CHAPTER-1

Ground Investigation
Introduction
• Investigation of a site for obtaining information about the subsurface
condition that underline a proposed structure.
• Determination of surface and subsurface soil condition and features in
an area of proposed construction that may influence the design and
construction and address the expected post construction problems.
• It consist of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the
site, taking the soil samples and determining the engineering
properties of soils.
• It also include in-situ testing of the soils.
Scope of Exploration
• Simple visual examination of the soil at the surface or shallow test pits.

• Detailed study of soil and groundwater to a reasonable depth (influence

zone) by sampling from boreholes and in-situ and laboratory tests.
1.1. Purpose of ground investigation
• The purpose of ground investigation is to assess the suitability of a site for
a particular project or to investigate the cause of failure of an existing
structure.
 The main purposes of soil exploration are:
 Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most
economical sites.
 Design foundation
Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation.
Estimating the load bearing capacity and probable settlement.
 Selection of alternative methods of construction.
 Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
 Location and selection of construction materials.
 Contractors to quote realistic and competitive tenders.
The Ground investigation should provide the following data:

 Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification,

bearing capacity or settlement calculation)
 Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
 Location of ground water level.
1.2. Phases of ground investigation

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon

i. The nature of sub-soil
ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure
Cont’
The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or
all of the following phases: -
1. Desk study:- Assembly of all available information on type and use of
the structure, and also of the general topographic and geological
character of the site.
2. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of
adjacent structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc
3. A preliminary site investigation:- This is usually in the form of a few
borings or a test pit to establish the types of materials, Stratification of
the soil, and possibly the location of the ground water level.
4. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is
of poor quality and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may be
undertaken this may involve sinking several boreholes, taking soil
samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other
field tests.
1.3. Methods of ground investigation
Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics
of sub-surface are
• Test pits/trenches
• Boring and sampling
• Field tests
• Geophysical methods
• Laboratory tests
1.3.1.Test pits and Trenches

• The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to

sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m.
• The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined
visually, thus the boundaries between strata and the nature of any
macro-fabric can be accurately determined.
• It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples.
• Trenches are useful in investigating subsurface conditions where
lateral variations in material conditions are expected.
Cont’
1.3.2. Drilling/Boreholes

• This is the most widely used method.

• It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for visual
inspection as well as laboratory tests.
The most commonly used methods of boring are: -
Auger boring
Wash boring
Percussion drilling
Rotary drilling
Cont’

 The right choice of method depends on:

• Ground condition: presence of hard clay, gravel, rock.

• Ground-water condition: presence of high ground-water table (GWT).

• Depth of investigation

• Site access
A. Auger boring

• Operated by hand (manual) or by power (mechanical).

• The hand augers used in borings are about 15 to 20 cm in diameter.
• These are suitable for advancing holes up to a depth of 3 to 6m in soft
soils.
• The hole is advanced by turning the cross-arm manually and at the same
time applying thrust in the downward direction.
• If the hole is already driven, another type of auger, known as post-hole
auger is used for taking soil sample.
Cont’
Cont’

• Mechanical augers (helical) are driven by power. These can be used for
making holes in hard stratum to a great depth, even to 30m.
• Auger boring is generally used in soils which can stay open without
casing or drilling mud. Clays, silts and partially saturated sands can
stand unsupported.
• Auger boring cannot be used when there are large cobbles, boulders or
other obstructions which prevent drilling of the hole.
• Auger borings are particularly useful for subsurface investigations of
highways, railways and air fields, where the depth of exploration is
small.
Cont’

The main disadvantage of the auger boring is that

The soil samples are highly disturbed.
It becomes difficult to locate the exact changes in the soil strata.
b) Wash boring

• Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit

and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure.
• Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles through the annular
space between casing and drill rod.
• This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard
soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks.
• Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
• Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress
of boring, examination of out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry.
• Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of
proper samplers.
Cont’
C) Percussion drilling
• Power operated.
• Hole is advanced by repeated blow of a heavy chisel into the bottom
of the hole.
• The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer
or sand pump.
• Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is
not favored.
• Casing is generally required.
• Maximum depth of boring is 60m.
Cont’

• The main advantage of percussion drilling method is that it can be

used for all types of materials.
Major disadvantages is that
• The material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows of
the chisel.
• It is not possible to get good quality undisturbed samples.
• It becomes difficult to detect minor changes in the properties of the
strata penetrated.
Cont’
d) Rotary drilling
• This method uses rotation of the drill bit, with the simultaneous application
of pressure to advance the hole.
• Rotary drilling is the most rapid method of advancing holes in rock unless it
is badly fissured; however, it can also be used for any type of soil.
• Drilling mud (usually a water solution of thixotropic clay (such as
bentonite) with or without other admixtures) may be used in soils where the
sides of the hole tend to cave in.
• In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by
using suitable samplers.
• Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.
Cont’

The advantage of rotary drilling in soils is

• The progress is much faster than other investigation methods.
• Disturbance of the soil below the borehole is slight.
Limitations
• The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high percentage of
gravel/cobble, as they tend to rotate beneath the bit and are not broken up.
• The natural water content of the material is liable to be increased due to
contact with the drilling fluid.
Cont’
Cont’
1.4. Number & Depth of Boreholes

Site exploration range

• No “ hard-and-fast rule” exists for determining the minimum number
of boring or the depth to which the test of boring are to be advanced.
• For most building, at least one boring at each corner and one at the
center should provide a start for investigation in rock, but also used in
soils.
• Depending on the uniformity of the subsoil, addition test boring may
be made.
Number of borings
Guideline for trial pits and boring layout (Teng)
Depth of boring
According to Tomilson
Minimum depth of boring
ASCE (1972)
Example 1.1.
• Determine the depth of boring for the soil profile shown below using
ASCE (1972) method, if the applied stress ‘q’ on the footing is 400 kPa.
Assume the footing is square with a size of 2m.
1.5. Soil and Rock Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore
holes or trial pits.
a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil
has been disturbed to a considerable degree by the action of the boring
tolls or excavation equipment.
• Samples used for soil identification and classification (index properties)
b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is
practicable, the true in-situ structure and water content of the soil.
• Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable information on
the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit.
1.5.1. Types of Soil Samplers

• It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially

from moderate to deep holes.
• The process of boring, driving the coring tool, raising and withdrawing the
coring tool and extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to
cause some disturbance.
• Sample disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of
sample tube.
The types of tube samplers

a) Split Spoon Sampler: -

• The tube is split longitudinally in the middle

• With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and
cohesionless soils are obtained.
• Sampler is used for making standard penetration test.
b) Shelby Tube (Thin-wall) Samplers

• It is a thin walled seamless brass or

steel tubing, with common outside
diameter of 2” to 3” and length of 30”
to 36”.
• This sampler is used to take
undisturbed samples from cohesive
soils.
c) Piston Samplers

• They are very thin tube samplers with

pistons fitted at their cutting ends.
• The piston aids the retention of the soil in
the tube during withdrawal.
• Piston samples provide best-undisturbed
samples of cohesive soils.
Sample disturbance
• A good sampler is the one, which is able to collect as less disturbed soil samples
as possible.
• Sample disturbance can be expressed in terms of Area ratio.
• Area ratio is a ratio of the volume of soil displaced to volume of collected sample
Cont’
• The soil sample can be considered undisturbed if the area ratio is less
than or equal to 10%, the disturbance is considered negligible.
• However, area ratio have to be much more than 10 % for very stiff or
hard clay soils to prevent the edges of the sampling tube from getting
distorted during sampling.
• Inside clearance allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it enters the
tube, and thus produce disturbance of soil structure and reduction of
density in dense sand. To minimize the expansion and disturbance of
soil sample, inside clearance should not be more than 1 to 3%.
• Inside clearance reduces frictional drag on the sample from the wall of
the tube and helps to retain the cores.
Cont’

• The outside clearance should also not be much greater than inside
clearance. It is usually 0 to 2%.
• Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample from the
ground.
Example 1.2:- Compare the area ratios
1.6. GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT
• Groundwater affects many elements of foundation design and construction, so the GWT
should be established as accurately as possible if it is within the probable construction
zone.
• The depth of the water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the
borehole.
• The depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit.
• In soils with low permeability such as silts, fine silty sands, and clays, it may take
several days to several weeks (or longer) for the GWT to stabilize.
• In this case an alternative is to install a piezometer (small vertical pipe) with a porous
base and a removable top cap in the borehole.
• This procedure allows periodic checking until the water level stabilizes, that is, the
depth to the water has not changed since the previous water level measurement was
taken.
1.7. LABORATORY TESTS

• Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating

ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability and settlement behavior of
foundation, and for determining physical characteristics of soils.
• Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole
records and results of field test.
Cont’
1.8. FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS

• The main problems associated with the laboratory testing of soils are
disturbance during sampling and the difficulty of testing samples large
enough to be representative of the soil in the field, where the effects of
structure and fabric can be highly significant.
Advantages of in-situ tests:
• They are usually less expensive, so greater number of tests can be performed,
thus characterizing the soil more detail.
• The test results are available immediately.
Disadvantages of in-situ tests:
• Often no sample is obtained, thus making soil classification more difficult.
•The engineer has less control over confining stresses and drainage.
Cont’

The most commonly used field tests are: -

• Penetration or sounding tests
• Vane shear test
• Plate loading test
• Pile loading test
1.8.1. Penetration Tests

• They are conducted mainly to get information on the relative density

of soils with little or no cohesion.
• The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum
is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil against the
penetration of the drive point.
• From this, correlations between values of penetration resistance versus
angle of internal friction (φ), bearing pressure, density and modulus of
compressibility have been developed.
• Penetration tests are classified as static and dynamic penetration tests.
A) Static Penetration Tests

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test

2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test)
Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test)

Cone penetration test is a static in-situ test used for subsurface

exploration in fine and medium sands, soft silts and clays without
taking soil sample.
The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter 35.7mm,
end area 10cm2, rods (⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”).
The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of 20mm/sec.
The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring,
manometer or a strain gauge.
Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From this test point
resistance and skin frictional resistance can be determined separately.
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Soil classification charts from CPT
Cont’
Advantages:
• Borehole is not necessary
• Almost continuous data (reading every 10mm)
• Elimination of operator error (automated)
• Reliable, repeatable test results
Disadvantages:
• Inability to penetrate through gravels and cobbles
• Newer technology = less populated database than SPT
• Lack of sampling
Correlation for cohesive soils
• Correlation for undrained shear strength (Cu, Su)

After Mayne and Kemper, 1988

Based on test in Greece, Anagnostopoulos et al. (2003)

Cont’

Correlation for over consolidation ratio OCR (After Mayne and

Kemper, 1988)
CPT Correlations for Cohesionless Soils

After Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990

Example 1.3.
In the soil profile shown in figure below if the cone penetration resistance (qc)
at ‘A’ (as determined by an electric friction-cone penetrometer) is 0.8 MN/m2,
estimate
a) The undrained cohesion, Cu
b) The overconsolidation ratio, OCR
b) Dynamic Penetration Tests
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
• This is the most commonly used in-situ test, especially for cohesionless
soils which cannot be easily sampled.
• The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the
angle of internal friction of cohesionless soils.
• It can also be used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of
soils.
• The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer blows to the top of the
drill rod, the number of blows required for the last two intervals are
added to give the standard penetration number, N.
Cont’

• The blows required to produce the first 150mm penetration, termed as

seating blows, are usually ignored as it is assumed that it is disturbed
due to drilling process.
The test is refusal and halted if
a. 50 blows are required for any 150 mm increment
b. If the total of 100 blows are obtained to drive the required 300mm.
c. 10 successive blows produce no advancement
Cont’
Cont’
Energy ratio (Er)
• It is necessary to standardize SPT to some energy ratio (Er), which is the
ratio of the actual hammer energy to the sampler to input energy.

• Energy ratio(Er) X (blow count) should be a constant for any soil, so

Note that larger values of Er decrease the blow count ‘N’ linearly, that is,
Er45 gives N = 20 and Er90 gives N = 10;
Cont’
In the field, the energy ratio can vary from 30% to 90%.
These discrepancies appear to arise from factors such as the following:
• Difference in some features of SPT equipment, drilling rig, hammer
and skill of operators.
• Driving hammer configuration and the way hammer load is applied
• Whether liner is used inside the split barrel sampler.
• Overburden pressure the bigger the o.b.p the more is N value for soil
of the same density.
• Length of the drill rod- shorter the rod the more is N
• Bore hole diameter- the smaller the size of the hole the more is N
value.
Cont’

• The standard practice now is express the N-value to an average energy

ratio of 60%, i.e N60 (Skempton, 1986)
Cont’
Correction for Overburden
• The SPT data also may be adjusted using an overburden correction
that compensates for the effects of effective stress in granular soil.
• So, the overburden correction adjusts the measured N values to what
they would have been if the vertical effective stress , σ’o was 100kPa.
The corrected value, (N1)60, is (Liao and Whitman, 1985):
Cont’

• Although Liao and Whitman did not place any limits on this correction,
it is probably best to keep (N1)60 ≤ 2(N60) .This limit avoids excessively
high (N1)60 values at shallow depths (Donald P.Coduto, 2001).
Cont’
Advantage
• Relatively quick, simple, reasonably cheap, and suitable for most soils.
• good correlation between SPT-N and soil properties.
• provides a representative soil sample for further testing.
Disadvantage
• SPT does not typically provide continuous data
• Limited applicability to soil containing cobbles and boulders.
• Samples obtained from the SPT are disturbed.
• SPT N blow require correction
SPT correlation in cohesive soils
SPT correlation in cohesionless soils
Cont’
Cont’
Example 1.4.
Given:- N=20; rod length=12m, hole diameter=150mm;p’0=205kPa use
safety hammer with Er=ηH=80 %; dense sand; no liner.
Required:- What is the standard ((N1)60) and ((N1)70) base on the given
data.
Example 1.5.
Using the corrected N values in Example 2.3, determine
A) The relative density (Dr %) using Skemptons correlation
B) The angle of internal friction using Meyerhofs’ correlation
2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test:
• This is another useful test, which is normally used to determine the relative
resistance offered by the different soil layers.
• The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit.
• The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed. The
number of blows required to penetrate 30cms depth is called as Nc value.
• In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used.
• Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional
resistance on the rod increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value.
• The maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m.
• If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud
(bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone.
Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment
Cont’
• To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert
Nc to N values of SPT.
Nc = N/C
Where:-
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.
• When bentonite is not used
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m
Nc = 2.0N for depths greater than 6m

• Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like

SPT.
1.8.2. Vane Shear Test

• This test is useful in determining the in-situ undrained shear strength

(Cu) of very soft and sensitive clays, which lose a large part of their
strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling operation.
• In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane
shear test is planned to be performed and the vane is carefully pushed
into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder of soil defined by
the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus
with a constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then
measured from which the shearing strength is determined.
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’

• For actual design purposes, the undrained shear strength values

obtained from field vane shear test is too high, and is recommended
that they be corrected.
Cont’

• A saturated marine clay deposit required a torque of 50 N.m at failure in a

field Vane shear test. The dimensions of the vane were: D=50 mm;
H=100mm and it was completely inside the soil during twisting. Compute
the undraind shear strength of a soil. Assume uniform end shear.

• Solution:

Su = T/[πD2H/2+D3/6]
= 50/[π *0.052*0.1/2+0.053/6]
= 109.13 kN/m2
1.8.3. Plate Loading Test
Cont’

• It is the most reliable method to determine the bearing capacity and

settlement at the site.
• The ultimate bearing capacity of the proposed foundation qult(f) can be
obtained from the following relations
Cont’

• The plate load test can also be used to determine the settlement for a
given intensity of loading (qo). The relations between the settlement of
the plate (Sp) and that of the foundation (Sf) for the same load intensity
are given below
Cont’
Example 1.6.
A plate load test using a plate of size 30x30 cm was carried out
at the level of a prototype foundation. The soil at the site was
cohesionless with the water table at great depth. The plate
settled by 10mm at a load intensity of 160 kN/m2.Determine
A) The settlement of a square footing of size 2x2 m under the
same load intensity
B) Estimate the load intensity if the permissible settlement of
the prototype foundation is limited to 40 mm.
1.9. Subsurface Investigation using Geophysical Methods

• A number of geophysical methods are used in preliminary investigation

of sub-soil strata.
• The methods can be used for the location of different strata and for a
rapid evaluation of the sub-soil characteristics.
• These method also allow rapid coverage of large areas and less
expensive than conventional exploration by drilling.
• However, these methods are very approximate and interpretation of the
result is difficult.
• For detailed and reliable investigations, the conventional methods of
drilling a hole, taking a sample and testing it in a laboratory should be
performed.
Cont’

The geophysical methods can be broadly divided into the two

categories:
• Seismic methods and
• Electrical resistivity methods.
1.9.1.Seismic methods

• The seismic methods are based on the principle that the elastic shock
waves have different velocities in different materials.
• At the interface of two different materials, the waves get partly
reflected and partly refracted.
• Seismic methods of subsurface explorations generally utilize the
refracted waves.
• The shock wave is created by a hammer blow or by a small explosive.
• The observation of the first arrival of the waves is recorded by
geophones located at various points such as A, B, C.
• The basic equations of the refraction survey are derived based on the
assumption that the velocity of the shock wave increases as the depth
increases (V3 > V2 > V1).
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Cont’
Limitation of the seismic methods
1) The methods cannot be used if a hard layer with a greater seismic velocity overlies a
softer layer with a smaller seismic velocity.
2) The methods cannot be used for the areas covered by concrete, asphalt, pavements
or any other artificial hard crust, having a high seismic velocity.
3) If the area contains some underground features, such as buried conduits, irregularly
dipping strata and irregular water table, the interpretation of the results becomes very
difficult.
4) If the surface is layer is frozen, the method cannot be successfully used, as it
corresponds to a case of harder overlying a softer layer.
5) The methods require sophisticated and costly equipment.
6) For proper interpretations of the seismic survey results, the services of an expert are
required
1.9.2. Electrical Resistivity Methods

• The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and

recording of changes in the mean resistivity or apparent specific
resistance of the various soils.
• Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon water content,
compaction, composition and many other factors.
• Rocks and dry soils have a greater resistivity than saturated clays.
Cont’

• To conduct the test, four electrodes, which are usually in the form of
metal spikes, are driven into the ground along a straight line at equal
distance.
• The two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes. The two
inner electrodes are called potential electrodes.
• The mean resistivity of the strata is determined by applying a D.C.
current to the outer electrodes and by measuring the voltage drop
between the inner electrodes.
Cont’
• The mean resistivity (ρ) is give by the formula

Where: Ι = current supplied

d = spacing of electrodes
V = voltage drop
Cont’

Limitation of electrical resistivity methods

1) The methods are capable of detecting only the strata having different
electrical resistivity.
2) The results are considerably influenced by surface irregularities,
wetness of the strata and electrolyte concentration of the ground water.
3) As the resistivity of different strata at the interface changes gradually
and not abruptly as assumed the interpretation becomes difficult.
4) The services of an expert in the field are needed.
1.10. Geotechnical investigation report
1. Introduction: - purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.
2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site.
3. General geology of the area:- from available geology records a summary of the geology and other
relevant conditions of the site are described since these could affect the scope of the work
4. Details of the field exploration program, indicating the number of borings, their location and
depth.
5. Details of the methods of exploration.
6. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits):- A brief summary of the
sequence of deposits their nature, thickness and variability.
7. Discussion of laboratory test results.
8. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
9. Recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing pressure and methods
of construction.
10. Conclusion: - The main findings of investigations should be clearly stated. It should be brief but
should mention the salient points.
Cont’
Thank you!!