
TheThetesttestprocedure
procedurecomplies
complieswith withGOSTGOST10180-2012
10180-2012and andICSICS91.100.30,
91.100.30,Methods
Methodsfor for
Strength
StrengthDetermination
DeterminationUsing UsingReference
ReferenceSpecifications.
Specifications.InInthe thelaboratory,
laboratory,before
beforetesting
testing
the
thesamples,
samples,the thetemperature
temperatureisismaintained
maintainedatat 2020 ±±5 5◦ C
°Cand
andthetherelative
relativehumidity
humidityofofthe the
air
airisisatatleast
least55%.
55%.Under
Underthesetheseconditions,
conditions,the thesamples
sampleswere wereininthethedismantle
dismantleform formbefore
before
the
thetest
testforforatatleast
least2424h.h.The
Thecontrol
controlsamples
sampleswere weretested
testedononthe
theday dayofoftesting
testingthethebeam.
beam.
The
The beams were loaded with two equal concentrated loads, applied vertically in thethirds
beams were loaded with two equal concentrated loads, applied vertically in the thirds
ofofthe
thespan.
span.InInthe thecase
caseofofthis
thistype
typeofofload
loadapplication,
application,the thevalue
valueofofthe thebending
bendingmoment,
moment,
arising
arisingininthe thebeam,
beam,increases
increasesfrom fromzerozeroononthe thesupport
supporttotothe themaximum
maximumvalue valueunder
underthe the
point
point of load application. Between the points of load application, the transverseforce
of load application. Between the points of load application, the transverse forceisis
zero,
zero,and andthe thevalue
valueofofthe thebending
bendingmomentmomentisisconstant
constantand andequal
equaltotothe themaximum
maximumvalue value
(the pure bending zone). A general view of testing the samples
(the pure bending zone). A general view of testing the samples of rubber concrete of rubber concrete beamsbeamsis
shown in Figure
is shown in Figure 2. 2.
Figure 2. General view of the bending test of rubber concrete beams.
The beam samples were tested using a laboratory press “INSTRON 600KN” (60 tons),
certified and meeting the requirements of GOST 10180-2012 and ICS 91.100.30 “Methods
for Strength Determination Using Reference Specifications”. The load on the sample was
fed at a constant rate until destruction.
2.4. Materials
The following materials were used in the work:
• Cis-polybutadiene low molecular weight CBLMW-R rubber (ISO 6743/4). CBLMW-R
rubber has a density of 910 kg/m3 and a dynamic viscosity of up to 12 Pa × s;
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 9 of 24
• fine-dispersed filler being ash of a specific surface of 2500...2700 cm2 /g, having the
following composition by mass in %: Al O23 —16.5–22.5; CaO was 5.5–5.5; Fe O23
was 13.5–15.5; SiO2 was 47–55; MgO was 2–3; K2 O was 1–2; Na2 O was 1; S O23 was
0.4–0.3; others were 6–15;
• vulcanization activator was zinc oxide ZnO (ISO 10262-2016) white powder having a
density of 5600–5700 kg/m3 ;
• vulcanization gas pedal was tetramethyl thiuram disulfide (Tiuram-D) (ISO 4097 2013)
being powder of gray-white color and density of 1300–1400 kg/m3 ;
• calcium oxide CaO was a white powder having a density of 2500–2900 kg/m3 ;
• Portland cement. It consists of the following ingredients: clinker (calcium silicates);
gypsum; plasticizing, hydrophobic, acid-resistant additives; domain fee. The chemical
composition of cement: 21.55% silicon oxide and 65.91% calcium oxide. Portland
cement is the most durable and high quality, therefore it is widely distributed on the
market. It is a cement that is capable of showing an average compressive strength of
about 500 kg/m3 after 28 days of preparation. The mixture can be without additives
or with various substances introduced into the composition in a certain proportion.
The compressive load is 2500 kg/cm. Frost resistance is more than 100 cycles. The
bulk density is 1100–1600 kg/m. True density kg/m3 3100. The setting speed is from
45 min to 10 h. The average weight of Portland cement is 3 tons/m3 ;
• sulfur technical (ISO 3704-76) is a bright yellow powder with a concentration of
2070 kg/m3 , having a melting point of 114 ◦ C;
• metal fibers made from scraps of metal cord by sawing. The fibers obtained in this
way are wave-shaped fibers at a ratio of a length to a wire diameter of 1/100;
• sand and crushed granite [24] are selected in accordance with the relevant requirements
of GOST 26633-2015. Concrete is heavy and fine-grained. Specifications and ISS
91.100.30. The physical properties of gravel and sand are given in Table 2.
• reinforcing steel bars having a diameter of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 mm and a steel wire
of a diameter of 5 mm.
Table 2. Physical properties of sand and crushed stone.
Size of Fractions, Bulk Density, Raft Specific Surface

Filler Hollowness, %
mm g/cm3 Density, g/cm3 Area, cm/g2
Granite rubble 5.00–10.00 1.50 2.67 5.4 41.4
1.25–2.50
Quartz sand 0.63–1.25 1.61 2.65 33.0 39.1
0.32–0.63
2.5. Mechanical Tests

Determination of the actual physical and mechanical characteristics of steel rein-
forcement was carried out using the Instron 1500HDX testing system. Measuring the
longitudinal parameter with 270 uses a base of a 20-mm strain gauge for deformation.
A set of equipment was used to control the stress-strain state (VAR) stage, namely, de-
formation 2 MG plus design and CATMAN-AP software [25]. The control specimens
(3 pieces of twin specimens) were tested for tensile strength before rupture according to the
requirements [26].
The component composition of rubber concrete (as a percentage of the element weight)
supplemented with dispersed reinforcement, which provides the best strength character-
istics and chemical resistance, is shown in Table 3. These compositions were obtained as
a result of optimizing the component composition of PBC [27] and are pleasant for the
basic ones.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 10 of 24
Table 3. Composition of rubber fiber-polymer concrete.
Name Component Content, wt. %

Quartz sand 24.2
CBLMW-R low molecular weight rubber 8.2
Ashes 7.8
Sulfur technical 4.0
Zinc oxide 1.2
Tiuram-D 0.4
Metal cord fibers (fiber) 2.5
Calcium oxide 0.4
Granite rubble The rest (51.3)
To manufacture concrete specimens without the filler, the concrete of a composition

having a similar modulus of elasticity to that of rubber concretes was chosen. The compo-
sition of the cement concrete used for making experimental specimens without the filler
(mass per 1 m3 in tons) [28] was as follows: sand—0.692; water—0.19; cement—0.364;
crushed stone—0.121.
2.6. Sample Production Technology

The production of the elements made of fiber-reinforced polymer concrete (FRPP)
with the arrangement of fibers along the entire section height (chaotically) was carried out
in one stage.
Based on [29], the preparation of the FCPB mixture included the following operations:
• washing the fine and coarse aggregate;
• preparation of curing group components and fibers;
• dosage of ingredients;
• drying of the components;
• mixing of the components.
Dosing of sand and gravel was carried out on the scales VPS-40 M having an accuracy
of 5 g. The dosing of other components was carried out on the electronic scales CAS ER
JR-15CB having an accuracy of 1 g due to their smaller weight [30].
The components were mixed in a high-speed propeller-type mixer. The polymeric
binder was prepared by combining CBLMW-R rubber with hardening group components
and the fine filler with fly ash. The mixing time of the binder was 80 s at 1000 rpm. Then fine
aggregate and fibers mixed with the coarse aggregate were introduced into the prepared
mixture. The resulting polymer concrete mixture was prepared in the same mixer at a
speed of 180 rpm for 200 s.
Before laying the FCPB mixture in the form, the surface is smeared with waste oil to
facilitate removal later from the formwork. The prepared mixture was placed in the molds
and compacted on the vibrating table with a vibration duration of 100 ± 30 s. An indication
of sufficient compaction of the polymer concrete mixture is the release of the binder on the
surface and the cessation of the intensive formation of air bubbles [31].
After performing the above operations, the mold with the mixture was placed in a dry
heating chamber (dryer), where FKPB was cured at 115 ± 5 ◦ C for 12 h (taking into account
the heating time of 17 h). Unpacking was performed after the complete polymerization
and cooling of the samples.
Fabrication of FKPB elements with the fiber arrangement in the tensile zone (chaoti-
cally) was carried out in two similar stages according to the works [32].
The fabrication of FCPB elements took place in one step using metal cord fibers.
The reinforcement of all series of experimental beams was a welded frame, shown in
Figure 3.
account the heating time of 17 h). Unpacking was performed after the complete polymer-
ization and cooling of the samples.
Fabrication of FKPB elements with the fiber arrangement in the tensile zone (chaoti-
cally) was carried out in two similar stages according to the works [32].
The fabrication of FCPB elements took place in one step using metal cord fibers.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 The reinforcement of all series of experimental beams was a welded frame, shown in24
11 of
Figure 3.
Figure
Figure 3. 3.
TheThe reinforcement
reinforcement frame
frame ofof the
the experimental
experimental beams.
beams. Dimensions
Dimensions are
are inin mm.
mm.
Figure 2 shows longitudinal rods are reinforcement, transverse is the wire (a diameter
Figure 2 shows longitudinal rods are reinforcement, transverse is the wire (a diame-
of 4.5–5.5 mm), and the step of transverse bars is 50 mm in order to prevent fracture in the
ter of 4.5–5.5 mm), and the step of transverse bars is 50 mm in order to prevent fracture in
sloping sections of the experimental beams.
the sloping sections of the experimental beams.
2.7. Test Methods, Basic Instruments and Equipment
2.7. Test Methods, Basic Instruments and Equipment
The test procedure corresponds to the methods outlined in the regulatory litera-
tureThe test procedure corresponds to the methods outlined in the regulatory literature
[33].
[33]. The test of the manufactured beams was carried out using concentrated loads. The
loadThe test
was of the vertically
applied manufactured beams was in
and distributed carried out using
the third part ofconcentrated loads. In
the beams’ span. Thethe
load was applied vertically and distributed in the third part of the beams’
case of a loading scheme for beams, the bending moment arising in the beams is 0 on span. In the case
ofthe
a loading
support. scheme for beams,
Already the point
under the bending moment arising
of application inload,
of the the beams is 0 on the
the moment sup-
increases
port. Already under the point of application of the load, the moment increases
to a maximum value. Between the points to which the load is applied, the value of the to a maxi-
mum value. force
transverse Between the The
is zero. points to which
bending the load
moment is applied,
at the same pointthehas
value of the transverse
a constant value equal
force is maximum
to the zero. The bending
value. A moment
diagram at the load
of the samedistribution
point has aon constant
the test value equalistoshown
specimens the
maximum
in Figure value.
3. A diagram of the load distribution on the test specimens is shown in
FigureThe
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3. beam samples were tested on the laboratory presses of INSTRON800KN (80 12 tons),
of 25
The
certified,beam
and samples
they metwere tested on the[34].
the requirements laboratory
The loadpresses of INSTRON800KN
was applied to the sample(80 at a
tons), certified,
constant and they
rate until met
it was the requirements
destroyed (Figure 4).[34]. The load was applied to the sample at
a constant rate until it was destroyed (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Figure Load diagram
4. Load diagram and
and geometric
geometric dimensions
dimensions of
of beams
beams (unit:
(unit: mm).
mm).
The maximum value of the pressing force was the value of the breaking load during
The maximum value of the pressing force was the value of the breaking load during
beam testing. It was determined by a force sensor. At this value, the yield strength of the
beam testing. It was determined by a force sensor. At this value, the yield strength of the
reinforcement was reached. Glued strain gauges made it possible to measure longitudinal
reinforcement was reached. Glued strain gauges made it possible to measure longitudinal
deformations. Deformation measurements were carried out in a normal section. The strain
deformations. Deformation measurements were carried out in a normal section. The strain
gauge base was 2 cm. A linear displacement transducer, a plunger, with an accuracy class
gauge base was 2 cm. A linear displacement transducer, a plunger, with an accuracy class
of 0.2%, was used to measure the vertical displacements of the beams.
of 0.2%, was used to measure the vertical displacements of the beams.
During the given tests, the crack opening width and height were measured. The crack
opening width was measured with a micrometer; a duplicate measurement was made
with a caliper.
Before testing, the specimens were inspected and measured. Roughness and burrs on
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 12 of 24
During the given tests, the crack opening width and height were measured. The crack
opening width was measured with a micrometer; a duplicate measurement was made with
a caliper.
Before testing, the specimens were inspected and measured. Roughness and burrs on
the surface of the beam material were removed with an angle grinder. The side surfaces of
the beams were ground to facilitate visual observation of the appearance and distribution
of cracks due to the dark surface of the material. Before attaching the load cells, the surface
of the beam was ground with an angle grinder and degreased with acetone. After that, the
load cells were pressed to the surface of the structure with glue.
With each polymer-concrete beam, control samples-prisms (4 cm × 4 cm × 16 cm) and
specimens-eights with the size of a working area of 3 cm × 4 cm and a total length of 40 cm
were made. To control the deformation-strength characteristics, control samples-cubes
(10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm) and prisms (4 cm × 4 cm × 16 cm) were made with each concrete
beam. Three control samples were produced. Studies of prisms and cubes were carried out
under central compression and octagonal samples were tested under central tension.
Compression tests of beams, concrete prisms, and concrete cubes were performed
according to the requirements [35] on an INSTRON Satec 1200 press (Instron Corporation,
New-York, NY, USA) certified and meeting the requirements [36]. Strain gauges were
installed on the specimens-prisms on the opposite faces to measure the longitudinal relative
deformations arising in the specimen at a constant rate of 60 MPa/min when a short-term
compressive load was applied. Before testing, the surface of the specimens was prepared
and checked for the absence of defects (cracks, cavities, etc.), and the ends of the specimens
were checked to be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Tensile tests of fiber-reinforced polymer concrete (FRPB) specimens were carried out
taking into account the requirements of ISO 1920-1:2004 and recommendations on testing
methods for polymer concretes [37] on a tensile testing machine INSTRON 5982 (Instron
Corporation, New-York, NY, USA), being certified and meeting the requirements [38]. Strain
gauges were installed on the eight specimens on the opposite faces to take longitudinal
relative deformations. Before testing, the specimens were also carefully prepared and
checked for defects. The load was applied uniformly, continuously at a constant rate of
0.15 MPa/s.
3. Discussion
3.1. Results of Experimental Studies of Intensity (Construction of a Material Deformation
Diagram “σ-ε”)
In order to determine the relationship between stress and relative deformation occur-
ring in FCPB, required for a comprehensive study of the cross-section of the deflection of
a curved element, a control sample being a prism and a sample, eight were made from
each experimental beam. Test methods of specimens, their geometrical parameters, and
schemes of measuring instruments arrangement are given in Section 2.6. On the basis of
the compression tests of prism specimens and tension specimens of octahedrons, graphs
between the stresses and relative deformations of compression and tension for FKPB were
obtained, these graphs are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
Based on the diagram shown in Figures 5 and 6, equations describing the relationship
between stresses and relative strains were derived for the FCPB.
The relationship between compressive stresses and relative strains is shown below.
Based on the analysis of Figures 5 and 6, equations describing the relationship between
stresses and relative strains were derived for FKPB products.
The dependencies in the analytical form between compressive stresses and relative
deformations of FKPB products are presented in Figure 6. The dependences between the
tensile stresses and relative deformations of the FCPB products are shown in Figure 6.
schemes of measuring instruments arrangement are given in Section 2.6. On the basis of
the compression tests of prism specimens and tension specimens of octahedrons, graphs
between the stresses and relative deformations of compression and tension for FKPB were
obtained, these graphs are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively.
Based on the diagram shown in Figures 5 and 6, equations describing the relationship
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 13 of 24
between stresses and relative strains were derived for the FCPB.
The relationship between compressive stresses and relative strains is shown below.
Figure 5. Diagram of the relationship between compressive stresses and relative deformations
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of25
14 ofof
Figure 5. Diagram of the relationship between compressive stresses and relative deformations
FKPB products:
products: red
red curve—y
curve—y==−9 −9× × 6 x2 + 34,327 x (R2 = 1), blue curve—y = 6 × 1010 x4 − 6 ×
FKPB 1010
6∙x2 + 34327∙х (R2 = 1), blue curve—y = 6 × 1010∙x4 − 6 × 108∙х3 −
10 8 x 3 − 2 × 106 x 2 + 32,199 x (R2 = 0.9996).
2 × 10 ∙x + 32199∙х (R = 0.9996).
6 2 2
Figure6.6.Diagram
Figure Diagramofofthetherelationship
relationshipbetween
betweentensile
tensilestresses
stressesandandrelative
relativedeformations
deformationsofofFKPB
FKPB
products: red curve—y = 12
10 12∙x33 + 2 × 1088
∙x2 2− 8314.4∙х (R2 =2 1), blue curve—y = 8 × 1013∙x413+ 94 × 103∙х3
products: red curve—y = 10 x + × 10 x − 8314.4 x (R = 1), blue curve—y = 8 × 10 x + 9 ×
– 4∙x× −1040448∙х
10–34x×3 10 (R2 = 0.9997).
6 2 6 x2 − 40,448 x (R2 = 0.9997).
3.2. Strength
Based on of Normal Sections
the analysis of Figures 5 and 6, equations describing the relationship be-
tween stresses and relative strains
Experimental studies have shown werethat
derived for FKPB products.
the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement
and the The dependencies
height in the
of the diffuse analytical form
reinforcement zonebetween compressive
are the main stresses and
factors affecting relative
the normal
deformations strength
cross-sectional of FKPB of products
the ACPB arebending
presented in Figure
element. The6.parameters
The dependences
and test between
proceduresthe
oftensile stresses
the test sample and relative
in the study deformations
of strength inofnormal
the FCPB products are
cross-section areshown
given in inSections
Figure 6.2.5
and 2.6. The destructive bending moment (in case of fracture in the tensile zone) is
3.2. Strength
referred to theofmoment
Normal Sections
when the stress in the steel rod reaches the yield point, which also
corresponds to a stronger
Experimental studiesincrease
have shown in the deformation
that in the
the percentage ofsteel rod (Figures
longitudinal 7 and 8).
reinforcement
The
anddestructive
the height of bending moment
the diffuse (in case ofzone
reinforcement destruction of thefactors
are the main compression
affectingzone) is the
the normal
moment when the compression zone collapses, which corresponds to
cross-sectional strength of the ACPB bending element. The parameters and test proce- a sharp increase in
deformation. In this case, the curve corresponding to the probe deformations
dures of the test sample in the study of strength in normal cross-section are given in Sec- has a kink,
and
tionsthe2.5
deformations
and 2.6. Thebegin to decrease,
destructive bending which indicates
moment the of
(in case buckling
fractureininthis
thearea.
tensile zone)
is referred to the moment when the stress in the steel rod reaches the yield point, which
also corresponds to a stronger increase in the deformation in the steel rod (Figures 7 and
8). The destructive bending moment (in case of destruction of the compression zone) is
the moment when the compression zone collapses, which corresponds to a sharp increase
in deformation. In this case, the curve corresponding to the probe deformations has a kink,
tions 2.5 and 2.6. The destructive bending moment (in case of fracture in the tensile zone)
is referred to the moment when the stress in the steel rod reaches the yield point, which
also corresponds to a stronger increase in the deformation in the steel rod (Figures 7 and
8). The destructive bending moment (in case of destruction of the compression zone) is
Materials 2023, 16, 3494
the moment when the compression zone collapses, which corresponds to a sharp increase14 of 24
in deformation. In this case, the curve corresponding to the probe deformations has a kink,
and the deformations begin to decrease, which indicates the buckling in this area.
Figure 7. Relative tensile strains in the reinforcement of the FPB beam as a function of bending
Figure 7. Relative tensile strains in the reinforcement of the FPB beam as a function of bending mo-
moments.
ments.
Figure 8. Relative deformations of the compressed zone of FPB as a function of bending moments.
Figure 8. Relative deformations of the compressed zone of FPB as a function of bending moments.
Nos. 1–3 is load cell numbers.
Nos. 1–3 is load cell numbers.
As
As aa result of the
result of experimental studies,
the experimental studies, the
the values
values of
of the
the breaking
breaking bending
bending moments
moments
depending
depending on the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and the height of
on the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and the height of the
the fiber
fiber
reinforcement
reinforcement zone were obtained. These are presented in Appendix A. Based on the
zone were obtained. These are presented in Appendix A. Based on the data
data
in Table A1
in Table A1 (Appendix
(AppendixA.1),
A.1),the
thedependence
dependenceofofthe thebending
bendingmoment
momentononeach
each varying
varying fac-
factor
tor is plotted graphically (Figures 9 and 10). Figure 10 shows a graph of the dependence
is plotted graphically (Figures 9 and 10). Figure 10 shows a graph of the dependence of the
of the destructive
destructive bendingbending
moment moment occurring
occurring in beamsin beams with
with the therebar
same samecontent
rebar content on the
on the height
height of the
of the fiber fiber reinforcement
reinforcement layer. layer.
As a result of the experimental studies, the values of the breaking bending moments
depending on the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and the height of the fiber
reinforcement zone were obtained. These are presented in Appendix A. Based on the data
in Table A1 (Appendix A.1), the dependence of the bending moment on each varying fac-
Materials 2023, 16, 3494
tor is plotted graphically (Figures 9 and 10). Figure 10 shows a graph of the dependence
15 of 24
of the destructive bending moment occurring in beams with the same rebar content on the
height of the fiber reinforcement layer.
Figure 9. Diagram of the dependence of the value of destructive bending moments on the percent-
erials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 9. Diagram of the dependence of the value of destructive bending moments on25
16 of the percentage
age of longitudinal reinforcement.
of longitudinal reinforcement.
Figure 10. Dependence

Figure 10. plot of fracture
Dependence bending
plot moments
of fracture on the
bending fiber reinforcement
moments zone height. zone height.
on the fiber reinforcement
The study ofThe thestudy

composition in Figures in
of the composition 9 and 10 shows
Figures that
9 and 10 the proportion
shows of the of the fill-
that the proportion
filling of theing
longitudinal reinforcement
of the longitudinal has a significant
reinforcement effect. effect.
has a significant The reinforcement per- percentage
The reinforcement
centage affects thethe
affects value of of
value thethe
breaking
breakingload
loadmore
morestrongly
strongly than other
other factors
factorsdo.
do.The
Thenext parame-
next parameterter ininterms
termsofof influence
influence is the
is the height
height of fiber
of the the fiber reinforcement
reinforcement zone. zone. The influence
The height’s
height’s influence
on the on thereinforcement
fiber fiber reinforcement zone
zone is is significantly
significantly less than
less than the reinforce- percentage
the reinforcement
influence.
ment percentage influence.
The study of the composition of Figures 9 and 10 confirms that the proportion of the
longitudinal reinforcement content has a significant effect. The second varying parameter
in the form of the height of the fiber reinforcement zone has an effect on the bearing ca-
pacity, but its influence is much smaller than that of the reinforcement longitudinal per-
centage.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 16 of 24
The study of the composition of Figures 9 and 10 confirms that the proportion of the
longitudinal reinforcement content has a significant effect. The second varying parameter
in the form of the height of the fiber reinforcement zone has an effect on the bearing capacity,
but its influence is much smaller than that of the reinforcement longitudinal percentage.
In the range of longitudinal reinforcement percentage values of 0.6–6.5%, the depen-
dence in Figure 9 is linear. An increase in the proportion of the presence of the longitudinal
reinforcement in ACPBF beams leads to their destruction in the compression zone. How-
ever, in this case, there is no increase in strength characteristics for normalized sections.
The linear dependence between the parameters of the percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement and the bending moment is maintained over a sufficiently large segment.
This is a segment of the values of the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement equal to
0.8–6.3%. A further increase in the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement leads to a
change in the nature of the destruction. The destruction of ACPBF beams occurs already in
the compressed zone. The strength of the sections almost does not change in the presence
of such destruction. It is important to note that the failure of ACPBF beams having a
percentage of longitudinal reinforcement equal to 0.8–6.3% began in the stretched zone, i.e.,
when the reinforcement reached its yield strength. In the over-reinforced beams (µ = 8.4%)
the failure is brittle, i.e., it occurs in the compressed zone [39].
The failure of ACPBF beams having a percentage of longitudinal reinforcement equal
to 0.78–6.3% began in the tensile zone, i.e., when the reinforcement reached its yield strength.
In addition, in the over-reinforced beams (µ = 8.4%) the failure is brittle, i.e., it occurred
in the compressed zone. That is, the failure of ACPBF beams is similar to that of ACPBF
longitudinal
beams with thereinforcement of 6.3%),
addition of fibers. In therelative
testedstrains
beamsin(having
the outermost compressed
a percentage fibers of
of longitudinal
the rubber andofreinforcement
reinforcement 6.3%), relativereachstrainsthein limit
the values
outermostalmost simultaneously
compressed [40].
fibers of the rubber
The failure of reach
and reinforcement ACPBF thebeams havingalmost
limit values the zone reinforcement,[40].
simultaneously i.e., possessing 3/4 of the
cross-sectional
The failure height
of ACPBF andbeams
longitudinal
having reinforcement in the range
the zone reinforcement, i.e.,of 0.8–4.95%3/4
possessing occurred
of the
when the reinforcement
cross-sectional height andreached its yield
longitudinal strength, i.e.,
reinforcement in the
in the tensile
range zone. In occurred
of 0.8–4.95% the over-
reinforced
when beams (µ = 6.4%)
the reinforcement reachedthe its
failure
yieldisstrength,
brittle ini.e.,
nature,
in thei.e., it occurred
tensile zone. Inin the
the over-
com-
pressed zone.
reinforced beams Consequently,
(µ = 6.4%) thetofailure
increase the bearing
is brittle capacity
in nature, i.e., itof ACPBFinbeams
occurred having 3/4
the compressed
zone.
of theConsequently,
cross-sectionaltoheight
increase withthe bearing capacity
a percentage of ACPBFreinforcement
of longitudinal beams havinggreater 3/4 ofthan
the
cross-sectional height to
4.95%, it is necessary with a percentage
reinforce of longitudinal
the compressed zone. reinforcement greater than
The earlier destruction 4.95%,
of the AC-
itPBF
is necessary to reinforce
elements with the compressed
zone reinforcement in thezone. The earlier
compressed zonedestruction
is conditioned of the
byACPBF
the fact
elements with zone
that the strength of reinforcement
the stretched zone in thecorresponds
compressedto zonethe is conditioned
solid by the fact
ACPBF elements. Atthat
the
the strength of the stretched zone corresponds to the solid ACPBF
same time, the strength of the compressed zone is lower than that of ACPBF elements, elements. At the same
time, the strength
because of thestrength
the ultimate compressed zone is lower than
of non-dispersion that of ACPBF elements,
reinforced becauseis
in compression
the ultimate
lower strength
than that of non-dispersion
of ACPBF with the fiber. reinforced
This leads to ACPBF
the fact inthat
compression
due to theis lowertensile
higher than
that of ACPBF
strength with the
of ACPBF, thefiber.
crackThis leads
height to the fact
develops and,that due to the higher
consequently, tensile strength
the position of the neu- of
ACPBF,
tral axisthe crack
shifts heightthe
towards develops and, compressed
outermost consequently, the position
fiber, of the neutralzone
and the compressed axisisshifts
frac-
towards the outermost
tured (Figure 11). compressed fiber, and the compressed zone is fractured (Figure 11).
Figure11.
Figure 11.Fracture
Fracturealong
alongthe
thecompression
compressionzone
zoneof
ofthe
theCPS
CPSbeam.
beam.
The magnitude
The magnitude of of the
the destructive
destructive bending
bending moment
moment during during destruction
destruction along
along the
the
compressed
compressed zone changes changes insignificantly.
insignificantly.Due
Duetotothethe
factfactthatthat
the the deformation
deformation of theofrein-
the
reinforcing
forcing barbar does
does notnot reach
reach thethe yield
yield strength
strength compared
compared to theto the previous
previous series
series of of beams,
beams, it,
it,
asas a result,leads
a result, leadstotothe
thecurvature
curvatureof
ofthe
the graph
graph “Muu-µ”.
-µ”. ItIt is
is worth
worth noting that the
the increase
increase
in
in the
the difference
difference of of bending
bending moment
moment values
values for
for CPB
CPB and
and ACPB ACPB beams
beams with
with fiberglass,
fiberglass,
with µ = 6.3% is due to the fact that in CPB beams the beginning of reinforcement flow
almost coincided with the material reaching its yield strength in the compressed zone, but
occurred slightly earlier [41].
To compare the load-carrying capacity of ACPB bending elements with longitudinal
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 17 of 24
with µ = 6.3% is due to the fact that in CPB beams the beginning of reinforcement flow
almost coincided with the material reaching its yield strength in the compressed zone, but
occurred slightly earlier [41].
To compare the load-carrying capacity of ACPB bending elements with longitudinal
reinforcement having the load-carrying capacity of reinforced concrete elements, beams
containing the B25 class concrete with different reinforcement contents were tested [42].
The results of the pure bending test of reinforced concrete beams are summarized in
Table 4.
Table 4. Test results of reinforced concrete bendable elements.
Percentage of Longitudinal Destruction Breaking Bending

Girder Sample Code
Reinforcement µ, % Zone Moment Mu , kNm
PC 001 0.80 Stretched 2.23
PC 004 3.55 Compressed 5.65
It is worth noting that ACPB beams (having a 3.55% longitudinal reinforcement) failed
in the tensile zone. Reinforced concrete beams with the same content as the longitudinal
reinforcement failed in the compressed zone [43].
As a result of the experiments, we can say the following:
1. The normal sections of ACPBF bending elements strength exceeds the strength of
reinforced concrete elements having µ = 0.8% by 70.56%, µ = 1.25% by 44.8%, µ = 1.8% by
36.8% and by 98.9% (for beams with µ = 3.55%).
2. The normal sections of the durability of the ACPB bending elements is higher than
the durability of reinforced concrete elements having µ = 0.8% by 33.7%, µ = 1.25% by
21.5%, µ = 1.8% by 17.2% and by 91.2% (for beams having µ = 3.55%). The strength of
normal sections of FRCP bending elements having a zone reinforcement is higher than the
strength of reinforced concrete elements having µ = 0.8% by 64.6%, µ = 1.8% by 27.3%, and
by 93.4% (for beams possessing µ = 3.55%).
Figure 11 for ACPB beams shows the dependence of the strength of the normal
section on the fiber-height reinforcement zone. The dependence of the figure shows
that the normal section strength increases along with an increase in the height in the
fiber reinforcement zone. It should be considered that the influence of the percentage of
longitudinal reinforcement is more significant than the influence of this factor. The fracture
along the stretched zone most fully shows the increase in the strength of the normal sections
of the CPB. The percent change in longitudinal reinforcement varies with the effect of the
fiber reinforcement zone on strength. An increase in the height for the fiber reinforcement
zone of the CPB from zero to 120 mm gives a strength increase in the elements by 28%
(percentage of longitudinal reinforcement of µ = 0.8%) and 14% (bent elements of µ = 8.4%).
In this case, the strength of the normal sections practically does not change.
The bearing capacity of the bending elements with fiber reinforcement in the tensile
zone and with fiber reinforcement throughout the cross-section height is higher than that of
similar ACPB (without dispersion reinforcement) bending elements [44]. This is due to the
fact that the magnitude of reinforcement anchorage in FKPB is higher than that in CPB (i.e.,
more reliable joint work). This prevents a sharper development of plastic deformations
in reinforcement. In addition, disperse reinforcement increases the duration of joint work
of reinforcement and polymer concrete of the stretched zone, thereby “postponing” the
moment of redistribution of stresses arising in the stretched zone to the reinforcement bar,
even in the sections with cracks formed. That is, this happens in the places where there
are no cracks, i.e., in the places where the polymer concrete itself is absent, the metal cord
fibers continue to resist tension [45].
The bearing capacity of polymer concrete bendable elements is higher than that of
similar concrete elements with longitudinal reinforcement. It is related to a number of
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 18 of 24
factors: a part of polymer concrete of the stretched zone above the formed crack participates
in the work of normal sections; high adhesion of reinforcement and structural material
(CPB, FCPB) prevents sudden development of plastic deformations in reinforcement; higher
strength of the compressed zone material. We cannot exclude the fact that the material of
the structure in the gap between the cracks takes part in the work of the element as a whole.
It should be noted that CPB is a more plastic material, which is confirmed by the
deformation diagrams in Figures 6 and 7 than heavy concrete is. It allows it to work better
in tension, and therefore increases the duration of joint work of longitudinal reinforcement
bars with polymer concrete before the crack formation, the introduction of steel cord fibers
in the mixture further increases these figures, which can also be observed in the deformation
diagrams shown in Figures 6 and 7.
3.3. Finite Element Model of Beams Made of Polymer Concrete on a Rubber Binder Implemented in
the Ansys Environment
In order to verify the theoretical conclusions and evaluate the results of the experiment
of polymer concrete beams, finite element modeling was implemented in the Ansys soft-
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ware package (PC), taking into account the nonlinear properties of materials. Articulated 19 of 25
boundary conditions are set on the right support of the beam, prohibiting only vertical
movements, but allowing all rotations. Hinged-fixed boundary conditions are set on the left
support. The span
the left support. between
The the centers
span between the of the supports
centers is 1.2 m. isThe
of the supports 1.2length
m. Theoflength
the support
of the
zone was 60 mm, and the length of the beam overhangs was 70 mm. Two
support zone was 60 mm, and the length of the beam overhangs was 70 mm. Two concen- concentrated
forces
trated act on the
forces beam,
act on the mirrored in the same
beam, mirrored in theway
same asway
the test scheme
as the (Figure(Figure
test scheme 12). 12).
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Calculation
Calculationscheme
schemeofofthe
theelement
elementunder
under study
study (a)(a)
andand Finite
Finite element
element model
model of element
of the the ele-
ment under study (b).
under study (b).
In the
In the Ansys
Ansysenvironment,
environment,asasan
anelement
elementsimulating thethe
simulating concrete body
concrete bodyof the sample,
of the sam-
an eight-node finite element Solid 65 was chosen, which has the ability to simulate plastic
ple, an eight-node finite element Solid 65 was chosen, which has the ability to simulate
deformations, cracks, and destruction. This finite element implements the Willam-
Warnke concrete deformation model. This dependence is an ellipse equation describing
the deviatoric section.
When specified in a PC, the model includes the following parameters: stress-strain
diagram for compression, modulus of elasticity, ultimate compressive and tensile
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 19 of 24
plastic deformations, cracks, and destruction. This finite element implements the Willam-
Warnke concrete deformation model. This dependence is an ellipse equation describing the
deviatoric section.
When specified in a PC, the model includes the following parameters: stress-strain
diagram for compression, modulus of elasticity, ultimate compressive and tensile strength,
Poisson’s ratio, and shear force transfer coefficient for closed and open cracks.
For modeling longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, the Beam 188 finite element
was used, which is a rod, spatial finite element.
Based on the results of the calculation, the values of the destructive bending mo-
ments were obtained. The results of numerical studies of armocouton beams in the Ansys
environment are graphically presented in Figure 13.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure13.13.
Normal
Normalstresses
stressesininreinforcement
reinforcement along
along the abscissa
abscissa axis
axisin
inthe
theFE
FEmodel
modelofofa beam
a beam(a)(a)
and
and inelastic deformations in the simulation model of the ACPBF beam during destruction
inelastic deformations in the simulation model of the ACPBF beam during destruction (reinforcement (rein-
forcement
percentagepercentage of 6.3) (b).
of 6.3) (b).
Simulation
Simulationofofthe
thestate
stateof
ofthe
thebeam
beam before destructionshows
before its destruction showsthethegeneral
generallogic
logicofof
the
the destruction
destruction of of bending
bending elements.
elements. This
This logic
logic is consistent
is consistent withwith the standard
the standard model, model,
which
observes
which the cracks’
observes appearance
the cracks’ and their
appearance subsequent
and their development.
subsequent development.
The study results of concrete strength control (CSC) of bendable elements are sum-
marized in Appendix A2.
The dependence of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement for CPB-reinforced beams is shown in Figure 14; Figure 15 shows CPB-re-
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 20 of 24
The study results of concrete strength control (CSC) of bendable elements are summa-
rized in Appendix A.2.
The dependence of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement for CPB-reinforced beams is shown in Figure 14; Figure 15 shows21CPB-
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 25
aterials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW reinforced beams having fibers. 21 of 25
Figure14.
Figure 14.Dependence
Dependence of of
thethe ultimate
ultimate bending
bending moment
moment onpercentage
on the the percentage of reinforcement
of reinforcement in ACPBin
ACPB beams. of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of reinforcement in
beams.
ACPB beams.
Figure 15. Dependence of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of reinforcement in AC-
PBF beams.of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of reinforcement in AC-
Figure 15. Dependence of the ultimate bending moment on the percentage of reinforcement in ACPBF
PBF beams.
beams.
The Willam Warnke strength theory developed for composite materials (imple-
The Willam TheWarnke
mented Willam strength
in this work with
Warnke theory
the help
strength developed
of Ansys)
theory for composite
allows
developed forthe materials
calculation
composite of (imple-
ACPB
materials beams. The
(implemented
mented inin this work
performed with the help
calculations
this work with of
the helpand Ansys) allows
their comparison
of Ansys) the calculation of ACPB
with experimental
allows the calculation beams. Theperformed
data showed
of ACPB beams. The that the
performedcalculations
calculations
maximum and their
discrepancy comparison
for the with
strength experimental
values obtained data
by showed
empirical
and their comparison with experimental data showed that the maximum andthat the
calculated meth-
maximumdiscrepancy
discrepancy
ods was 14% for
(inthe
thestrength
series ofvalues
BPC obtained
beams). In by empirical
addition, a and
similarcalculated
deviation meth-
for the strength values obtained by empirical and calculated methods was BPC-of 7.4% for 14%
ods was 14% 8 (in
beamsthe series
was
(in the series of of BPC
already
BPC beams).
obtained.
beams). In In addition,
The greatest
addition, adiscrepancy
similar
a similar deviation of of
between
deviation 7.4%
7.4%theforfor BPC-
results
BPC-8 was achieved
beams was
8 beams was already
for ACPB obtained.
BPC beams The greatest
and discrepancy
amounted to 18.0%.between the results was achieved
for ACPB BPC beams and amounted to 18.0%.
That in turn will allow the conducted experimental studies to replace the numerical
That inones,
turnbut
willinallow the conducted
conditions experimental
of non-compliance withstudies to replace
the design the numerical
requirements or deviation from
ones, but inthe
conditions
norms inofthenon-compliance with the
tests, these features design
should requirementstaken
be additionally or deviation fromin the mod-
into account
the norms in the tests, these features should be additionally taken into account in the mod-
eling.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 21 of 24
already obtained. The greatest discrepancy between the results was achieved for ACPB
BPC beams and amounted to 18.0%.
That in turn will allow the conducted experimental studies to replace the numerical
ones, but in conditions of non-compliance with the design requirements or deviation from
the norms in the tests, these features should be additionally taken into account in the
modeling.
4. Conclusions
1. The features of the stress-strain state of normal sections of ACPB beams are revealed.
It has been established that the tensile strength in axial compression and tension, deforma-
tions corresponding to the tensile strength for CPB, exceed the similar parameters for the
used cement concrete 2.5–6.5 times. According to the results of the work, it was found that
the addition of fiber reinforcement increased the tensile strength of the BPS 3.0–7.5 times.
2. The percentage of longitudinal reinforcement and the height of the fiber reinforce-
ment zone are the main factors influencing the strength and crack resistance of normal
sections of the ACPB bending elements. The destruction of ACPB and ACPBF bending
elements with a percentage of longitudinal reinforcement of less than 6.3% occurs in the
tension zone, and with a percentage of longitudinal reinforcement of more than 6.3%, the
destruction occurs in the compressed zone.
3. Increasing the height of the fiber reinforcement zone of the CPB from 0 mm to
120 mm, the strength of normal sections of bending elements with a percentage of longitu-
dinal reinforcement µ = 0.8% increases by 28%. The strength of normal sections of elements
with µ = 6.3% increases by 14%, for elements having µ = 8.4% the strength of normal
sections practically does not increase. It has been established that fiber reinforcement
increases the moment of formation of cracks in structures up to 1.5 times, and the bearing
capacity of structures as a whole increase up to 1.3 times.
4. It has been experimentally determined that the addition of fiber over the entire
height of the element section with the same percentage of longitudinal reinforcement
increases the moment of cracking of the ACPBF of the bent elements compared to the
elements from the CPB (without dispersed reinforcement) up to 1.5 times. It can be
compared to the ACPBF elements with zone reinforcement (with fiber reinforcement at 3/4
of the section height) of up to 1.08 times.
5. Ultimate deflections of ACPB bending elements are less than deflections of ACPBF
bending elements with zone reinforcement of up to 18.5%. Deflections of ACPB beams
with a percentage of longitudinal reinforcement µ ≤ 1.8% are similar to reinforced concrete
bending elements made of heavy cement concrete.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.Y. and L.B.S.; methodology, G.B.B. and O.V.A.; soft-
ware, L.B.S.; validation, K.Y. and B.V.M.; formal analysis, N.V.M.; investigation, L.B.S.; resources,
G.B.B.; data curation, O.V.A.; writing—original draft preparation, B.V.M.; writing—review and edit-
ing, N.V.M.; visualization, K.Y.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This publication was made as a part of the Sub-project “Production of sodium silicate using
innovative energy-saving technology”, financed under the “Promotion of Productive Innovation”
Project, supported by the World Bank and the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Statements
may not reflect the official position of the World Bank and the Government of the Republic of
Kazakhstan.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding
authors upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 22 of 24
Appendix A. Results of Experimental Investigations for Breaking Bending Moments

of Beam Samples
Appendix A.1. Results of Experimental Investigations for Breaking Bending Moments of Beam
Samples
This appendix updates the results of experiments obtained for the breaking bending
moment of beam specimens as a function of the proportion of longitudinal type reinforce-
ment and the height of the fiber reinforcement area, which are presented in Table A1.
Table A1. Values of breaking bending moments obtained from the experiment.
Percentage of Fibre Layer Height

Destructive Bending
Girder Type Longitudinal Reinforcement Destruction Zone
Mu Moment, kNm
of Reinforcement µ, % hf, mm
FPC 001 0.00 125 Stretched 2.4
FPC 002 0.80 125 Stretched 3.67
FPC 003 1.25 125 Stretched 5.21
FPC 004 1.60 125 Stretched 6.28
FPC 005 1.80 125 Stretched 6.68
FPC 007 3.55 125 Stretched 11.31
FPC 008 4.95 125 Stretched 15.09
FPC 009 6.3 125 Stretched 17.48
FPC 010 8.4 125 Compressed 16.69
FPC 014 3.55 95 Stretched 10.92
FPC 015 4.95 95 Stretched 14.78
FPC 016 6.4 95 Compressed 16.39
PC 001 0.00 0 Stretched 1.88
PC 002 0.80 0 Stretched 3.02
PC 003 1.25 0 Stretched 4.31
PC 004 1.80 0 Stretched 5.92
PC 005 2.5 0 Stretched 7.91
PC 006 3.55 0 Stretched 10.29
PC 007 4.95 0 Stretched 14.11
PC 008 6.3 0 Stretched 15.41
PC 009 8.4 0 Compressed 15.91
Appendix A.2. Experimental Results for Breaking Bending Moments of Beam Samples
This section provides data on the bending moments of beam specimens leading to
failure. Based on these data, a beam failure model was formed. Thus, the model shows the
appearance and development of more areas of inelastic deformation (cracks). The results of
the theoretical experimental and numerical studies of concrete strength control (CBC) of
bending members are summarized in Table A2.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 23 of 24
Table A2. Results of the studies conducted.
Girder Mue, Mum,

µ, % Mut, KnM ∆Mum, % ∆Mut, %
Code KnM KnM
PC 001 0.8 2.51 2.96 2.6 −14.0 −18.0
PC 002 1.25 4.02 4.28 4.2 −1.9 −6.5
PC 003 1.8 5.82 5.8 6.0 3.3 0.3
PC 004 2.5 7.92 7.82 8.0 2.3 1.3
PC 005 3.6 10.86 10.3 11.2 8.0 5.2
PC 006 4.95 14.47 14.0 15.2 7.9 3.2
PC 007 6.3 14.96 15.32 16.8 8.8 −2.4
FPC 001 0.8 4.00 3.78 3.52 −7.4 5.5
FPC 002 1.25 5.52 5.10 5.16 1.2 7.6
FPC 003 1.8 7.39 6.77 6.8 0.4 8.4
FPC 004 2.5 9.85 8.77 8.8 0.3 10.9
FPC 005 3.6 12.63 11.28 12.0 6.0 10.7
FPC 006 4.95 16.64 15.10 15.4 1.9 9.3
FPC 007 6.3 17.49 17.52 17.72 1.1 −0.2
Note: Mut—destructive bending moment according to the results of calculation by the proposed method; Mue—
destructive bending moment according to the test results; Mum—destructive bending moment according to the
results of calculation in PC “Ansys”; ∆Mum—deviation of calculation results according to the proposed method
from experimental values; ∆Mut—deviation of calculation results in PC “Ansys” from experimental values.
References
1. Jun, Z.; Xiang-Ming, W.; Jian-Min, C.; Kai, Z. Optimization of processing variables in wood-rubber composite panel manufacturing
technology. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 2384–2391. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Jafari, K.; Toufigh, V. Experimental and analytical evaluation of rubberized polymer concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 155,
495–510. [CrossRef]
3. Siddique, R.; Naik, T.R. Properties of concrete containing scrap-tire rubber-an overview. Waste Manag. 2004, 24, 563–569.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Adhikari, B.; De, D.; Maiti, S. Reclamation and recycling of waste rubber. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2000, 25, 909–948. [CrossRef]
5. Fang, Y.; Zhan, M.; Wang, Y. The status of recycling of waste rubber. Mater. Des. 2001, 22, 123–127. [CrossRef]
6. Issa, C.A.; Salem, G. Utilization of recycled crumb rubber as fine aggregates in concrete mix design. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 42,
48–52. [CrossRef]
7. Hassani, A.; Ganjidoust, H.; Maghanaki, A.A. Use of plastic waste (poly-ethylene terephthalate) in asphalt concrete mixture as
aggregate replacement. Waste Manag. Res. 2005, 23, 322–327. [CrossRef]
8. Isametova, M.E.; Nussipali, R.; Martyushev, N.V.; Malozyomov, B.V.; Efremenkov, E.A.; Isametov, A. Mathe-matical Modeling of
the Reliability of Polymer Composite Materials. Mathematics 2022, 10, 3978. [CrossRef]
9. Busuyi, A.T. Cost evaluation of producing different aggregate sizes in selected quarries in ondo state nigeria. Int. J. Eng. Adv.
Technol. Stud. 2016, 4, 6–19.
10. Tepordei, V.V. Natural Aggregates-Foundation of America’s Future (No. 144-97); US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 1997.
11. Borja, R.; Sanchez, E.; Martin, A.; Jimenez, A.M. Kinetic behavior of waste tyre rubber as microorganism support in an anaerobic
digester treating cane molasses distillery slops. Bioprocess. Eng. 1996, 16, 17–23. [CrossRef]
12. Toutanji, H.A. The use of rubber tire particles in concrete to replace mineral aggregates. Cem. Concr. Compos. 1996, 18, 135–139.
[CrossRef]
13. Collins, K.; Jensen, A.; Mallinson, J.; Roenelle, V.; Smith, I. Environmental impact assessment of scrap tyre artificial reef. ICES J.
Mar. Sci. 2002, 59, 243–249. [CrossRef]
14. Eldin, N.N.; Senouci, A.B. Rubber-tire particles as concrete aggregate. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 1993, 5, 478–496. [CrossRef]
15. Khatib, Z.K.; Bayomy, F.M. Rubberized portland cement concrete. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 1999, 11, 206–213. [CrossRef]
16. Gong, Y.; Yang, J.; He, X.; Lyu, X.; Liu, H. Structural Design Calculation of Basalt Fiber Polymer-Modified RPC Beams Subjected
to Four-Point Bending. Polymers 2021, 13, 3261. [CrossRef]
17. Topcu, I.B. The properties of rubberized concretes. Cem. Concr. Res 1995, 25, 304–310. [CrossRef]
18. Topcu, I.B.; Avcular, N. Collision behaviors of rubberized concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 1997, 27, 1893–1898. [CrossRef]
19. Zheng, L.; Huo, X.; Yuan, Y. Experimental investigation on dynamic properties of rubberized concrete. Constr. Mater. 2008, 22,
20. Khaloo, A.R.; Dehestani, M.; Rahmatabadi, P. Mechanical properties of concrete containing a high volume of tire-rubber particles.
Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 2472–2482. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Mohammed, B.S.; Azmi, N.J. Strength reduction factors for structural rubbercrete. Front. Struct. Civil Eng. 2014, 8, 270–281.
Materials 2023, 16, 3494 24 of 24
22. Bravo, M.; de Brito, J. Concrete made with used tyre aggregate: Durability- related performance. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 25, 42–50.
[CrossRef]
23. Al-Tayeb, M.M.; Bakar, B.A.; Ismail, H.; Akil, H.M. Effect of partial replacement of sand by recycled fine crumb rubber on the
performance of hybrid rubberized- normal concrete under impact load: Experiment and simulation. J. Clean. Prod. 2013, 59,
24. Bedi, R.; Chandra, R. Reviewing some properties of polymer concrete. Indian Concr. J. 2014, 88, 47–68.
25. Barbuta, M.; Diaconu, D.; Serbanoiu, A.A.; Burlacu, A.; Timu, A.; Gradinaru, C.M. Effects of tire wastes on the mechanical
properties of concrete. Proc. Eng. 2017, 181, 346–350. [CrossRef]
26. Bedi, R.; Chandra, R.; Singh, S.P. Mechanical properties of polymer concrete. J. Compos. 2013, 2013, 948745. [CrossRef]
27. El-Hawary, M.M.; Abdul-Jaleel, A. Durability assessment of epoxy modified concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2010, 24, 1523–1528.
28. Bai, W.; Zhang, J.; Yan, P.; Wang, X. Study on vibration alleviating properties of glass fiber reinforced polymer concrete through
orthogonal tests. Mater. Des. 2009, 30, 1417–1421. [CrossRef]
29. Reis, J.M.L.; Ferreira, A.J.M. The effects of atmospheric exposure on the fracture properties of polymer concrete. Build. Environ.
2006, 41, 262–267. [CrossRef]
30. Bruni, C.; Forcellese, A.; Gabrielli, F.; Simoncini, M. Hard turning of an alloy steel on a machine tool with a polymer concrete bed.
J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 2008, 202, 493–499. [CrossRef]
31. Orak, S. Investigation of vibration damping on polymer concrete with polyester resin. Cem. Concr. Res. 2000, 30, 171–174.
[CrossRef]
32. Gupta, K.; Mani, P.; Krishnamoorthy, S. Interfacial adhesion in polyester resin concrete. Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 1983, 3, 149–154.
[CrossRef]
33. Rebeiz, K.S. Precast use of polymer concrete using unsaturated polyester resin based on recycled PET waste. Const. Build. Mater.
1996, 10, 215–220. [CrossRef]
34. Bulut, H.A.; Sahin, R. A Study on mechanical properties of polymer concrete containing electronic plastic waste. Compos. Struct.
2017, 178, 50–62. [CrossRef]
35. Kim, H.S.; Park, K.Y.; Lee, D.G. A study on the epoxy resin concrete for the ultraprecision machine tool bed. J. Mater. Proc. Technol.
1995, 48, 649–655. [CrossRef]
36. Martyushev, N.V.; Malozyomov, B.V.; Khalikov, I.H.; Kukartsev, V.A.; Kukartsev, V.V.; Tynchenko, V.S.; Tynchenko, Y.A.; Qi, M.
Review of Methods for Improving the Energy Efficiency of Electrified Ground Transport by Optimizing Battery Consumption.
Energies 2023, 16, 729. [CrossRef]
37. Chen, D.H.; Lin, H.H.; Sun, R. Field performance evaluations of partial-depth repairs. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 1369–1378.
[CrossRef]
38. Chen, D.H.; Zhou, W.; Kun, L. Fiber reinforced polymer patching binder for concrete pavement rehabilitation and repair. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2013, 48, 325–332. [CrossRef]
39. Cortes, F.; Castillo, G. Comparison between the dynamical properties of polymer concrete and grey cast iron for machine tool
applications. Mater. Des. 2007, 28, 1461–1466. [CrossRef]
40. San-Jose, J.T.; Vegas, I.; Ferreira, A. Reinforced polymer concrete: Physical properties of the matrix and static/dynamic bond
behavior. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005, 27, 934–944. [CrossRef]
41. Fowler, D.W. Future trends in polymer concrete. Spec. Publ. 1989, 116, 129–144.
42. Rebeiz, K.S.; Serhal, S.P.; Fowler, D.W. Structural behavior of polymer concrete beams using recycled plastic. J. Mater. Civil Eng.
1994, 6, 150–165. [CrossRef]
43. Kumar, R. A review on epoxy and polyester based polymer concrete and exploration of Polyfurfuryl Alcohol as polymer concrete.
J. Polym. 2016, 13, 1–13. [CrossRef]
44. Toufigh, V.; Shirkhorshidi, S.M.; Hosseinali, M. Experimental investigation and constitutive modeling of polymer concrete and
sand interface. Int. J. Geomech. 2016, 17, 04016043. [CrossRef]
45. Martyushev, N.V.; Malozyomov, B.V.; Sorokova, S.N.; Efremenkov, E.A.; Qi, M. Mathematical Modeling of the State of the Battery
of Cargo Electric Vehicles. Mathematics 2023, 11, 536. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Artículo 2 - Polímero

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Artículo 2 - Polímero

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Artículo 2 - Polímero

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

materials

Materials 2023, 16, 3494. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093494 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

2. Methods and Materials

2.1. Rationale for the Material Choice

Table 1. Main characteristics of used rubber polymer concrete.

Indicators for Rubber Concrete Based on Rubber Grades

where aa'0 represents

µ’ is a reinforcement ratio in the compression region;

The reinforcement deformations are equal to:

By projecting the forces onto the neutral plane, we obtain:

σs · As + Rbt ·b(h − x ) = 0.5·σb ·b· x. (12)

The reinforcement factor is determined by the formula:

2.3. Experimental Design and Research Program

Figure 2. General view of the bending test of rubber concrete beams.

Table 2. Physical properties of sand and crushed stone.

Size of Fractions, Bulk Density, Raft Specific Surface

2.5. Mechanical Tests

Table 3. Composition of rubber fiber-polymer concrete.

Name Component Content, wt. %

To manufacture concrete specimens without the filler, the concrete of a composition

2.6. Sample Production Technology

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25

Figure 10. Dependence

The study ofThe thestudy

Table 4. Test results of reinforced concrete bendable elements.

Percentage of Longitudinal Destruction Breaking Bending

Appendix A. Results of Experimental Investigations for Breaking Bending Moments

Percentage of Fibre Layer Height

Table A2. Results of the studies conducted.

Girder Mue, Mum,

You might also like