SOLID STATE DEVICES

Classification Of Semiconductors
1. Based on Number of Elements present
• Elemental
– Elemental semiconductors are composed of same kind of
elements in group IV in the periodic table
– Elemental semiconductors such as Si and Ge in group IV
– Si is the most commonly used semiconductor for device
fabrication because it is abundantly available in earth's crust.
Silicon has a better temperature range, lower leakage, and is
cheaper
– Carbon(C) which is on the top
of the group IV is an insulator
(diamond) with energy gap (Eg)
of 5.5eV while the bottom most
elements of the group Tin(Sn)
And Lead(Pb) are metals
Classification Of Semiconductors
1. Based on Number of Elements
• Compound
– Compound semiconductors are composed of certain combination of
elements from II, III ,IV, V and VI groups in the periodic table
– compound semiconductors such as II-VI and III-V are the most common in
semiconductors
– Two element compounds or binary compounds in III-V groups such as
GaAs, GaP, GaN are commonly used in LEDs
– II-VI compound semiconductors are ZnO, ZnS, CdSe. ZnS can be used in
television screens
– Three element compounds or ternary compounds such as GaAsP and four
element compounds or quaternary compounds such as InGaAsP can also be
used as semiconductors
– ternary and quarternary alloys are varied over their composition range, their
band structure changes
eg.in a ternary alloy AlxGa1-xAs has a band gap of 1.43 eV when x=0 (i.e.,
GaAs) and has a band gap of 2.16 eV when x=1 (i.e., AlAs).
Effective Mass
• The electrons in a crystal are not completely free since they
interact with other atoms in the crystal lattice.
• The particle motion of an electron in a solid is different from that
in the free space.
• An electron or hole in a solid may behave as if it had a mass
different from that of the free electron mass, m0.
• The effective mass accounts for most of the innfluences of the
lattice.
• mn and mp represents actual mass of electron and hole and is given
by 9.1* 10-31 kg.
• The effective mass (m*n and m*p) represents the effect of all the
internal forces on the motion of the electron in the conduction
band.
Energy momentum Relationship

If the electron is free, then the energy represents kinetic energy

only.
E is related to the momentum P and wave vector k by
Thus the electron energy is given by
This means that the electron energy
is parabolic with wave vector k.
Energy momentum Relationship
• states that the electron
mass is inversely proportional to
second derivative of E-k relationship
i.e., the curvature of E-k diagram.
• For parabolic bands, the electron will move like a free
particle with effective mass m*n , which is related to the
curvature of the band.
• Thus the curvature of the E-k band determines
the effective mass of electron
Similarly the effective mass of holes is given by,
• The shape of the bottom of the CB and the top of
the VB can be approximated by parabolas, which
results in constant effective masses.
Equilibrium and Steady state conditions
• The equilibrium condition is used for modelling complex situations.
• A complex situation can be treated as a small deviation from the idealized
situation which can be analysed mathematically
• For example, to locate some place to a person who does not know the place, it is
very often to tell a landmark, which is about so many meters away from this
place.
Thermal equilibrium Condition
Eq
Semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium if there is
-No external excitation other than temperature. Steady state

-No net motion of charge or energy.

Steady State Condition
A system is said to be in steady state when all processes are constant as the
function of time.
-Eg. DC voltage is given to the semiconductor
• The steady state condition represents the superset of the equilibrium condition.
• This clearly shows that if a semiconductor is in steady state, it need not
necessarily be under equilibrium; but if a semiconductor is in equilibrium, it is
definitely under steady state. Here Eq stands for equilibrium.
Mass action law
• Under thermal equilibrium, the product of electron concentration n
and hole concentration p is a constant for a particular material at a
particular temperature, irrespective of the doping concentration.
• This relationship is referred as the mass action law.
• The product remains as a constant because addition of donor
impurity atoms reduces the number of minority holes in an n-type
material and addition of acceptor impurity atoms reduces the
number of minority electrons in a p-type material below intrinsic
level due to recombination as the recombination rate increases
with increase in carrier concentrations.
Charge densities in a semiconductor
- Intrinsic

- Extrinsic
If the semiconductor is doped with donor impurity only, then
the hole concentration p can also be neglected.
i.e., an n-type semiconductor is a material with free electron
concentration approximately equal to donor concentration.
Minority hole concentration in n-type material can be found
from the mass action law.
Fermions
• Fermions are elementary particles which are very small in size
and very light in weight.
• Atoms are made up of fermions. Thus fermions can be thought of
as the basic building blocks of matter.
• An electron i.e., a negatively charged particle is considered as a
fermions, but a photon i.e., the particle of electromagnetic
radiation is not considered so.
• The spin numbers of fermions are 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc and they
follow the Pauli’s exclusion principle: no two fermions can share
the same quantum state , even though they have the
same quantum numbers .
• They differ in position in space, such as spin. Electrons are
having a spin +1/2and -1/2. The fermions can collide with each
other. The motion of fermions follows the Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Carrier Concentration and Fermi Dirac Distribution
• In a semiconductor, free electrons and holes are the charge carriers.
• Electrical properties of a semiconductor depends upon the number of charge
carriers per/cm3 in the material.
• Electrons in a semiconductor obey the Fermi-Dirac Statitics.
• Thus the distribution of carriers in the material can be obtained from the Fermi-
Dirac distribution function.
• The Fermi-Dirac distribution function
gives the probability of finding an electron
in a given energy level.
Probability of finding an electron,

• The Fermi level is defined as the energy level at which probability of finding
an electron is at absolute temperature T.
•
• all available energy states up to EF is completely filled
with electrons and all available states above EF are
completely empty at absolute zero temperature (0K).

• As temperature increases more electrons excite from VB to CB and hence the

probability increases for an energy state above EF to be filled by electrons and
state below EF to be vacant.
• At a temperature T > 0 K, there is some probability f(E) for states above EF to
be filled and corresponding probability 1–f(E) that the state below EF to be
vacant.
• At a temperature T2 >T1, f(E) takes a value which is greater for states above EF
and 1–f(E) takes a value which is also greater for states below EF .
• For all temperatures, the Fermi function f(E) is symmetric about the Fermi level
(EF) .Hence the Fermi level is considered as the reference point in the
calculation of electron hole concentration.
• Thus the probability that a state ∆E below E F is empty is same as that of a state
∆E above EF is filled.
•
• Fermi Dirac Distribution for intrinsic Semiconductor
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of CB electrons is equal to
the concentration of VB holes. Thus the Fermi level (E F) lies at the middle
of the band gap.
• The electron probability tail f(E) extending into the CB is symmetrical to
the hole probability tail [1– f(E)] extending into the VB , since f(E) is
symmetrical about EF .
• The value of the distribution function varies within the band gap between
EC and EV. But there is no electron occupancy in that range since there are
no states available.
• At a reasonable temperature, the probability of occupancy of electrons f(E)
for a state in the CB and hole probability 1–f(E) for a state in VB are quite
small.
• Fermi Dirac Distribution for extrinsic Semiconductor
• N –Type material
• In an n-type material, the electron concentration in the CB is large
compared to the hole concentration in the VB. Thus the Fermi level lies
above the intrinsic energy level
• The probability distribution function f(E) is symmetric with respect to the
Fermi level EF , the distribution function lies above its intrinsic position in
the energy scale.
• For a particular temperature, the Fermi Dirac distribution function retains
its shape. The larger concentration of electrons in the CB implies
correspondingly smaller concentration of hole in the VB.
• As Fermi level moves closer to the CB,
the electron concentration n0 increases.
The difference in energy between conduction
band and Fermi level i.e., (EC-EF) gives a
measure of the number of electrons in the
conduction band.
• Thus in an n-type material, the electron concentration in the CB f(EC) is
much larger than the hole concentration in the VB [1–f(EV)].
• Fermi Dirac Distribution for extrinsic Semiconductor
• P –Type material
• In a p-type material, the electron concentration in the CB is very small
compared to the hole concentration in the VB. The Fermi level lies below
the intrinsic energy level near to the VB.
• In a p material, the hole probability tail 1–f(E) at EV is larger than the
electron probability tail f(E) at EC .
• The difference EF–EV indicates how strong the p-material is. Thus in a p-
type material, the electron concentration in the CB f(EC) is much smaller
than the hole concentration in the VB [1–f(EV)].
•
• The electron and hole concentration in a
semiconductor can be evaluated from the Fermi-
Dirac distribution function.
• The number of electrons per unit volume in the
energy range dE, is the product of density of
states and the probability of occupancy

• Thus the total electron concentration over the

entire CB is the integral of the electron
concentration per unit volume over the edges of
the CB ie.Ec to infinity
• Similarly
Density of states
• is defined as the density of states in the
energy range dE.
• According to quantum mechanics and Pauli’s
exclusion principle, density of states is expressed
as a function of energy i.e.,
Effective Density of states
• The electron concentration in the CB is same, all of the
distributed electron states in the CB described by an
effective density of states NC located at the edge of CB

• Similarly all of the distributed states in the VB described

by an effective density of states NV located at the edge of
VB
Equilibrium Electron Concentration(n0)
• The conduction band electron concentration is, the
effective density of states at EC times the probability
of occupancy at the CB edge.

• The electron concentration increases as EF moves

closer to the CB.
Equilibrium Hole Concentration(p0)
• The valance band hole concentration is, the
effective density of states at EV times the
probability of occupancy at the VB edge.

• The hole concentration increases as EF moves

closer to the VB
Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentration(n0,p0)
• For an intrinsic semiconductor EF lies at an
intrinsic level Ei at the middle of the band gap
and the equilibrium carrier concentration
becomes the intrinsic concentration.
• Thus the intrinsic electron concentration is given
by
Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentration(n0,p0)
• For an intrinsic semiconductor EF lies at an
intrinsic level Ei at the middle of the band gap
and the equilibrium carrier concentration
becomes the intrinsic concentration.
• Thus the intrinsic electron concentration is given
by
Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentration(n0,p0)
• The intrinsic carrier concentration is due to thermally
generated EHPs. The thermally generated electron
concentration is always equal to the hole
concentrations at thermal equilibrium

• The electron concentration n0 is equal to ni if EF is

at intrinsic energy level ( ) and n0 increases
exponentially as the Fermi level moves away from
Ei towards the CB. Similarly the hole concentration
increases from ni to a large value as EF moves away
from Ei towards the VB.
Excess carriers in a semiconductor
• The charge carriers in a semiconductor which are excess
to the thermal equilibrium concentration are called
excess carriers.
• These carriers can be generated by optical excitation,
electron bombardment or carrier injection across the
junction due to applied bias.
• The excess carrier concentration can be represented by
( (excess electron concentration and excess hole
concentration).
• Addition of excess carriers is called as Injection of
carriers.
• Low level injection
• If the excess carrier concentration is small compared to the
equilibrium carrier concentration, the injection of carriers is
called low level injection.
• The majority carrier concentration remains unchanged when
the injection is low level.

• High level injection

• If the excess carrier concentration is comparable to or
greater than the equilibrium majority carrier
concentration, then the injection of carriers is called
high level injection.
• The majority carrier concentration changes significantly
when the injection is high level.
Optical generation
• Optical generation is also called photo generation.
• When a photon (light) of energy greater than the
band gap energy of a semiconductor falls on the
material, the energy of the photon is absorbed by an
electron in the VB and get excited to the CB. This
creates an electron-hole pair (EHP).
• These carrier concentrations are in excess to the
thermal equilibrium concentration and hence the
name excess carriers.
•
Recombination mechanisms
• The generation of excess carriers in a semiconductor
increase conductivity of the sample.
• The mechanism by which excess electrons in the CB
recombine with the holes in the VB is referred to as
the recombination mechanism.
• Based on the way in which the electrons in the CB of a
semiconductor recombine with the holes in the VB,
recombination mechanism can be classified into direct
and indirect recombination.
• The behavior of solid state devices depends on the
recombination mechanism, which is different for
different devices like diodes, transistors and lasers.
• Carrier lifetime is defined as the time between the
generation and recombination of a carrier in the
semiconductor. It is the time for which a free electron
or hole exist in the material before recombination.
• A recombination mechanism in which excess population of
electrons and holes decays by the falling of electrons
directly from CB to the empty states or holes in the VB by
releasing energy in the form of photon (light) is called
direct recombination.
• An electron from VB move to CB by absorbing energy, E > Eg.
• These electrons still posses
higher energy and they may
release their energy and go
back to VB and recombine
with the holes there.
• Energy will be released in this recombination process,
mostly in the form of light. This is called
photoluminescence.
• InP, GaAs etc., are examples for direct band gap
semiconductors.
• This is a spontaneous process in which the probability
of electron hole recombination is constant in time.
Thus the excess carriers have an exponential decay.
• The rate of decay at any time t is proportional to the
product of electron concentration and hole
concentration at time t.
• The net rate of change in the CB electron
concentration is the difference between thermal
generation rate and the recombination rate at any
time t is given by,
Indirect recombination
• In indirect semiconductors, majority of recombination
events occurs via recombination levels within the band
gap.
• The energy released by recombination is given off to the
lattice as heat rather than light.
• Any impurity or lattice defects within the crystal lattice
can serve as a recombination centre.
• A recombination centre is defined as the energy level (ER
) which is capable of receiving a carrier of one type by
releasing the carrier of the opposite type.
• There are four events that may occur in the recombination of an
EHP at the recombination centre.
• Event a: Electron Capture
Capture of electron from CB by recombination centre ER.
• Event b: Electron Emission
Emission of electron from recombination centre ER to CB.
• Event c: Hole Capture
Capture of holes from VB by
recombination centre ER or
emit an electron to the VB.

• Event d: Hole Emission

Re-combination centre (ER)
capture an electron from VB
which is equivalent to the
emission of a hole to the VB.
• Consider the energy band diagram of an indirect
semiconductor.
• The recombination level ER is an energy level below EF at
equilibrium and is filled with electrons.
• When excess electrons and holes are created in such a
material, each EHP recombines at ER by a hole capture or
electron capture.
• At equilibrium condition, ER is completely filled with electron
since the recombination level ER is below the Fermi level EF..
• The first event in the recombination process is a hole capture
i.e., an electron at ER falls into the vacancy in the VB leaving
behind an empty state in the recombination level.
• In hole capture, the energy is given up as heat to the lattice.
The energy is also released when a CB electron subsequently
falls into the empty state in ER. This event is referred to as the
electron capture.
• When both these events (event c followed by event a) occur
one after the other, an EHP is missing (electron in CB and hole
in VB) and the recombination center regains its original state
i.e., filled with electrons.
• When an electron capture is followed by a hole capture then
indirect recombination took place.
• The most probable event is capture of one of the type
impurity followed by capture of another, and then the centre
is referred to as recombination centre.
• If a hole capture is not immediately followed by an electron
capture, the hole may be thermally re excited to the VB i.e., a VB
electron is raised to the empty state in the ER (event c followed
by event d).
• When a carrier is trapped temporarily at the recombination
centre and then re-excited without recombination, the process
is called temporary trapping.
• If electron capture is followed
by an electron emission, the
centre acts as an electron trap.
• If hole capture is followed
by hole emission, the centre
acts as a hole trap
• The impurity or defect centre is referred to as a trapping centre
if the capture of one type of carrier is followed by its re-
excitation
Steady state carrier generation
• At thermal equilibrium, a semiconductor experiences a thermal
generation of EHPs at a rate and is balanced by the
recombination at the same rate so that the equilibrium
concentration of carriers n0 and p0 are maintained.

• When the semiconductor is exposed to light energy, the steady state

optical generation rate get added to the thermal generation rate,
g(T) and the carrier concentration n and p will increase to a new
steady state value.
• The generation is balanced with the recombination under
equilibrium steady state conditions. i.e.,
• The excess carrier concentration
can be written as δn=δp=gop.τn
i.e., the excess carrier concen-
tration is the product of excess
carrier generation rate and
minority carrier lifetime.
• A semiconductor is irradiated with light such that carriers are
uniformly generated throughout its volume. The
semiconductor is n type with Nd=1019 cm–3. Find out the
generation rate due to irradiation. Given that the excess
electron concentration in steady state is 1015 cm–3 and
Quasi Fermi level
• The mass action law is invalid in the presence of excess
carriers.
• The equilibrium Fermi level EF can be used to represent
the carrier concentration n0, p0 under thermal
equilibrium condition.
• But when the excess carriers are also present, the carrier
concentration cannot be represented by the equilibrium
Fermi level.
• Then separate Fermi levels are used to express the total
electron and hole concentrations
• and they are known as quasi
• Fermi levels. FN is the electron
• quasi Fermi level and FP is the
• hole quasi Fermi level.
• The carrier concentration in the presence of excess carriers is
given by,
•

• The quasi Fermi level illustrates the deviation of carrier

concentration from the equilibrium value caused by the presence
of excess carriers.
• In steady state condition, for an n-type Si, the electron quasi
Fermi level is slightly above the equilibrium Fermi level (i.e.,
FN>EF) and hole quasi Fermi level lies far below the Fermi level.
• This means that the excitation causes a large percentage change
in minority carrier concentration and relatively a small change in
the electron concentration.
• The quasi Fermi levels FN and FP are the steady state equivalent of
the equilibrium Fermi level EF. The deviation of FN and FP from EF
indicates how far the electron and hole populations are from the
equilibrium values n0 and p0.
• At equilibrium, FN = FP = EF