MT 4th Sem

POBCO, Inc.
Wood Bearings
Custom Plastic And Wood Fabrication
For Bearings. Today's Topics:
pobcoplastics.com
OPEN
1. Capstan and Turret Lathe:

2. Capstan and Turret Lathe Working:
3. Capstan and Turret Lathe Advantages:
4. Bar Feeding Mechanism in Capstan and Turret Lathe:
5. Tools used in Capstan and Turret Lathe:
6. Self-opening Die Head:
7. Difference Between Capstan and Turret Lathe Machine:
Capstan and Turret Lathe:

/
A capstan and turret lathe is a production lathe. It is used to manufacture
any number of identical pieces in the minimum time.
These lathes were first developed in the United States of America by Pratt
and Whitney in 1960.
Capstan lathe is one of the types of semi-automatic lathe.
In semi-automatic lathes machining operations are done automatically.
Functions other than machining like loading and unloading of a job, the
positioning of tools coolant operations are done manually.
The turret head is mounted on the ram fitted with turret slides
longitudinally on the saddle.
Turret head has a hexagonal block having six faces with a bore for
mounting six or more than six tools at a time.
/
In the case of a Capstan Lathe, the hexagonal turret is mounted on a
short slide or ram which again fitted with a saddle.
The saddle can be move accordingly throughout the bed ways and can be
fixed to the bed if necessary.
It is specially used for bar type jobs.
But in the case of Turret Lathe, the hexagonal turret directly mounted on
the saddle. The saddle can be move through the bed ways.
Milling Machine
Cutters Manufacturer
- Thread Milling
Cutters
Turret lathe is generally used for chucking type work.
Schematic Diagram of a Capstan Lathe:
/
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CAPSTAN LATHE
Schematic Diagram of a Turret Lathe:
/
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TURRET LATHE
Capstan and Turret Lathe Working:

The workpiece is held in collet or chucks which are actuated hydraulically
or pneumatically.
/
According to the sequence of operation, the tool is moved with the help of
a turret head.
/
The Parting tool is mounted in an inverted position on the rear end of the
turret.
After completing each operation the turret head is moved back to its
initial position which indexes the tools automatically.
Capstan and Turret Lathe Advantages:

The advantages of Capstan and Turret Lathe is the following:
The rate of production is higher

Different ranges of speeds are obtained.
A number of tools can be accommodated.
Chucking of larger workpieces can be done.
Operators of less skill are required hence lowers the labor cost.
Higher rigidity so can withstand heavy loads.
Bar Feeding Mechanism in Capstan and Turret Lathe:

In the bar feeding mechanism, the bar is pushed after the chuck is
released without stopping the Lathe Machine
/
We use this mechanism for minimizing the setting time.
The bar is passed through the pedestal bushing, bar holding chuck,
headstock spindle, and the collet chuck.
The collet chuck is screwed on the headstock spindle and holding the
feed bar and also helps the bar to rotates as per spindle speed.
Bar holding chuck rotates within the sliding block with the rotation of the
feeding bar.
Also, you can see a rope and a deadweight in this mechanism.
One side of the rope is attached with the sliding block with the help of pin
and another side of rope passes through 2 different pulleys and then
connecting with a deadweight at its end.
So now when the collet chuck released by the lever the dead weight tends
to move in the downward direction, due to this it exerts thrust on the bar
holding chuck and feed the bar until it touches the workshop.
/
As we already have seen that Capstan Lathe is best for bar types jobs
that’s why we are generally seeing Bar Feeding Mechanism on Capstan
Lathe.
BAR FEEDING MECHANISM IN CAPSTAN LATHE
Tools used in Capstan and Turret Lathe:
Collect Chuck:
This is used for griping or you can holding any small bars in Capstan and
Turret Lathe (Mainly when we do Mass production).
/
Ad
POBCO, Inc. - Wood

Bearings
Custom Plastic And Wood Fabrication For
Bearings.
VISIT SITE
The size of collet chucks is different corresponding to the bar sizes.
The jaws of the collet chuck are gripped the workpiece by its springing
nature.
It is a thin steel brass bushing having slots on the outer side throughout
its length.
How a Collect Chuck looks like
Roller Box Steady Turning tool

/
This type of tool is used on bar work and when a considerable amount of
stock is to be removed from the job.
Roller box consists of the backrest or traveling two roller steadies that
can be adjusted as per requirement.
A single point cutting tool is present in front of two rollers and gives
rigidity to the workpiece.
Download PDF (Free)
Ad
Due to this rigid support, depth of cut, turning, etc. can be performed very
smoothly.
This is a costly tool only used in mass production.
/
ROLLER BOX STEADY TURNING TOOL USED IN CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
Self-opening Die Head:

This tool is used especially for cutting external threads.
The pitch of the cutting edges is determined according to the required

thread pitch to be cut.
Chasers may be triangular, tangential, and circular types.
The function of the self-opening die is it opened automatically when the

tool travel is stopped after the screw cutting operation.
/
Difference Between Capstan and Turret Lathe Machine:
Capstan Lathe Turret Lathe
In capstan lathe, the turret

In turret lathe, the turret tool
tool head is mounted over
head is mounted over the
the ram and that is mounted
saddle like a single unit.
over the saddle.
For providing feed to the For providing feed to the tool,

tool, ram is moved. a saddle is moved.
Capstan lathe is Turret Lathe is a Lightweight

a Lightweight machine. machine.
The turret head can be

The turret head cannot be
moved crosswise i.e. in the
moved in the lateral
lateral direction of bed in
direction of the bed.
some turret lathe.
In turret lathe, power Jaw

In capstan lathe, the collet is
chuck is used to gripping the
used to gripping the Job.
Job.
Turret lathes are available

Capstan lathe is
in horizontal and vertical
usually horizontal lathes.
lathes.
Because of no saddle
Turret tool head moves along
displacement, Movement of
with the saddle over the
turret tool head over the
entire bed in the longitudinal
longitudinal direction of bed
direction.
is small along with the ram.
For indexing turret tool head, For indexing turret tool head,
the handwheel of the ram is a turret is rotated manually
reversed and turret tool index after releasing clamping
automatically. lever.
Capstan lathe working Turret lathe working

operations are faster operations are slower
because of lighter in because of heavier in
construction. constructions.
Capstan lathe used for Turret lathe used for longer

shorter workpiece because workpiece because of saddle
of limited ram movement. movement along the bed.
In Capstan lathe used for In Turret lathe used for

machining workpiece up machining workpiece up
to 60 mm diameter. to 120 mm in diameter.
Heavy cuts on the workpiece

Heavy cuts on the workpiece
can be given because of
cannot be given because
the rigid construction of the
of non-rigid construction.
machine.
Let’ssee the difference between Capstan and TurretLathe

from the Engine Lathe:
CAPSTAN AND TURRET

ENGINE LATHE
LATHE
The direction of rotation is It can rotate in both

mostly anti-clockwise directions.
/
Required less power as these
Requied 4-5 times more
machines are design for
power because of handaling
doing a single operation at a
2-3 operations at a time.
time.
Less number of spindle

The vast amount of spindle
speed available in these
speeds are available
types of lathe
Setting and machining time

Setting and machining time for mass production is very
is higher. less, as its handle sevaral
operation at a time.
Semi-skilled operators can

The skilled operator needed.
be run the machine
Lead screw is not present but

The lead screw present in
short threads can be easily
these types of lathe is long
cut by chaser.
Only short length taper can

Any type of taper turning can
be done with the help of the
be done by this machine
form tool.
Summary:
What is capstan and turret lathe?
A capstan and turret lathe is a production lathe. It is used to manufacture
any number of identical pieces in the minimum time.
These lathes were first developed in the United States of America by Pratt
and Whitney in 1960.
/
What is the working principle of Capstan and Turret lathe?
In these types of a lathe, the workpiece is held in collet or chucks which
are actuated hydraulically or pneumatically. All the needed tools are held
in the respective holes on the turret head. According to the sequence of
operation, the tool is moved with the help of a turret head.
What are the advantages of Capstan and Turret Lathe?

The advantages of Capstan and Turret Lathe is the following:
The rate of production is higher
Different ranges of speeds are obtained.
A number of tools can be accommodated.
Chucking of larger workpieces can be done.
Operators of less skill are required hence lowers the labor cost.
Higher rigidity so can withstand heavy loads.
Conclusion:
As we saw in this article that these machines are the modification of an
Engine Lath, also there is no long lead screw in this type of lathe.
Capstan and turret lathes are now used vastly in the Manufacturing tool to
produce mass products.
/
Start
So that is all about Capstan and Turret Lathe, feel free to ask your
question in the comment box or you can use our Discussion Board to ask
your doubts.
And also don’t forget to share our articles on your social handles.
You may be interested to read these articles:
/
ShAper MAChine: Definition, Working, Types,
OperAtions, SpecificAtion, AdvAntAges,
DisAdvAntAges, And ApplicAtion (With PDF)
In Manufacturing Technology
Table of Contents
 Shaper Machine Definition:
 Working Principle of Shaper Machine:
 Types of Shaper Machine:
 Operations Performed on Shaper Machine:
 Parts of a Shaper Machine with Function:
 Specification of Shaper Machine:
 Advantages of Shaper Machine:
 Disadvantages of Shaper Machine:
 Applications of Shaper Machine:
 Hydraulic Shaper Mechanism in Shaper Machine:
 Conclusion:
Hello, readers in today’s article, we will learn how a shaper machine works
also we learn about the parts, types, operations, specification,
advantages disadvantages, and applications of a shaper machine.
So let’s start with the definition of shaper machine.
ShAper MAChine Definition:

The Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool basically used to
produce Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined flat surfaces by means of straight-line
reciprocating single-point cutting tools similar to those which is used in lathe
operation.
The flat surface produced may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle

Working Principle of ShAper
MAChine:
A shaper machine is working on the following principle:
 A shaper machine holds the Single point cutting tool in ram and workpiece is fixed
over the table.
 The ram holding the tool reciprocates over the workpiece and metal is cut during the
forward stroke called a cutting stroke and
 No metal is cut during its return stroke is called an Idle stroke.
 The feed is given at the end of the cutting stroke.
 Generally, the cutting stroke is carried out at slow speed and the idle stroke is carried
at high speed with the help of quick return mechanism.
In the shaper machine, there is another mechanism called Quick return

Motion Mechanism.
So whAt hAppens in quick return motion mechAnism is,

In the forward stroke, the Slider moves fast and removing the material from the
workpiece.
Whereas in the return stroke, the Slider moves faster than the forward stroke
that means Quick return, it takes less time to return, called a return stroke.
Quick return motion mechanism of shaper machine
Quick return mechAnism’s AnimAtion video:
Types of ShAper MAChine:
BAsed on the type of driving mechAnism types of shAper

mAChines.
 Crank type (Example: Quick return Motion Mechanism)
 Geared type shaper
 Hydraulic type (I mentioned the working principle of hydraulic shaper

machine below in this article)
BAsed on rAm trAVel types of shAper mAChines.

 Horizontal Shaper
 Vertical Shaper
BAsed on the tAble design types of shAper mAChines.

 Standard or Plain Shaper
 Universal shaper
StAndArd or PlAin ShAper:

In this machine, the table has only two motion: crosswise in the horizontal
plane and vertical movement (up and down).
The table is not provided with a swiveling motion.
UniversAl shAper:
This machine is similar to plain shaper except that the table can be tilted at a
various angle, making it possible to inclined flat surfaces.
The table can be swiveled about 360 degrees about a central axis parallel to
the cutting stroke direction and also perpendicular to it, that is, around two
horizontal axes.
The table also has a movement in the horizontal plane and vertical direction
(up and down ) as in plain shaper.
A universal Shaper Machine (Source: AliBaba.com)
BAsed on cutting stroke types of shAper mAChines.

 Push type shaper machine
 Draw type shaper machine

OperAtions Performed on ShAper
MAChine:
There are 4-types of operations performed in a shaper machine, and those

are:
 Horizontal cutting
 Vertical cutting
 Inclined cutting
 Irregular cutting
HorizontAl cutting:
Horizontal surfaces are machined by moving the work mounted on the
machine table at a cross direction with respect to the ram movement.
The clapper box can be set vertical or slightly inclined towards the uncut
surface.
This arrangement enables the tool to lift automatically during the return stroke.
The tool will not drag on the machined surface.
VerticAl cutting:
A vertical cut is made while machining the end of a workpiece, squaring up a
block or machining a shoulder.
The feed is given to the tool by rotating the down feed screw of the vertical
slide.
The table is not moved vertically for this purpose.
The apron is swiveled away from the vertical surface being machined.
Inclined cutting:
An angular cut is done at any angle other than a right angle to the horizontal or
to the vertical plane.
The work is set on the table and the vertical slide of the tooth head is swiveled
to the required angle either towards the left or towards right from the vertical
position.
IrregulAr cutting:
A round nose tool is used for this operation.
For a shallow cut the apron may be set vertical but if the curve is quite sharp,
the apron in swiveled towards the right or left away from the surface to be cut.
PArts of A ShAper MAChine with

Function:
BAse:
The Base is designed to take the entire load of the machine tool and it is bolted
to the floor of the shop.
This is made of grey cast iron to resist vibration and to take the compressive
load.
Column:
The column is a Box like casting made up of cast iron and mounted on a base.
It is provided with accurately machined guideways on the top on which the ram
reciprocates.
The guideways are also provided on the front vertical face for the movement of
cross rail. The column encloses the ram driving mechanism.
Cross rAil:
The cross rail is mounted on the ground vertical guideways of the column.
It consists of two parallel guideways on its top perpendicular to the ram axis is
called as a saddle to move the table in crosswise direction by means of a feed
screw.
The table can be raised or lowered to accommodate different sizes of the job
by rotating elevating screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down on
the vertical face of the column.
SAddle:
It is mounted on the cross rail to hold the table firmly on its top.
The crosswise movement of the saddle causes the table to move crosswise
direction by rotating the crossfeed screw.
TAble:
It is mounted on the saddle.
It can be moved crosswise by rotating crossfeed rod and vertically by rotating

the elevating screw.
The table is a box-like casting with accurately machined top and side surfaces.
These surfaces having t-slots for clamping the work.
In Universal shaper, the table may be swiveled on a horizontal axis and its
upper part may be tilted up or down.
In heavy Shaper, the front face of the table is supported by adjustable table
support to give more rigidity.
RAm:
It is a reciprocating member of the shaper which holds the tool and the
reciprocates on the guideways on the top of the column by means of quick
return motion mechanism.
It houses the screwed shaft for altering the position of the RAM with respect to
the work. The RAM is in semi-cylindrical form and heavily ribbed inside to
make it more rigid.
Tool HeAd:
The tool head holds the cutting tool firmly and provides both vertical and
angular movement to the tool with the help of down feed screw handle.
The head allows the tool to have an automatic relief during the return stroke.
The vertical slide of a tool head consists of a swivel base which is graduated in
degrees. So, the vertical slide can set at any angle with the work surface.
The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on

top of the down feed screw.
A tool head again consists of:
 Apron
 Clapper box and clapper block
Apron consisting of clapper box and tool post is clamped on the vertical slide
by the screw.
The apron Can be swiveled upon the apron swivel pin towards left or right.
The clapper box houses the clapper block by means of a hinge pin.
The tool post is mounted on the clapper block.
During forwarding cutting stroke the clapper block keeps the rigid support to
the tool by fitting securely into clapper box and while returning stroke the tools
slide over the work by lifting, the block out of clapper boxes shown in the above
figure
Detailed diagram of tool head with parts
The below diagram is shown is a principal part of the Shaper Machine:

SpecificAtion of ShAper MAChine:
The specification of shaper machine depends upon the following:
 The maximum length of stroke ram.
 Types of the drive ( Crank, Gear and Hydraulic type)
 Power input of the machine
 Floor space required to establish the machine
 Weight of the machine in tonne.
 Feed
 Cutting to return stroke ratio.
 Angular movement of the table.
AdvAntAges of ShAper MAChine:

 The single point tool used which is inexpensive or we can say low tooling cost.
 The cutting stroke having a definite stopping point.
 The work can be held easily in the shaper machine.
 The set up is very quick and easy and also can be readily changed from one job to
another job.
DisAdvAntAges of ShAper
MAChine:
 By nature, it is a slow machine because of its straight-line forward and returns strokes
the single point cutting tool requires Several strokes to complete a work. (They are slow)
 The cutting speed is not usually very high speeds of reciprocating motion due to high
inertia force developed in the motion of the units and components of the machine.
ApplicAtions of ShAper MAChine:

 To generate straight and flat surfaces.
 Smooth rough surfaces.
 Make internal splines.
 Make gear teeth.
 To make dovetail slides.
 Make key ways in pullies or gears.
 Machining of die, punches, straight and curved slots.
HydrAulic ShAper MechAnism in

ShAper MAChine:
In hydraulic shaper machine, a constant speed motor drives a hydraulic
pump which delivers oil at a constant pressure to the line.
A regulating valve admits oil under pressure to each end on the piston
alternately.
At the same time allowing oil from the opposite end of the piston to return to
the reservoir.
The piston is pushed by the oil and being connected to ram by piston rod,
pushes the ram carrying the tool.
The admission of oil to each end of the piston, alternately, is accomplished

with the help of trip dogs and pilot valves.
As the ram moves and complete its stroke (Forward and Return) a trip dog will
trip the pilot valve which operates the regulating valve.
The regulating valve will admit the oil to the other side of the piston and the
motion of the ram will get reversed.
It is clear that the length of the ram stroke will depend upon the position of trip
dogs.
The length of the ram stroke can be changed by unclamping and moving the
trip dogs to the desired position.
A hydraulic shaper looks like this:

Hydraulic Shaper Machine (Source: IndiaMart)
Video lecture on ShAping MAChine if you wish you cAn

check this video for brief knowledge:
Conclusion:
So today we completed the Shaping machine topic, we discuss definition,
parts, working, types, application, advantages, disadvantages, and
specifications of a Shaper Machine, hope you understand the whole concept.
In case you wanna read this type of article on the lathe machine tool and
drilling machine you can check these article for that “Lathe Machine Tool:
Definition, Parts, Types and Operations” & “Drilling Machine: Definition, Parts,
Types, and Operations“
If you have any queries or doubts about the Shaper machine, you can ask me
in the comment section or we have a dedicated Q&A platform for you where
you directly post your question: Click here to post your question, and also
you can join our facebook group. I will love to hear from you and glad to help
you. Till then enjoy rest your day. Cheers
TABLE DRIVE MECHANISM
A planer driving mechanism provides the longitudinal to and fro motion of the
planer worktable. The following methods are employed for the said purpose.
(a) Open and cross belt drive (b) Gear drive (c) Reversible motor drive
(a) Open and cross belt drive:
Two belts, one open and one crossed operate on loose and tight pulleys. Crossed
belt is used for forward or cutting stroke and the open belt for return motion. The
crossed belt making a greater arc of contact on the pulley is considered better for
driving the table on the cutting stroke.
There are two tight pulleys and two loose pulleys. Larger tight pulley - Cutting
stroke and smaller tight pulley - quicker return stroke.
Crossed belt drive mechanism permits operation of the gear train in such a manner
that the table will travel slowly on the cutting stroke and travel faster on the return
stroke. Pulleys keyed to the drive pinion shaft are called tight pulleys and those
which turn freely on the shaft are called loose pulleys. During cutting stroke the
crossed belt is on the tight pulley, the open belt is on the loose pulley and the
position is reverse during the return stroke.
DRIVE MECHANISM
For obtaining continuous forward and return motion of the planer table both the
open and crossed belts run continually and are shifted back and forth by the belt
shifter which is linked to the reverse lever. Trip dogs are provided, one each at
both ends of the planer table. At the end of each stroke, the trip dog meets against
the reverse lever, actuates the belt shifter and thus the table movement is reversed
Reversible motor drive:
The reciprocating motion of the planer table is obtained by driving through a worm
on to a rack attached to the length of the underside of the table. The reversal of the
drive is obtained by reversing the motor itself either by field or phase changing.
Commonly used on modern planers as it provides a wider range of table speeds
and a better control. Most planers are driven direct by a coupled motor in place of
the old method of open and crossed belt drive.
MAJOR COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:
BED:
 The bed of a planer is a box-like casting having cross ribs. It is very large in
size and heavy in weight and it supports the column and all other moving
parts of the machine. 
 The bed is made slightly longer than twice the length of the table so that the
full length of the table may be moved on it.
 The gearing arrangement and hydraulic cylinder for driving the table housed
under the bed.
TABLE:
 The planer table is a heavy rectangular casting and is made of good quality
cast iron.
 It is driven by hydraulic cylinder or by gear pinion driving and a rack which
is fastened under the centre of the table.
 Motor driving pinion is reverse type with variable speed.
 Upper side of the table has T slots to clamp the work piece.
COLUMN:
 The housings also called columns or uprights are rigid box-like vertical
structures placed on each side of the bed and are fastened to the sides of the
bed.
 It will handle heavy load without deflection.
CROSS RAIL:
 It is mounted on vertical guide ways of column and slides up and down.

 Handled by hand or by power operated screw
 The Crossrail has screws for vertical and crossfeed of the toolheads and a
screw for elevating the rail. These screws rotated either by hand or by
power.
 This is necessary to generate a flat horizontal surface on a workpiece
because the tool follows the pat on the Crossrail during crossfeed.
 The two elevating screws in the two housing are rotated by an equal amount
to keep the Crossrail horizontal in any position.
 The front face of the cross rail is accurately machined to provide a guide
surface for the tool head saddle.
TOOL HEAD:
 It’s generally holds the tool firmly.

 Tool post is connected with the tool head, so that in return stroke tool will be
raised and also it saves cutting edge.
Manufacturing Technology
Milling
Introduction
 Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by
feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of
cutting edges. The usual Mill consists basically of a motor driven spindle,
which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable
worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece.
 Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These
machines are also classified as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed
type, and planer-type. Most milling machines have self-contained electric
drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speeds, and power-operated
table feeds
 Milling is a process of producing flat and complex shapes with the use of
multi-tooth cutting tool, which is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges
are called teeth.
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of
feed, either parallel or perpendicular to the machined surface. The machine
tool that traditionally performs this operation is called milling machine.
 Milling is an interrupted cutting operation in which the teeth of the milling
cutter enter and exit the work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting
action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force and thermal shock on
every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to
withstand these conditions. Cutting fluids are essential for most milling
operations.
Types of milling
 There are two basic types of milling
 Down (climb) milling, when the cutter rotation is in the same direction as the
motion of the work piece being fed.

 up (conventional) milling, in which the work piece is moving towards the
cutter, opposing the cutter direction of rotation

Comparison of Up and Down Milling
 Down milling, the cutting force is directed into the work table, which allows
thinner work parts to be machined. Better surface finish is obtained but the
stress load on the teeth is abrupt, which may damage the cutter.
 Up milling, the cutting force tends to lift the work piece. The work
conditions for the cutter are more favorable. Because the cutter does not start
to cut when it makes contact (cutting at zero cut is impossible), the surface
has a natural waviness.
Milling Operations
Milling of Flat Surfaces
Peripheral Milling
 In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the cutter is
parallel to the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by
cutting edges on the outside periphery of the cutter. The primary motion is
the rotation of the cutter. The feed is imparted to the work piece.
 In peripheral milling the axis of the cutter rotation is parallel to the work
surface to be machined.
Types of Peripheral Milling
 Slab milling
 The basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width extends
beyond the work piece on both sides
 Slotting
 Slotting, also called slot milling, in which the width of the cutter, usually
called slotter, is less than the work piece width.
 The slotter has teeth on the periphery and over the both end faces. When
only the one-side face teeth are engaged, the operations is known as the
side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the work piece
 Straddle milling
 Straddle milling, which is the same as side milling where cutting takes
place on both sides of the work.
 In straddle milling, two slotters mounted on an arbor work together;
 When the slotter is very thin, the operation called slitting can be used to
mill narrow slots (slits) or to cut a work part in two.
 The slitting cutter (slitter) is narrower than the slotter and has teeth only
on the periphery.
Peripheral Milling
Peripheral Milling
A B
C D
A. Slab milling , B. Slot milling , C. Side milling , D. Straddle milling

Advantages of peripheral milling
 More stable holding of the cutter. There is less variation in the arbor torque 
 Lower power requirements.
 Better surface finish.
Face milling
 In face milling, cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface. The cutter
axis is vertical, but in the newer CNC machines it often is horizontal. In face
milling, machining is performed by teeth on both the end and periphery of
the face-milling cutter.
 Face milling is usually applied for rough machining of large surfaces.
Surface finish is worse than in peripheral milling, and feed marks are
inevitable. One advantage of the face milling is the high production rate
because the cutter diameter is large and as a result the material removal rate
is high. Face milling with large diameter cutters requires significant machine
power.
 In Face milling the axis of the cutter rotation is perpendicular to the work
surface to be machined.
Face milling
End milling
 In end milling, the cutter, called end mill, has a diameter less than the work piece
width. The end mill has helical cutting edges carried over onto the cylindrical cutter
surface are used to produce pockets, closed or end key slots, etc.
End milling operation used to cut a pocket in

an aluminum work part.
Milling of Complex Surfaces
 Milling is one of the few machining operations, which are capable of
machining complex two- and three-dimensional surfaces, typical for dies,
molds, cams, etc. Complex surfaces can be machined either by means of the
cutter path (profile milling and surface contouring), or the cutter shape (form
milling).
Form milling
 In form milling, the cutting edges of the peripheral cutter (called form cutter)
have a special profile that is imparted to the work piece. Cutters with various
profiles are available to cut different two-dimensional surfaces. One
important application of form milling is gear manufacturing
Types of Form Milling
Profile milling
 In profile milling, the conventional end mill is used to cut the outside or inside
periphery of a flat part. The end mill works with its peripheral teeth and is fed along a
curvilinear path equidistant from the surface profile.
Surface contouring
 The end mill, which is used in surface contouring has a hemispherical end and is
called ball-end mill. The ball-end mill is fed back and forth across the work piece
along a curvilinear path at close intervals to produce complex three-dimensional
surfaces.
 Similar to profile milling, surface contouring require relatively simple cutting tool but
advanced, usually computer-controlled feed control system.
Form Milling
Surface contouring
Milling machines
 The conventional milling machines provide a primary rotating motion for the cutter
held in the spindle, and a linear feed motion for the work piece, which is fastened
onto the worktable.
 Milling machines for machining of complex shapes usually provide both a rotating
primary motion and a curvilinear feed motion for the cutter in the spindle with a
stationary work piece.
Milling Machine Types
 Various machine designs are available for various milling operations. In this section
we discuss only the most popular ones, classified into the following types
 Column-and-knee milling machines
 Bed type milling machines
 Machining centers
Other Classifications
According to nature of purposes of use

 General Purpose Milling Machine
 Conventional milling machines, e.g Up and down milling machines
 Single Purpose Milling Machine
 Thread, cam milling machines and slitting machine
 Special Purpose Milling Machine
 Mass production machines, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, thread
milling etc.
According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed
Knee type
 small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the bed
(guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and
job on it moves vertically (Z) up and down.
Bed type
 Usually of larger size and capacity; the vertical feed is given to the milling head
instead of the knee type bed
According to the orientation of the spindle
 Horizontal Milling Machine
 Horizontal spindle Feed
 Vertical milling machine
 Vertical Spindle Feed
 Universal milling machine
 Both Horizontal and Vertical spindle Feed
Column-and-knee milling machines
 The column-and-knee milling machines are the basic machine tool for milling. The
name comes from the fact that this machine has two principal components, a column
that supports the spindle, and a knee that supports the work table.
 There are two different types of column-and-knee milling machines according to
position of the spindle axis
 Horizontal &Vertical.
Bed type machines
 In bed type milling machines, the worktable is mounted directly on the bed that
replaces the knee. This ensures greater rigidity, thus permitting heavier cutting
conditions and higher productivity. This machines are designed for mass production. 
 Single-spindle bed machines are called simplex mills and are available in either
horizontal or vertical models. Duplex mills have two spindle heads, and triplex mills
add a third spindle mounted vertically over the bed to further increase machining
capability.
Machining centers
 A machining center is a highly automated machine tool capable of performing
multiple machining operations under CNC control.
The features that make a machining center unique include the following
 Tool storage unit called tool magazine that can hold up to 120 different cutting tools.
 Automatic tool changer, which is used to exchange cutting tools between the tool
magazine and machining center spindle when required. The tool changer is controlled
by the CNC program.
 Automatic work part positioning. Many of machining centers are equipped with a
rotary worktable, which precisely position the part at some angle relative to the
spindle. It permits the cutter to perform machining on four sides of the part.
Machining center
 Milling Machine Specifications
Horizontal Milling Machine Vertical Milling Machine

Milling cutters
Classification of milling cutters according to their design

 HSS cutters: Many cutters like end mills, slitting cutters, slab cutters, angular
cutters, form cutters, etc., are made from high-speed steel (HSS).
 Brazed cutters: Very limited number of cutters (mainly face mills) are made
with brazed carbide inserts. This design is largely replaced by mechanically
attached cutters.
 Mechanically attached cutters: The vast majority of cutters are in this
category. Carbide inserts are either clamped or pin locked to the body of the
milling cutter.
Milling Cutter Nomenclature
 The pitch refers to the angular distance between like or adjacent teeth.
 The pitch is determined by the number of teeth. The tooth face is the forward
facing surface of the tooth that forms the cutting edge.
 The cutting edge is the angle on each tooth that performs the cutting. 
 The land is the narrow surface behind the cutting edge on each tooth.
 The rake angle is the angle formed between the face of the tooth and the
centerline of the cutter. The rake angle defines the cutting edge and provides
a path for chips that are cut from the workpiece. 
 The primary clearance angle is the angle of the land of each tooth measured
from a line tangent to the centerline of the cutter at the cutting edge. This
angle prevents each tooth from rubbing against the workpiece after it makes
its cut.
 This angle defines the land of each tooth and provides additional clearance
for passage of cutting oil and chips.
 The hole diameter determines the size of the arbor necessary to mount the
milling cutter.
 Plain milling cutters that are more than 3/4 inch in width are usually made
with spiral or helical teeth. A plain spiral-tooth milling cutter produces a
better and smoother finish and requires less power to operate. A plain helical-
tooth milling cutter is especially desirable when milling an uneven surface or
one with holes in it.
Classification of milling cutters associated with the various milling operations
Profile sharpened cutters

 surfaces are not related with the tool shape
 Slab or plain milling cutter : straight or helical fluted
 Side milling cutters – single side or both sided type
 Slotting cutter
 Slitting or parting tools
 End milling cutters – with straight or taper shank
 Face milling cutters
Form relieved cutters
 Where the job profile becomes the replica of the tool-form
 Form cutters
 Gear (teeth) milling cutters
 Spline shaft cutters
 Tool form cutters
 T-slot cutters
 Thread milling cutter
Profile sharpened cutters
 The profile sharpened cutters are inherently used for making flat surfaces or surface
bounded by a number of flat surfaces only.
Slab or Plain milling cutters
 Plain milling cutters are hollow straight HSS cylinder of 40 to 80 mm outer diameter
having 4 to 16 straight or helical equi-spaced flutes or cutting edges and are used in
horizontal arbour to machine flat surface
Machining flat surface by slab milling Cutter

Side and slot milling cutters
 These arbour mounted disc type cutters have a large number of cutting teeth
at equal spacing on the periphery.
Side milling cutters

End milling cutters
 The end milling cutter, also called an end mill, has teeth on the end as well as
the periphery
Face milling cutter
Form relieved cutters
 Form of the tool is exactly replica of the job-profile to be made
 Clearance or flank surfaces of the teeth are spiral shaped instead of flat
 Used for making 2-D and 3-D contour surfaces

T-slot & Gear milling cutters
Thread milling cutter
Indexing
 Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a
circular work piece into equally spaced divisions, such as in cutting
gear teeth, cutting splines, milling grooves in reamers and taps, and
spacing holes on a circle.
 The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this purpose.
Index Head
 The index head of the indexing fixture (Figure ) contains an indexing mechanism
which is used to control the rotation of the index head spindle to space or divide a
work piece accurately. A simple indexing mechanism consists of a 40-tooth worm
wheel fastened to the index head spindle, a single-cut worm, a crank for turning the
worm shaft, and an index plate and sector. Since there are 40 teeth in the worm
wheel, one turn of the index crank causes the worm, and consequently, the index head
spindle to make 1/40 of a turn; so 40 turns of the index crank revolve the spindle one
full turn.
Index Plate
 The indexing plate (Figure) is a round plate with a series of six or more
circles of equally spaced holes; the index pin on the crank can be inserted in
any hole in any circle. With the interchangeable plates regularly furnished
with most index heads, the spacing necessary for most gears, bolt heads,
milling cutters, splines, and so forth can be obtained.
Sector
 The sector (Figure) indicates the next hole in which the pin is to be inserted
and makes it unnecessary to count holes when moving the index crank after
each cut. It consists of two radial, beveled arms which can be set at any angle
to each other and then moved together around the center of the index plate.
Index Plate Types
 Brown and Sharpe type consists of 3 plates of 6 circles each drilled as
follows:
 Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes
 Plate 2 - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
 Plate 3 - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
 Cincinnati type consists of one plate drilled on both sides with circles
divided as follows:
 First side - 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes
 Second side - 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes
Indexing Methods
Simple Indexing or Plain Indexing
 In simple or plain indexing, an index plate selected for the particular application, is
fitted on the worm shaft and locked through a locking pin’
 To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is withdrawn from
the hole of the index plate than the work is indexed through the required angle by
turning the index crank through a calculated number of whole revolutions and holes
on one of the hole circles, after which the index pin is relocated in the required hole
 If the number of turns that the crank must be rotated for each indexing can be found
from the formula
 N = 40 / Z
 Where
 Z - No of divisions or indexings needed on the work
 40 – No of teeth on the worm wheel attached to the indexing plate, since 40 turns
of the index crank will turn the spindle to one full turn
 Suppose it is desired to mill a gear with eight equally spaced teeth. l/8th of
40 or 5 turns (Since 40 turns of the index crank will turn the spindle one full
turn) of the crank after each cut, will space the gear for 8 teeth. If it is desired
to space equally for 10 teeth, 1/10 of 40 or 4 turns would produce the correct
spacing.
 The same principle applies whether or not the divisions required divide
equally into 40. For example, if it is desired to index for 16 divisions, 16
divided into 40 equals 2 8/16 turns. i.e for each indexing we need two
complete rotations of the crank plus 8 more holes on the 16 hole circle of
plate 1(Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes)
Direct Indexing
 In direct indexing, the index plate is directly mounted on the dividing head spindle
( no worm shaft or wheel)
 While indexing, the index crank pin is withdrawn from the hole of the index plate
than the pin is engaged directly after the work and the indexing plate are rotated to
the desire number of holes
 In this method fractions of a complete turn of the spindle are limited to those
available with the index plate
 Direct indexing is accomplished by an additional index plate fastened to the index
head spindle. A stationary plunger in the index head fits the holes in this index plate.
By moving this plate by hand to index directly, the spindle and the work piece rotate
an equal distance. Direct index plates usually have 24 holes and offer a quick means
of milling squares, hexagons, taps, and so forth. Any number of divisions which is a
factor of 24 can be indexed quickly and conveniently by the direct indexing method.
Differential Indexing
 Sometimes, a number of divisions is required which cannot be obtained by simple
indexing with the index plates regularly supplied. To obtain these divisions, a
differential index head is used. The index crank is connected to the worm shaft by a
train of gears instead of a direct coupling as with simple indexing. The selection of
these gears involves calculations similar to those used in calculating change gear ratio
for lathe thread cutting.
 Gear Ratio I = 40/K ( K – Z)
Where
 K – a number very nearly equal to Z
 For example if the value of Z is 53, the value of K is 50
Indexing in Degrees
 Work pieces can be indexed in degrees as well as fractions of a turn with the usual
index head. There are 360 degrees in a complete circle and one turn of the index
crank revolves the spindle 1/40 or 9 degrees. Therefore, 1/9 turn of the crank rotates
the spindle 1 degree. Work pieces can therefore be indexed in degrees by using a
circle of holes divisible by 9. For example, moving the crank 2 spaces on an 18-hole
circle, 3 spaces on a 27-hole circle, or 4 spaces on a 36-hole circle will rotate the
spindle 1 degree.
 Smaller crank movements further subdivide the circle: moving 1 space on an 18-hole
circle turns the spindle 1/2 degree (30 minutes), 1 space on a 27-hole circle turns the
spindle 1/3 degree (20 minutes), and so forth.
Indexing in Degrees
 Work pieces can be indexed in degrees as well as fractions of a turn with the usual
index head. There are 360 degrees in a complete circle and one turn of the index
crank revolves the spindle 1/40 or 9 degrees. Therefore, 1/9 turn of the crank rotates
the spindle 1 degree. Work pieces can therefore be indexed in degrees by using a
circle of holes divisible by 9. For example, moving the crank 2 spaces on an 18-hole
circle, 3 spaces on a 27-hole circle, or 4 spaces on a 36-hole circle will rotate the
spindle 1 degree.
 Smaller crank movements further subdivide the circle: moving 1 space on an 18-hole
circle turns the spindle 1/2 degree (30 minutes), 1 space on a 27-hole circle turns the
spindle 1/3 degree (20 minutes), and so forth.
Indexing Head:
The index head of the indexing fixture contains an indexing mechanism which is used to
control the rotation of the index head spindle to space or divide a workpiece accurately. A
simple indexing mechanism consists of 4o teeth worm wheel fastened to the index head
spindle, a single cut worm, a crank for turning the worm shaft and index plate and sector.
Since there are 40 teeth in worm wheel, one turn of the index crank causes the worm and
consequently, the index head spindle to make 1/40 of turn , so that 40 turns of the index
crank revolve the spindle one full turn.
Index Plate:
The indexing plate is a round plate with a series of six or more circles of equally spaced
holes, the index pin on the crank can be inserted in any desired hole in any circle. With
interchangeable plate regularly furnished with most index heads, the spacing is necessary
for most gears, bolt heads, milling cutters, splines etc.
Index Plate Types

Brown and Sharpe type
Consists of 3 plates of 6 circles each drilled as follows:
Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes

Plate 2 - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
Plate 3 - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
Cincinnati type
Consists of one plate drilled on both sides with circles
Divided as follows:
First side - 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes
Second side - 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes
Sector:
The sector indicates the next hole in which the pin is to be inserted and makes it
unnecessary to count holes when moving the index crank after each cut. It consists of two
radial, beveled arms which can be set at any angle.
Simple Indexing Head:
Simple indexing is also called as 9 indexing. It is more accurate and has a large range of
indexing than rapid indexing. For indexing, the dividing head spindle is turned by the index
crank. The worm shaft carrying the crank has a single-threaded worm which meshes with
worm gear having 40 teeth, 40 turns of the crank are necessary to rotate the index head
spindle through one revolution. Therefore, one complete turn of the index crank will cause
the worm wheel to make 1/40 of a revolution. To facilitate indexing to the fraction of a
turn, an Index plate is used to cover practically all numbers. The Index plate with a circle of
holes manufactured by the brown and sharp company is:
Plate No 1- 15, 16, 17,18,19,20
Plate No 2- 21, 23, 27,29,31,33
Plate No 3- 37, 39, 41,43,47,49
[Index crank movement OR Number of crank rotation = 40/N]

Where N = number of divisions required on the work.
Angular Indexing Head:

The angular indexing is the Process of dividing the periphery of work in angular
measurements. There are 360 degrees in a circle, and then the index crank is rotated by 40
number of revolution and the spindle rotates through 1 complete Revolution or by 360
degrees, one complete turn off the crank will cause the spindle and the work to rotate
through 360/40=9 degrees. When a result is a whole number, the index crank is rotated
through the full calculated number. If the result is a fraction and a whole number, the part
of the revolution of the crank after turning the whole number is calculated by multiplying is
suitable for numbers to the numerator and denominator of the fraction, defecation to make
the denominator of the fraction is equal to the number of holes in the index plate circle and
the now numerator number for holes to be moved by the index Crank.
[Index crank movement OR Number of crank rotation = Indexing angle required/9]

Where N = number of divisions required on the work.
Compound Indexing Head:
In Compound indexing, there are two separate movements of the index crank in two
different hole circles of one index plate to get the crank movement. In Compound indexing,
there are two separate movements of the index crank in two different hole circles of one
index plate to get the crank movement. The index plate is held stationary by Lock pin head
which engages with one of the whole circle of the index place from the back. For indexing ,
the crankpin is rotated by the required number of the spaces in one of the holes of the
circle of the index plate and then the pin is engaged with the plate. The second index
movement is done by removing the real lock pin and the rotating the plate together with
the index crank forward or backward through the calculated number of spaces of another
hole circle, and the lock pin is engaged.
STEP 1 : Convert that division into two fractions like example 77= 11 * 7
STEP 2 : Select the hole circle number based on the number of division like example
11 * 7
(11 * 3) (7 * 3)
(33) (21)
STEP 3 : Solve equation and find hole circle number and hole no. by Trial and error method
X/21 (+/-) Y/33 = 40 / 77
Differential Indexing Head:
Sometimes, a number of divisions is required which cannot be obtained by simple indexing

with the index plates regularly supplied. To obtain these divisions, a differential index head
is used. The index crank is connected to the worm shaft by a train of gears instead of a
direct coupling as with simple indexing. The selection of these gears involves calculations
similar to those used in calculating change gear ratio for lathe thread cutting.
STEP 1 : Select the nearest value such a way that it is divisible by 40
STEP 2 : 40/N’ + 1/N (a.b/c.d) = 40/N’
N = Given divisible number in the question
N’ = Nearest divisible no. that will be divisible by 40

INTRODUCTION TO GRINDING PROCESS
• It is the only economical method of cutting hard

material like hardened steel.
• It produces very smooth surface , suitable for
bearing surface.
• Surface pressure is minimum in grinding. It is
suitable for light work,which will spring away from
the cutting tool in the other machining processes.
Grinding operation
Types of grinding operation
1. Ruff or precision Grinding
a) Snagging
b) Off-hand
2. Precision Grinding
a) Surface grinding
b) Cylindrical grinding
c) Center less grinding
d) Form and profile grinding
e) Plunge cut grinding
Grinding Process
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses
a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.
Surface Grinding
Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove
material, creating a flat surface.
Cylindrical Grinding
Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used
to grind the cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of the
workpiece.
1. External cylindrical grinding

2. Internal cylindrical grinding
External cylindrical grinding
Internal cylindrical grinding
Internal grinding is used to grind the internal diameter of the
workpiece. Tapered holes can be ground with the use of
internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.
Centerless grinding
Form and profile grinding
Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding
where the grinding wheel has the exact shape of the final
product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.
Plunge cut grinding
Infeed (Plunge) Grinding is used to

grind workpieces which have
projections or shoulders, multiple
diameters or other irregular shapes
which preclude the use of through
feed grinding.
For example :- Grinding of crank shaft.
Electrochemical grinding
Electrochemical grinding
 The wheels and workpiece are electrically conductive.
 Wheels used last for many grindings - typically 90% of
the metal is removed by electrolysis and 10% from the
abrasive grinding wheel.
 Capable of producing smooth edges without the burrs
caused by mechanical grinding.
 Does not produce appreciable heat that would distort
workpiece.
 Decomposes the workpiece and deposits them into the
electrolyte solution. The most common electrolytes
are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate at
concentrations of 2 lbs. per gallon
SIGNIFICANCE OF GRINDING OPERATIONS:
 Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used

for shape and finish components made up of metals and other
materials.
 The surface obtained through grinding is 10 times better than any
other machining like turning or milling.
MANUFACTURING OF GRINDING WHEELS:
A grinding wheel is a wheel composed of an abrasive compound and used

for various grinding (abrasive cutting) and abrasive machining operations.
Such wheels are used in grinding machines.
The wheels are generally made from a composite material consisting of

coarse-particle aggregate pressed and bonded together by a cementing
matrix (called the bond in grinding wheel terminology) to form a solid,
circular shape. Various profiles and cross sections are available depending
on the intended usage for the wheel. They may also be made from a solid
steel or aluminum disc with particles bonded to the surface. Today most
grinding wheels are artificial composites made with artificial aggregates,
but the history of grinding wheels began with natural composite stones,
such as those used for millstones.
The manufacture of these wheels is a precise and tightly controlled process,

due not only to the inherent safety risks of a spinning disc, but also the
composition and uniformity required to prevent that disc from exploding
due to the high stresses produced on rotation.
Grinding wheels are consumables, although the life span can vary widely
depending on the use case, from less than a day to many years. As the
wheel cuts, it periodically releases individual grains of abrasive, typically
because they grow dull and the increased drag pulls them out of the bond.
Fresh grains are exposed in this wear process, which begin the next cycle.
The rate of wear in this process is usually very predictable for a given
application, and is necessary for good performance.
Selection of Grinding Wheels:
The proper selection of grinding wheels is very important for getting good
results (i.e. obtaining better finish and at the same time having more life of
the wheel). In order to meet all these requirements, the various elements
that influence the process must be considered.
Selection mainly depends upon the following factors:
(a) Constant factors.
(b) Variable factors.
Constant factors include:
(i) Work material. It should be remembered that for grinding a soft

material, hard wheel should be used and vice versa,
(ii) Amount and rate of stock removal,
(iii) Area of contact between work and wheel.
(iv) Condition of grinding machine. A softer grade of wheel is used on

robust and heavy machine,
(v) Finish and accuracy required on the job.
Variable factors include:
(i) Wheel speed,
(ii) Work speed,
(iii) Condition of grinding machine (state of the wheel spindle bearing),
iv) Skill of operator (personal factors).
From above it is obvious that several factors are to be considered for the
proper selection of the right wheel. The different wheels are constituted by
different combinations of abrasive materials, grain size, type of bond,
hardness of bond, structure etc. Thus the difficulty in choosing right wheel
for any particular job can be gauged from the fact that more than 10,000
different combinations are obtainable in one wheel.
Work Material:
It will influence the following elements:
(a) Abrasive material,
(b) Grain size of grit number (mesh number),
(c) Grade (strength of bond),
(d) Structure.
(a) Abrasive:
This choice of right abrasive is to some extent determined by the type of

material only to be ground, which will decide whether the abrasive is
Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) as these are most
commonly used abrasives in different varieties. SiC is the best suited
abrasive for brittle and hard materials like grey cast iron castings, chilled
iron, tungsten carbide, hard steels, stone, porcelain and other ceramic
substances.
SiC is also recommended for low tensile strength material such as non-
ferrous metals, bronze, brass, copper, aluminium and plastic materials,
A1203 is better for tough materials having high tensile strength like mild
steel, alloy steel, high speed annealed malleable iron, tough bronze,
wrought iron, etc.
(b) Grain Size:
For softer materials, it is a general practice to use coarse grain size and for
harder materials, fine grains. Coarser grain is used for high rate of stock
removal. Fine grain is used if the work size or the work surface finish is
important. Grain size is determined by the mesh number by which it is
retained when passed through a series of meshes in a vibrating sieve.
(c) Grade:
The hard materials and materials having high strength offer more
resistance to wheel while grinding operation is performed. Thus if hard
grade of wheel is used then wheel will get blunt soon and the grinding will
not be good. Therefore, for better results on such materials, the abrasive
particles should break and fall quickly so that new sharp faces of the
particles do the work and they never get blunt.
For softer materials, high or harder grade, i.e. good bond is used. The
grading is done by capital alphabets, the first alphabets being used for
softer grade and last ones for harder grade.
(d) Structure:
This represents the void between the abrasives and is influenced by the
work material. In the case of harder materials the chips are of small size
and also the rate of metal removal is low. Thus a small reservoir is needed
to remove the chips from the hard material, and the dense structure is
desirable for it.
For softer materials, the open structure is prescribed as the rate of metal
removal is high and size of chips is also big. The structure is denoted by
numbers from 1 to 15.
Amount and Rate of Stock Removal:
It does not influence the abrasive material but the
(a) Grain size,
(b) Grade,
(c) Structure.
For fast removal of metal, coarse gain size is required and vice versa. As
regards grade, soft grade is used for fast removal of metal, of course at the
cost of wheel life. With softer grade, the abrasive particles fall off quickly
and wheel keeps on sharpening, thus removing more quantity of material.
Also in order that metal may be removed at faster rate, more space is
required for chip removal and hence open structure is desirable for fast
removal of metal and vice versa.
Area of Contact:
It mainly influences grade and to some extent grain size also. When the
area of contact in grinding operation is large, total grinding pressure is
distributed over a larger area and the pressure per unit area is less and
hence a softer wheel is needed for it. Thus for internal grinding where arc
of contact is more, softer wheel is used and for external grinding, harder
wheel.
Condition of Grinding Machine:
Heavy rigid machines demand the softer grade of wheel than the light
machines. If condition of grinding machine is such as to cause vibration,
harder grade is used compared to one where complete freedom from
vibrations is there.
Finish and Accuracy Required:
For high degree of accuracy and fine finish requirement, small sized grain
wheels should be used.
Variable Factors:
i. Wheel Speed and Work Speed:
These are the most predominant factors and about 70% of the complaints
can be improved by proper selection of work and wheel speed e.g. if one
gets burnt surface then speed of the wheel may be reduced. If there is
excess wheel wear, it indicates that either wheel is running too slow or the
work too fast.
Wheel speed affects the grade to a considerable extent and for higher wheel
speed, soft wheel (soft grade) should be used. Wheel speed depends upon
type of grinding operation e.g. external or internal grinding or parting off
operation. Work speed depends upon type of work, type of grinding and
finish required. It also affects the grade, and for higher work speed it is
desirable to use harder wheel and vice versa.
ii. Condition of Grinding:
(By condition of grinding we mean whether the grinding is done in wet

conditions or dry conditions.) In dry conditions with hard wheel the heat
generation is more and thus soft wheel is required and vice versa.
iii. Skill of Operator:
An unskilled worker can’t handle soft wheels and he is likely to break them.
Thus unskilled worker should be allowed to work only in those conditions
which require a hard wheel.
Selection of Grinding Wheels for Thread Grinding and Tool
Sharpening:
The factors influencing the type of abrasive for thread grinding wheels are
the material of workpiece, its hardness, pitch and profile of the threads.
Al2O3 wheel is preferred for most of the applications. For grinding titanium,
SiC wheel is used and for grinding carbide and ceramic materials, diamond
wheel is used. Finer grit size is used for finer pitch.
If fine grit it used then harder wheel is employed. For high precision thread
grinding, and where lead errors in pre-cut threads are to the corrected,
vitrified bond wheels are used which are more rigid also. Resinoid bond
wheels are very flexible and can remove stock rapidly. However, these can’t
correct the lead errors in pre-cut threads because of their flexibility.
For tool sharpening, Al2O3 wheels are used for H.S.S; silicon carbide wheels
are used for carbide-tipped tools. The operation of lapping and fine finish is
done by diamond wheel. CBN wheel is well suited for grinding a variety of
difficult to machine tool steels. Other considerations are same as for
general grinding applications.
Selection of Grinding Wheel According to I.S. Specifications:
Various elements are put in systematic manner as follows:
Compulsory Elements:
Following have to be mentioned in all the wheels:
(1) Abrasive,
(2) Grain size,
(3) Grade,
(4) Type of Bond.
Optional Elements are:
(1) Prefix,
(2) Structure,
(3) Suffix.
Abrasive:
These are denoted by:
A—for Al2O3, C—for SiC
WA—for white Al2O3, GC—for green grit SiC.
The last two are sometimes put under prefix also.
Grain Size:
It is denoted by grit number.
The various numbers for different types of grain size are given below:
Coarse grain: 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 24
Medium grain: 30, 36, 46, 54, 60
Fine grain: 80, 100, 120, 150,180
Very fine grain: 220, 240, 280, 320, 400,500,600.
For all types of grinding higher limit is upto 180. The grit number above
200 is recommended for lapping operation etc.
Grade:
The following classification is employed for grade:
A—E: Very soft,
G—K: Soft, L—
O: Medium, P—
S: Hard, T—Z:
Very hard. Type
of Bond:
The following notations are followed:
V—Vitrified,
B—Resinoid, BF—
Resinoid reinforced R—
Rubber,
RF—Rubber reinforced
E—Shellac,
S—Silicate, Mg—
Magnesia Prefix:
It denotes manufacturer symbol for exact nature of abrasive e.g. GC. Here G
is prefix and C stands for silicon carbide.
This varies from manufacturer to manufacturer and they have their own
code numbers. Sometimes mixture of two varieties may also be used in
abrasives.
Structure:
It is denoted by number from 1 to 15. 1—
8: Dense structure
9—15: Open structure.
Suffix:
It is manufacturer’s own identification mark (trade secret) and depends

upon the process and type of manufacturer.
GRINDING MACHINE
Introduction
• A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of
various power tools or machine tools used for grinding, which is a
type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each
grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the
work piece via shear deformation.
• Grinding is used to finish work pieces that must show high surface
quality (e.g., low surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape
and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in grinding is on the
order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a
finishing operation and removes comparatively little metal, about
to 0.50 mm depth. However, there are some roughing
applications in which grinding removes high volumes of metal
quite rapidly. Thus, grinding is a diverse field.
• The grinding machine consists of a bed with a fixture to guide and hold the
work piece, and a power-driven grinding wheel spinning at the required
speed. The speed is determined by the wheel’s diameter and
manufacturer’s rating. The user can control the grinding head to travel
across a fixed work piece, or the work piece can be moved while the grind
head stays in a fixed position.
• Fine control of the grinding head or tables position is possible using

a vernier calibrated hand wheel, or using the features of numerical controls.
• Grinding machines remove material from the work piece by abrasion, which
can generate substantial amounts of heat. To cool the work piece so that it
does not overheat and go outside its tolerance, grinding machines
incorporate a coolant. The coolant also benefits the machinist as the heat
generated may cause burns. In high-precision grinding machines (most
cylindrical and surface grinders), the final grinding stages are usually set up
so that they remove about 200 nm (less than 1/10000 in) per pass - this
generates so little heat that even with no coolant, the temperature rise is
negligible. '
Types of Grinding Machine
• Belt grinder
• Bench grinder
• Cylindrical grinder
• Surface grinder
• Tool and cutter grinder
• Jig grinder
• Gear grinder
Belt grinder
• Belt grinder, which is usually used as a machining

method to process metals and other materials, with
the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the
machining of wood; grinding is the common name
for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile
process suitable for all kind of applications like
finishing, deburring, and stock removal.
Bench grinder
• Bench grinder, which usually has two wheels of

different grain sizes for roughing and finishing
operations and is secured to a workbench or floor
stand. Its uses include shaping tool bits or various
tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench
grinders are manually operated.
Cylindrical grinder
• Cylindrical grinder, which includes both the types

that use centers and the centerless types. A
cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding
wheels. The work piece is rotated and fed past the
wheel(s) to form a cylinder. It is used to make
precision rods, tubes, bearing races, bushings, and
many other parts.
Surface grinder
• Surface grinder which includes the wash grinder. A surface
grinder has a "head" which is lowered, and the work piece is
moved back and forth past the grinding wheel on a table that
has a permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock. Surface
grinders can be manually operated or have CNC controls.
Rotary surface grinders or commonly known as "Blanchard"
style grinders, the grinding head rotates and the table usually
magnetic but can be vacuum or fixture, rotates in the
opposite direction, this type machine removes large amounts
of material and grinds flat surfaces with noted spiral grind
marks. Used to make and sharpen; burn-outs, metal stamping
die sets, flat shear blades, fixture bases or any flat and
parallel surfaces.
Tool and cutter grinder
• Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder. These

usually can perform the minor function of the drill
bit grinder, or other specialist tool room grinding
operations.
Jig grinder
• Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a variety

of uses when finishing jigs, dies, and fixtures. Its
primary function is in the realm of grinding holes
and pins. It can also be used for complex surface
grinding to finish work started on a mill.
Gear grinder
• Gear grinder, which is usually employed as the final
machining process when manufacturing a high-
precision gear. The primary function of these
machines is to remove the remaining few
thousandths of an inch of material left by other
manufacturing methods (such as gashing or
hobbing).
Examples of Bonded Abrasives
Fig: A variety of bonded abrasive used in abrasive machining processes

Common Grinding Wheels
Fig: Common Type of Grinding Wheels made with conventional abrasives. Note that
each wheel has a specific grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and
unsafe
GRINDING WHEEL
SPECIFICATONS
PRESENTATION BY:-
YASHRAJ V. PATIL
DEFINITION:-
 A grinding wheel is a multitooth cutter made up of many hard
particles known as abrasives which have been crushed to
leave sharped edges for machining.
 Every grinding wheel has two constituents:
i. abrasive used for cutting.
ii. bond that holds abrasive grains.
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF A
GRINDING WHEEL:-
1. Removal of stock
2. Generation of cylindrical, flat and curved surfaces
3. Production of highly finished surfaces
4. Cutting off operations
5. Production of sharp edges and points.
CONSTRUCTION OF GRINDING
WHEEL:-
Grinding wheel consists of-

i. Abrasives
ii. Bond
iii. Grit/grain size
iv. Grade
v. Structure of wheels
ABRASIVES:-
 An abrasive is a hard and tough substance, having sharp

edges. It cuts or wears away materials softer than itself.
 Important properties of abrasives are penetration
hardness, fracture resistance and wear resistance.
TYPES OF ABRASIVES:-
 Natural abrasives- they are obtained from nature.

Natural abrasives are sand stone, emergy/corundum,
diamond and garnet.
 Artificial/synthetic abrasives- they are manufactured to
have well defined and controlled properties of hardness,
roughness and type of structure. Artificial o synthetic
abrasives are silicon carbide(SiC), aluminium
OXIDE(AL2O3)
BOND:-
 The bond is an adhesive substance which cements or

holds the abrasive grains together to form a grinding
wheel.
 Depending upon the application, bond imparts the
qualities of hardness or softness to the grinding wheel.
 The choice or selection of the bond depends upon the
accuracy, the required surface finish and the nature of
grinding operation.
GRIT/GRAIN SIZE:-
 Size of grain grit is determined by sorting or grading the

material by passing through screens with the no. of
meshes per linear inch.
 The grain size influences stock removal rate and the
generated surface finish.
 The selection of grain size is determined by-
i. Nature of grinding operation
ii. Material to be grinded
iii. Material removal rate
iv. Surface finish required
SR. NO. SIZE TYPE APPLICATIONS
1. 10,12,14,16,20,24 Coarse Rapid material removal
2. 30,36,46,54,60 Medium Stock removal and finish

both
3. 80,100,120,150,180 Fine Less stock removal, high

surface finish
4. 220,240,280,320,400,500, Very fine Very high surface finish,

600 grinding hard materials
GRADE OF THE WHEEL:-
 Structure of the grinding wheel represents to the grain
spacing or the manner in which the abrasive grains are
distributed throughout the wheel.
 The entire volume is occupied by abrasive grains,
bonding material and pores.
 The primary purpose of structure is to provide chip
clearance and it may be open medium or dense.
SR. NO. TYPE DESIGNATION APPLICATION
1. Dense 1,2,3,4 Cutting and snagging, hard
and brittle materials
2. Medium 5,6,7,8 90% grinding wheels
3. Open 9,10,11,12,13,14 Soft, tough, ductile materials

e.g. ball bearings, brass,
bronze
WHEEL SHAPES AND SIZES:-
 The shape of grinding wheel should be such that it

permits proper contact between the wheel and all of the
permits proper contact between the wheel and all of the
surface must be ground.
 They are classified in the following groups:
i. Straight side grinding wheel
ii. Cylindrical wheels
iii. Cup wheels
iv. Dish wheels
(WHEEL DESIGNING):
 It consists of 6 symbols representing following properties of
grinding wheel:
i. Manufacturer’s symbol
ii. Type of abrasive
iii. Grain size
iv. Grade
v. Structure
vi. Type of bond
vii. Manufacture symbol (optional) for reference
Example of a wheel specification:
51 A 36 L 5 V 40
51 Manufacturer’s symbol indicating type of abrasive
A Abrasive (aluminium oxide)
36 Grain size(medium)
L Grade(medium)
5 Structure(dense)
V Bond(vitrified)
40 Manufacture symbol (suffix) optional
WHEEL IDENTIFICATION:
Prefix Abrasive Grain size Grade Structure Bond Suffix
45 C 54 H 6 S 23
(Optional) A Al2O3 Coarse Soft Dense Vitrified(V) (optional)

10,12,14,16, H,I,J,K 1,2,3,4
20,24
By Aluminium Medium Medium Medium Silicate(S) By

oxide 30,36,46,54,60 L,M,N,O 5,6,7,8
Manufacturer S SiC Fine Hard Open Shellac(E) Manufacturer

80,100,120,150,1 P,Q,R,S 9,10,11,12,13
80 ,14
Silicon Very fine Very hard Rubber(R)

220,240,280,320, T,U,V,W
400,500,600
Carbide Resinoide(R)
Oxychloride
(O)
Planer Machine
The planer machine is similar to a shaper machine. It intended to produce plane and flat
surfaces by a single-point cutting tool. A planer machine is very large and massive compared
to a shaper machine. It is capable of a machining heavy workpiece, which cannot be fit on a
shaper table.
The fundamental difference between a shaper and a planer is that
In a planer, the work which is supported on the table reciprocates over the stationary
cutting tool. And the feed is supplied by the lateral movement of the tool.
In a shaper, the tool which is mounted upon the ram reciprocates. And the feed is given by
the crosswise movement of the table.
Types of Planer Machine
Following are the different types of planer machine:

1. Standard or Double housing type planer machine
2. open side type planer machine
3. Pit planer machine
4. Edge or plate planer
5. Divided table planer
Different classes of work necessitate designing the different types of planer machine to suit
various requirements of our present-day industry.
Read Also: Slotter Machine: Types, Parts and Operations [Complete Guide]
Parts of Planer Machine
Following are the important parts of the planer machine:

Bed
Table or Platen
Housing or Column
Cross rail
Tool head
Driving and Feed Mechanism
Bed
The bed of a planer is a box-like casting having cross ribs. It is very large in size and heavy in
weight and it supports the column and all other moving parts of the machine.
The bed is made slightly longer than twice the length of the table so that the full length of the
table may be moved on it.
It is provided with precision ways over the entire length on its top surface and the table
slides on it.
In a standard machine, two V-type of guideways are provided.
Three or more guideways may be provided on a very large wide machine for supporting the
table.
Some of these guideways may be the flat type to lend support to the table.
The guideways should be horizontal, true and parallel to each other.
The ways are properly lubricated and in modern machines oil under pressure is pumped
into the different parts of the guideways to ensure a continuous and adequate supply of
lubricants.
The hollow space within the box-like the structure of the bed houses the driving mechanism
for the table.
Table
The table supports the work and reciprocates along with the ways of the bed.
The planer table is a heavy rectangular casting and is made of good quality cast iron.
The top face of the planer table is accurately finished in order to locate the work correctly.
T-slots are provided on the entire length of the table so that the work and work holding
devices may be bolted upon it.
Accurate holes are drilled on the top surface of the planer table at regular intervals for
supporting the poppets and stop pins.
At each end of the table, a hollow space is left which acts as a trough for collecting chips.
Long works can also rest upon the troughs.
A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping planer reversing dogs at different
positions.
In a standard planer, the table is made up of one single casting but in a divided table planer
there are two separate tables mounted upon the bedways.
The tables may be reciprocated individually or together. All planets have some form of safety
device to prevent the heavily loaded table from running away in case of electrical or
mechanical failure which otherwise would have caused severe damage to the machine.
Hydraulic bumpers are sometimes fitted at the end of the bed to stop the table from
overrunning giving cushioning effect.
In some machines, if the table overruns, a large cutting tool bolted to the underside of the
table will take a deep cut on a replaceable block attached to the bed, absorbing the kinetic energy of
the moving table.
Housing
The housings also called columns or uprights are rigid box-like vertical structures placed on
each side of the bed and are fastened to the sides of the bed.
They are heavily ribbed to take up severe forces due to cutting.
The front face of each housing is accurately machined to provide precision ways on which
the cross rail may be made to slide up and down for accommodating different heights of work.
Two side-toolheads also slide upon it. The housing encloses the Crossrail elevating screw,
vertical and crossfeed screws for tool heads, counterbalancing weight for the Crossrail, etc.
These screws operated either by hand or power.
Cross rail
The Crossrail is a rigid box-like casting connecting the two housings. This construction
ensures the rigidity of the machine.
The Crossrail may be raised or lowered on the face of the housing and can be clamped at any
desired position by manual, hydraulic or electrical clamping devices.
The Crossrail when clamped should remain absolutely parallel to the top surface of the table,
i.e. it must be horizontal irrespective of its position.
This is necessary to generate a flat horizontal surface on a workpiece because the tool
follows the pat on the Crossrail during crossfeed.
The two elevating screws in the two housing are rotated by an equal amount to keep the
Crossrail horizontal in any position.
The front face of the cross rail is accurately machined to provide a guide surface for the tool
head saddle.
Usually, two toolheads, are mounted upon the Crossrail which are called railhead.
The Crossrail has screws for vertical and crossfeed of the toolheads and a screw for
elevating the rail. These screws rotated either by hand or by power.
Read Also: Horizontal Boring Machine [Types, Tools and Operations]

Tool-head
The tool head of a planer is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation. The
important parts of a tool head are:
1. Saddle
2. Swivel base
3. Vertical Slide
4. Apron
5. Clapper box
6. Clapper block
7. Toolpost
8. Down feed screw
9. Apron clamping bolt,
10. Apron swivelling pin
11. Mechanism for cross and down-feed of the tool.
Different Types of Planer Machine
1. Standard or Double housing type planer machine

2. open side type planer machine
3. Pit planer machine
4. Edge or plate planer
5. Divided table planer
1. Standard or Double Housing Planer Machine
The standard or double housing planer is the most widely used types of planer machine in
workshops. A double housing planer has a long heavy base on which a table reciprocates on
accurate guideways.
The length of the bed is little over twice the length of the table.
Two massive vertical housings or uprights are mounted near the middle of the base, one on
each side of the bed. To ensure the rigidity of the structure, these two housings are connected
at the top by a cast-iron member.
The vertical faces of the two housing are accurately machined so that horizontal Crossrail
carrying two tool heads may slide upon it.
The tool heads which hold the tools are mounted upon the Crossrail.
These tools may be feed either by the power in Crossrail or vertical direction. In addition to
these tool heads, there are two other tool heads which are mounted upon the vertical face of
the housing.
They can also be moved either in a vertical or horizontal direction to apply feed. The
planer table may be driven either by mechanical or hydraulic devices.
Openside Planer Machine
An openside planer has a housing only on one side of the base. And the Crossrail is suspended
from the housing as a cantilever. This feature of the machine allows the large and wide
workpiece to be clamped on the table and reciprocated over the cutting tool.
One side of the planer being opened, large and wide jobs may project out of the table and
reciprocate without being interfered by the housing.
In a double housing planer, the maximum width of the job which can be machined is limited by
the distance between the two housing. As the single housing has to take up the entire load, it is
made extra-massive to resist the forces.
Only three tool heads are mounted on this machine. The constructional and driving features of
the machine are the same as that of a double housing planer.
3. Pit Planer Machine
A pit type planer is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer. In this the
table is stationary and the column carrying the Crossrail reciprocates on massive horizontal
rails mounted on both sides of the table.
This types of planer machine are suitable for machining a very large work which cannot
be supported on a standard planer. This machine design saves much of floor space.
The length of the bed required in a pit type planer is little over the length of the table. Whereas
in a standard planer the length of the bed is near twice the length of the table. The uprights
and the Crossrail are made sufficiently rigid to take up the forces while cutting.
4. Edge or Plate Planer
The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is specially
intended for squaring and bevelling the edges of steel plates. Also used for different pressure
vessels and ship-building works.
One end of a long plate which remains stationary is clamped with the machine frame by a large
number so air operated clamps. The cutting tool is attached to a carriage which is supported
on two horizontal ways of the planer on its front end.
The operator can stand on a platform extending from the carriage. The carriage holding the
tool reciprocates over the edge of the plate. The feed and depth of cut are adjusted by the tool
holder which can be operated from the platform.
5. Divided Table Planer

This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or
together.
This type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work. The setting up of a large
number of identical workpieces on the planing machine table takes quite a long time. It may
require as much time for setting up as may necessary for machining.
To have continuous production on the table is used for setting up the work. While the other
reciprocates over the cutting tool finishing the work. When the work on the second table is
finished, it is stopped and finished jobs are removed.
Fresh jobs are now set up on this table while the first table holding the jobs now
reciprocates over the tool. When a heavy and large job has to be machined, both the table are
clamped together and are given reciprocating movement under the tool.
Slotter Machine
The slotter machine falls under the category of the reciprocating type of machine tool similar
to a shaper to a shaper or a planner. It operates almost on the same principle as that of a
shaper.
The major difference between a slotter machine and a shaper machine is that in a slotter the
ram holding the tool reciprocates in the vertical axis. whereas in a shaper the ram holding the
tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis. A vertical shaper and slotter machines are almost similar
to each other as regards their construction, operation, and use.
The only difference being, in the case of a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool may also
reciprocate at an angle to the horizontal table in addition to the vertical stroke. The ram can be
swivelled not more than 5° to the vertical.
The slotter machine is used for
Cutting grooves, keyways and slots of various shapes.

Used for making regular and irregular surfaces both internal and external.
For handling large and awkward workpiece.
For cutting internal or external gears and many other operations which cannot be easily
machined in any other machine tool described before.
The slotter machine was developed by Brunel in the year 1800 much earlier than a shaper
was invented.
Types of Slotter Machine
There are mainly two types of slotter machine.

1. Puncher slotter.
2. Precision slotter.
1. Puncher Slotter
The puncher slotter machine is a heavy, rigid machine designed for removal of a large
amount of metal from large forgings or castings. The length of stroke of a puncher slotter is
sufficiently large. It may be as long as 1800 to 2000mm.
The puncher slotter ram is usually driven by a spiral pinion meshing with the rack teeth cut on
the underside of the ram. The pinion is driven by a variable speed reversible electric motor
similar to that of a planer. The feed is also controlled by electrical gears.
2. Precision Slotter
The precision slotter machine is a lighter machine and is operated at high speeds. The machine
is designed to take light cuts giving the accurate finish.
Using special jigs, the machine can handle a number of works on a production basis. The
precision slotter machines are also used for general purpose work and are usually fitted with
Whitworth quick return mechanism.
Slotter Size
The size of a slotter machine like that of a shaper is specified by the maximum length of stroke
of the ram, expressed in mm. The size of a general-purpose or precision slotter usually ranges
from 80 to 900mm.
To specify a slotter correctly the diameter of the table in mm. Amount of cross and
longitudinal travel of the table expressed in mm. The number of speeds and feeds available,
h.p. of the motor, floor space required etc. should also be stated.
Parts of Slotter Machine
The different parts of a slotter machine are,
1. Base.
2. Column.
3. Saddle.
4. Crosslide.
5. Rotating table.
6. Ram and tool head assembly.
7. Ram drive mechanism.
8. Feed mechanism.
1. Base or Bed
The base is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and the entire load of the machine.
The top of the bed is accurately finished to provide guideways on which the saddle is
mounted.
The guideways are perpendicular to the column face.
2. Column
The column is the vertical member which is cast integrally with the base and houses driving
mechanism of the ram and feeding mechanism.
The front vertical face of the column is accurately finished for providing ways in which the
ram reciprocates.
3. Saddle
The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved toward or away from the
column either power or manual control to supply longitudinal feed to the work.
The top face of the saddle is accurately finished to provide guideways for the cross-slide.
These guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.
4. Cross-slide
The cross-slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle and maybe moved parallel to
the face of the column.
The movement of the slide may be controlled either by hand or power to supply crossfeed .
5. Rotary Table
The rotary table is a circular table which is mounted on the top of the cross-slide.
The table may be rotated by rotating a worm which meshes with a worm gear connected to
the underside of the table.
The rotation of the table may be effected either by hand or power. In some
In some machines, the table is graduated in degrees that enable the table to be rotated for
indexing or diving the periphery of a job in the equal number of parts.
T-slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by different clamping
devices. The rotary table enables a circular or contoured surface to be generated on the
workpiece.
6. Ram and Toolhead Assembly
The ram is the reciprocating member of the machine mounted on the guideways of the
column. It supports the tool at its bottom end on a tool head.
A slot is cut on the body of the ram for changing the position of the stroke.
In some machines, special type for tool holders is provided to relieve the tool during its
return stroke.
Ram Drive Mechanism
A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only whereas during upward return
stroke no metal is removed. The reduce the idle return time quick return mechanism is
incorporated in the machine. The usual types of ram drive mechanism are,
1. Whitworth quick return mechanism.
2. Variable speed reversible motor drive mechanism.
3. Hydraulic drive mechanism.
Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism
A simple Whitworth quick return mechanism as shown in fig.

The bull gear is mounted on a fixed hub at the rear end of the machine and it is rotated by a driving
pinion from the motor. The driving plate is connected to the main shaft through the fixed hub. The
main shaft is placed eccentrically with respect to the bull gear centre.
The bull gear holds the crankpin with sliding block and slides in a driving plate. So that when the bull
gear rotates, imparts rotary motion to the driving plate and shaft causing the disc to rotate at the end of
the main shaft.
The disc is connected to the lower end of the connecting rod eccentrically by means of a pin in a radial
T-slots on the face of the disc, which converts the rotary motion of the disc into reciprocating motion of
the ram connected to the top end of the connecting rod.
The Principle of a Quick Return Mechanism
The principle of quick return mechanism can be explained simply by a line diagram. A and B
are the fixed centres of the bull gear and the driving plate. The crack pin and the slide block
rotate in a circular path at a constant speed in a driving plate about B. This causes the disc to
rotate through the main shaft.
\
The pin 3 on the disc rotates in a circular path about the fixed point B. The length of the ram is
equal to twice the narrow of eccentricity and it is equal to 2x3B (3B= throw of eccentricity).
When the slide block is at C, the ram is at the maximum upward position of the stroke and
when it is at D, the ram is at the maximum downward position.
If the bull gear rotates in an anticlockwise direction and the slide block rotates through an
angle CAD, the ram performs downward cutting stroke, whereas when the block rotates
through an angle DAC the ram perform return stroke.
As the block rotates at a constant speed the rotation of slide block through an angle CAD
during cutting stroke takes longer time than the rotation through an angle DAC during the
return stroke. Thus the quick return motion is obtained.
Slotter Machine Operations
1. Machining cylindrical surface.

2. Flat surface Machining.
3. Machining irregular surface and cam machining.
4. Machining slots, keyways and grooves.
1. Flat Surfaces Machining
The external and internal flat surfaces may be generated on a workpiece easily in a slotter
machine. The work to be machined is supported on parallel strips so that the tool will have
clearance with the table when it is at the extreme downward position of the stroke.
The work is then clamped properly on the table and the position and the length of the stroke is
adjusted. A clearance of 20 to 25mm is left before the beginning of cutting stroke, so that the
feeding movement may take place during this idle part of the stroke.
The table is clamped to prevent any longitudinal or rotary travel and the cut is started from
one end of the work. The crossfeed is supplied at the beginning of each cutting stroke and the
work is completed by using a roughing and a finishing tool. While machining an internal
surface, a hole is drilled into the workpiece through which the slotter tool may pass during the
first cutting stroke.
A second surface parallel to the first machined surface can be completed without disturbing
the setting by simply rotating the table through 180° and adjusting the position of the saddle.
A surface perpendicular to the first machined surface may be completed by rotating the table
by 90° and adjusting the position of the saddle and cross slide.
2. Machining Circular Surfaces
The external and internal surface of a cylinder can also be machined in a slotter machine. The
work is placed centrally on the rotary table and packing pieces and clamps are used to hold the
work securely on the table.
The tool is set radially on the work and necessary adjustments of the machine and the
tool are made. The saddle is clamped in its position and the machine is started. While
machining, the feeding is done by the rotary table feed screw which rotates the able through a
small arc at the beginning of each cutting stroke.
3. Machining Irregular Surfaces or Cams
The work is set on the table and necessary adjustments of the tool and the machine are made
as detailed in other operation. By combining cross, longitudinal and rotary feed movements of
the table any contoured surface can be machined on a workpiece.
4. Machining Grooves or Keyways
Internal and external grooves are cut very conveniently machine. A slotter is specially
intended for cutting internal grooves which are difficult to produce in other machines.
External or internal gear teeth can also be machined in a slotter by cutting equally spaced
grooves on the periphery of the work. The indexing or dividing the periphery of the work is
done by the graduations on the rotary table.
Difference between shaper and slotter machine
1. In shaper machines, the direction of cutting stroke is horizontal with slower than the return
stroke. But in slotter machines, the direction of cutting stroke is vertical with slower than the
return stroke.
2. In shaper, Ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis whereas, in slotter, the ram
holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis.
3. Shaper machine is used to produce horizontal, vertical or inclined flat surfaces. Whereas in
slotter machine is used for cutting keyways, grooves and slots of various shapes, for making
regular and irregular surfaces both external and internal, for cutting internal gears, for
handling large and for awkward jobs

MT 4th Sem

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MT 4th Sem

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MT 4th Sem

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POBCO, Inc.

1. Capstan and Turret Lathe:

Capstan and Turret Lathe:

Capstan lathe is one of the types of semi-automatic lathe.

In semi-automatic lathes machining operations are done automatically.

It is specially used for bar type jobs.

Turret lathe is generally used for chucking type work.

Schematic Diagram of a Capstan Lathe:

Schematic Diagram of a Turret Lathe:

Capstan and Turret Lathe Working:

Capstan and Turret Lathe Advantages:

The rate of production is higher

Bar Feeding Mechanism in Capstan and Turret Lathe:

Also, you can see a rope and a deadweight in this mechanism.

BAR FEEDING MECHANISM IN CAPSTAN LATHE

Tools used in Capstan and Turret Lathe:

POBCO, Inc. - Wood

The size of collet chucks is different corresponding to the bar sizes.

How a Collect Chuck looks like

Roller Box Steady Turning tool

Download PDF (Free)

This is a costly tool only used in mass production.

Self-opening Die Head:

The pitch of the cutting edges is determined according to the required

Chasers may be triangular, tangential, and circular types.

The function of the self-opening die is it opened automatically when the

Capstan Lathe Turret Lathe

In capstan lathe, the turret

For providing feed to the For providing feed to the tool,

Capstan lathe is Turret Lathe is a Lightweight

The turret head can be

In turret lathe, power Jaw

Turret lathes are available

Capstan lathe working Turret lathe working

Capstan lathe used for Turret lathe used for longer

In Capstan lathe used for In Turret lathe used for

Heavy cuts on the workpiece

Let’ssee the difference between Capstan and TurretLathe

CAPSTAN AND TURRET

The direction of rotation is It can rotate in both

Less number of spindle

Setting and machining time

Semi-skilled operators can

Lead screw is not present but

Only short length taper can

What are the advantages of Capstan and Turret Lathe?

You may be interested to read these articles:

So let’s start with the definition of shaper machine.

ShAper MAChine Definition:

The flat surface produced may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle

A shaper machine is working on the following principle:

 No metal is cut during its return stroke is called an Idle stroke.

 The feed is given at the end of the cutting stroke.

In the shaper machine, there is another mechanism called Quick return

So whAt hAppens in quick return motion mechAnism is,

Quick return mechAnism’s AnimAtion video:

Types of ShAper MAChine:

BAsed on the type of driving mechAnism types of shAper

 Hydraulic type (I mentioned the working principle of hydraulic shaper

BAsed on rAm trAVel types of shAper mAChines.