HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The knowledge content relating to this curriculum area is designed to help the student
understand “the individual, group, organizational, institutional, and cultural contexts within which
human behavior is expressed and by which it is significantly influenced” (Pineda & Lansang,
1968). This knowledge area focuses on knowledge about the individual as a bio-psycho-social
being, the interaction between him/her and the physical, social, cultural, political and economic
forces in the environment which affect or influence behavior. This area of the curriculum aims to:
(a) enhance/further the students’ understanding of individual and collective behavior, and (b)
develop the students’ capacity to critically assess the state of theory and knowledge about man
and his social environment, as it related to social work practice, and to begin to see their role in
contributing to its development (Lee-Mendoza, 2008).
The phrase “the individual is a biopsychosocial being” means that there is
inseparable, interacting forces – biological, psychological and social that influence human
behavior and personality.
The biological components would include the individual’s state of health and nutrition,
genetics and natural physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and development,
as well as any deviation from normal functioning including illness and physical disabilities. These
may be obvious and can be described using medical information that is obtained when necessary.
The social worker is expected to know the psycho-social effects of both normal as well as
abnormal biological growth and development.
The psychological component is concerned with the individual’s personality, comprising
what is commonly termed “inner states”, which has three aspects:
1. Cognitive (perceptual or intellectual);
2. Emotional (feelings); and
3. Conative (striving, tendency to do actively or purposefully).
The social component includes the following elements:
1. Societal: aggregate data and social patterns which help create the social climate in
which we live, regardless of whether or not people are aware or accept them, such as
poverty and unemployment;
2. Institutional: organizational arrangements in society, such as family, government,
education, and social services;
3. Status: characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way
persons are described, e.g., by age, sex, race and religion;
4. Normative: the forms in which social; behavior is expressed, and the social rules that
shape these forms. These forms and rules that reflect the values of society which are,
in turn, influenced by the existing culture; and
5. Interactive: the type of interaction and perception of interactions made of self and
others that are a basis of behavior.

1|P age
 It still is certainly true that the individual is a “biopsychosocial being” and we continue to
recognize that “a dysfunction in any one of these elements disturbs equilibrium and creates or
aggravates tensions in both individuals and those close to them.” Thelma Lee-Mendoza in her
book, Social Welfare and Social Work, has pointed out, however, that the term “biopsychosocial”
omits other important determinants of personality and behavior, namely, culture and the physical
environment, unless culture is viewed as a “given” in the social component, and the physical
world, a “given” influence on the biological component. Just the same, there is a need to
emphasize these two important influences.
Culture refers to the knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, etc. that constitute the
way of life of a people or society.
The physical environment has two aspects: (1) the natural environment which makes
demands, sets constraints and provides resources (e.g., climate, topography, amount of rainfall
and ozone levels); and (2) constructed environments such as homes, offices and hospitals which
can have psychological effects (e.g., very limited space, no windows, poor ventilation and seating
arrangements that prevent interaction).
The scope of this area includes the following: main theories and phases of personality
development; historical perspectives and different factors influencing the Filipino family; social
processes relevant to the group and the community; community forces influencing group
behavior; and the dynamics of psychosocial problems.

2|P age
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Definition of Personality
The origin or the etymological derivative of personality comes from the word “person”,
theatrical masks worn by the Romans in Greek and Latin Drama. Personality also comes from
the two Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which literally means “to sound through”. This concept
extends to Jung’s component of “persona”, meaning “public image”, which refers to the role
expected by social or cultural convention.
In 1937, Gordon Allport defined personality as “what a man really is”. This statement
indicates that personality is the typical and peculiar characteristics of a person. In 1961, after 24
years. Allport modified his definition as a dynamic organization within an individual of the
psychophysical system that determines his or her characteristic behaviors and thoughts.
…. dynamic organization – personality is constantly evolving and changing. A newborn
infant lacks personality because his or her behavior keeps on changing. An infant’s
personality is influenced by heredity and by the surrounding condition. Personality
development begins at birth and unfolds gradually until death.
…. psychophysical – personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively neural. The
organization entails the operation of both body and mind. People’s functions include
vegetative, sentient and rational functions.
…. determine – personality is what lies behind specific acts. It is within the individual. A
person is not simply a passive reactor to the environment but does something about it.
…. characteristic behavior and thoughts – the replacement of the phrase “unique
adjustments to the environment” in Allport’s original definition of personality. The earlier
definition seemed to emphasize too much in biological needs. His revised definition covers
all behaviors and thoughts, whether or not they are related to adaptation to the environment.
On the other hand, Lawrence Pervin in 1975 has defined personality in terms of the
following:
a. Personality includes both structure and dynamics. Personality is viewed in terms of both
the parts and the relationship among the parts of a system;
b. Personality is ultimately defined in terms of behavior; and
c. Personality manifests consistencies in individuals and in group of individuals.
Nature of Man
Man is a rational animal. This nature is manifested in his various characteristics:
a. He is alive – seen in his ability to perform various acts;
b. He is a body – he is composed of material parts;
c. He has feelings – able to sense his surroundings and his reactions are expressed in his
emotions and bodily movements; and
d. He is a thinking and willing being – he is endowed with intellect and will. Decision on
choice making is the culmination of his thought processes.

3|P age
 His innate dignity is rooted in this rationality, i.e., a person endowed with reason and
volition. It is this characteristic that enables man to muster his environment and this he does as
an individual and in collaboration with the larger society. These characteristics mentioned are
manifested in his different activities:
a. He nourishes himself – the result is physical growth and development. This physical
maturation enables to reproduce;
b. He becomes aware of his material environment through his senses – thus, his
emotions are perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. He then moves towards or sway
this environment that serves as stimuli to him; and
c. With his intellect, he thinks – he abstracts, form ideas, judges and reasons. Based
upon his evaluations, he decides and determines how to live his life.
Determinants of Behavior
a. Heredity – people are born with particular genes inherited from both parents. The genetic
composition determines certain traits dominance or recessive character manifested in the
personality of the individual. The genetic heritage interacts with the environmental
influences and guides the maturation and development of the individual – the body
structures such as the brain, muscles, glands and behavior develop in orderly sequence;
b. Environment – in the environment, factors such as physical and social and economic
condition affect human behavior. Heredity and environment jointly determine behavior of
the individual, though some kinds of behavior are determined more by heredity and others
more by environment; and
c. Training – training is a key process in human behavior. It pervades everything we do and
think. It influences the language we speak, our customs, attitudes and beliefs. Our goals,
personality traits, both adaptive and maladaptive; and even our perceptions. Learning may
be defined as any change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice.
This learning process involves important factors like association ideas, sensations;
stimulus – response and motivation.
Developmental Tasks from Infancy through Later Life
1. Infancy and Early Childhood (Birth to 6 years)
• Learning to walk
• Learning to take solid feeds
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
• Achieving physiological stability
• Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality
• Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other people
• Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience
2. Middle Childhood (6-12 years)
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
• Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
• Learning to get along with age-mates
• Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating

4|P age
 • Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
• Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values
• Achieving attitudes toward social group and institutions
3. Pre-Adolescence and Adolescence (12-18 years)
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
• Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
• Achieving assurance of economic independence
• Selecting and preparing for an occupation
• Preparing for experience and family life
• Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic acceptance
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior
4. Early Adulthood (18-35 years)
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a marriage partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing children
• Managing a home
• Getting started in an occupation
• Taking on a civic responsibility
• Binding a congenial social group
5. Middle Age (35 to 60 years)
• Achieving adult, civic and social responsibility
• Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
• Developing oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• Learning to accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age
• Adjusting to aging parents
6. Later Life (60 years to death)
• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength
• Adjustment to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
• Meeting social and civic obligation
• Establishing satisfactory living arrangements
Theories of Personality
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Classical Freud’s View of Human Nature
Psychoanalysis Human beings are biological organisms whose master motives are the satisfaction
(Sigmund Freud) of bodily needs. Human beings are hedonistic creatures driven by the same
impulses as lower animals. Religion and civilization developed either because of
the fear of the unknown or for protection against inborn aggressive tendencies.
Repressed thoughts manifest themselves in the course of everyday living. All

5|P age
human behavior has a cause; nothing happens simply by chance – not even an
accident. Minor mistakes, like slips of the tongue, are manifestations of
unconscious motives. Through humor, a person can express aggressiveness or
sexual desires without fear of retaliation by either the ego or the superego.
The mind is made up of the id, ego, and superego. The goal of the psyche is to
maintain or regain an acceptable level of dynamic equilibrium that maximizes
pleasure and minimizes tension. The energy that is used originates in the id, which
has a primitive and instinctive nature. The ego, arising from the id, exists to deal
realistically with the basic drives of the id. It also mediates between the forces that
operate on the id. The superego, arising from the ego, acts as a moral brake or
counterforce to the practical concerns of the ego. It sets out a series of guidelines
that define and limit the flexibility of the ego. The superego is the moral arm of the
personality. It develops from the internalized patterns of reward and punishment
that a young child experience. The superego is said to be fully developed when
self-control replaces environmental or parental control. The superego functions as
the conscience, for self-observation and for the formation of ideals. As conscience,
the superego acts to restrict, prohibit or judge conscious activity; it acts
unconsciously. The unconscious restrictions are indirect, appearing as
compulsions or inhibitions. It develops, elaborates and maintains the moral code
of an individual. Aside from having to know the constraints in a situation, the child
also has to learn to incorporate the moral views of his or her parents before being
able to act to obtain pleasure or reduce pain. Its two subdivisions include the
conscience (the internalized experiences for which a child is punished) and ego-
ideal (the internalized experiences for which a child has been rewarded). The
superego constantly strives for perfection and its therefore unrealistic, just like the
id. The job of the ego is to satisfy both id and superego. In this way, the ego acts
as the executive arms of the personality. The practical goal of psychoanalysis is
to strengthen the ego, to make it independent of the overly strict concerns of the
superego and to increase its capacity to deal with formerly repressed behavior
hidden in the id.
Anxiety
For Freud, the most extreme form of anxiety human beings experience is when
they are separated from their mother at birth. He calls this the birth trauma. It
signifies a change from an environment of complete security and satisfaction to
one in which the satisfaction of needs is less predictable. The function of anxiety
is to warn us that, if we continue thinking or behaving in a certain way, we will be
in danger. Since anxiety is not pleasant, we try to reduce it. There are three kinds
of anxiety:
a. Reality anxiety – caused by real, objective sources of danger in the
environment. This is the easiest to reduce;
b. Neurotic anxiety – fear that the impulses of the id will overwhelm the ego
and making the person do something for which he or she will be punished;
and
c. Moral anxiety – fear of doing something contrary to the superego and
thus experience guilt.
There are two general ways to decrease anxiety. The first is to deal with the
situation directly. We resolve problems, overcome obstacle, either confront or run
from threats, or come to terms with the problems to minimize their impact. In these
ways we are working to illuminate difficulties, lower the chances of their future
recurrence and decrease the prospects of additional anxiety in the future. The
alternative approach defends against anxiety by distorting or denying the situation
itself. The ego protects the whole personality against the threat by falsifying the
nature of the threat. The ways in which the distortions are accomplished are called
defense mechanisms. The defense mechanisms are:

6|P age
 a. Repression – when the ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from
being entertained in the conscious level. The thoughts may either be
those innately part of the id – primal repression, memories of painful
experiences from one’s lifetime – or in repression proper. Repression
forces a potentially anxiety-provoking event, idea or perception away from
consciousness; thus, precluding any possible resolution. Although it is
unconscious, the repressed element remains part of the psyche and
remains active;
b. Displacement – the substitution of one cathexis for another; the person’s
true desire. When displacement results in something beneficial, it is called
sublimation. Impulses toward self-destruction or destruction of other fewer
threatening objects is called displaced aggression;
c. Identification – the tendency to increase personal feelings of worth by
taking on the characteristics of someone viewed as successful;
d. Reaction formation – objectionable thoughts are repressed by the
expression of their opposite goals. It masks parts of the personality and
restricts a person’s capacity to respond to events;
e. Projection – something true about a person but causes anxiety if it were
recognized is repressed and seen in someone else instead. A person can
therefore deal with actual feelings, but without admitting or being aware
that the feared idea or behavior is his or her own;
f. Rationalization – justifying behavior or thoughts that are anxiety-
provoking. The person presents an explanation which is logically
consistent with or ethically acceptable for an attitude, action, idea or
feeling that arises from other motivating sources. Rationalization
disguises motives, rendering actions morally acceptable; and
g. Regression – returning to an earlier stage of development when on
experience stress. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by withdrawing from
realistic thinking into behaviors that have reduced anxiety in earlier years.
Tapping the Unconscious Mind
Freud employed the following methods to determine the contents of the
unconscious mind:
a. Free association – in conscious expressions, there are hints regarding
the contents of the unconscious mind that a trained observer could detect.
What is not spoken is as important as what is spoken. Topics which
patients offer strong resistance to provide the analyst with useful hints to
problem areas in the unconscious mind;
b. Dream analysis – dreams are camouflaged or disguised thoughts. The
manifest content of a dream is what it appears to be, while the latent
content is the underlying repressed thoughts that caused the dream. The
following are the forms of dream distortion: condensation (when a part of
something symbolizes the whole thing), synthesis (when an idea
contained in the manifest content is actually a combination of many ideas
in the latent content), and dislocation (displacement of unacceptable
ideas to something that is symbolically equivalent and acceptable). The
nature of dreams and the process of repression explain why the memory
of dreams is so short-lived.
c. Everyday life – Freud believed that all human behavior has a cause;
nothing happens simply by chance. Little mistakes such as lapses of
memory, provide information about the unconscious mind. Slips of the
tongue reveal unconscious motives. The main point of Freud is, “just
because a thought is repressed does not mean that it goes away; it is
always there striving for expression, and these manifestations in everyday
life are ways of getting a glimpse into the unconscious.”; and

7|P age
 d. Humor – humor allows expression of repressed thoughts in a socially
approved manner. For a joke to be funny, it must contain anxiety
provoking materials. We laugh only at the things that bother us. Most
often, sex, elimination and death are favorite topics. If you want to know
what has been repressed in a person’s mind, examine what he or she find
humorous.
Dynamics of Personality
Human behavior is primarily instinctive and motivated mainly by unconscious
mechanisms. Instincts are the driving forces behind personality. Its four
components are:
a. The source, where the need arises, may be a part of the whole body; a
deficiency of some kind;
b. The aim is to reduce the need until no more action is necessary; it is to
give the organism the satisfaction it now desires, thereby reestablishing
internal balance;
c. The impetus is the amount of energy, force, or pressure that is used to
satisfy or gratify the impulse, usually determined by the strength of
urgency of the underlying need; and
d. The object represents experiences or objects that reduce or remove body
deficiency. It refers to a thing, action or expression that allows satisfaction
of the original aim.
Freud assumed that normal and healthy mental and behavioral patterns are
achieved by reducing tension to previously acceptable levels. A person with a
need will continue seeking activities that can reduce an original tension. The
complete cycle of behavior from relaxation to tension to activity and back to
relaxation is called tension reduction model. Tensions are resolved by returning
the body to the level of equilibrium that existed before the tension arose. Many
thoughts and behavior, however, do not reduce tension; in fact, they create and
maintain tension, stress or anxiety. When this happens, it indicates that the direct
expression of an impulse has been redirected or blocked.
Freud noted two basic impulses which are the life instinct or Eros and the death
instinct or Thanatos. Each of these generalized impulses has a separate source
of energy. The libido is the psychic energy associated with the life instinct. Freud
believed that the libidinal energy is expended to prolong life. The death instinct
stimulates a person to return to the inorganic state the preceded life. The struggle
to satisfy the biological needs ceases. For Freud, the aim of all life is death. A
derivative of the death instinct is aggression, which is the need for self-destruction,
manifested outwardly through cruelty, suicide or murder.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of developmental
stages, and the experiences during these stages will determine his or her adult
personality characteristics. The adult personality is formed by the end of the 5 th
year of life. Each stage has a corresponding erogenous zone, which is the greatest
source of stimulation and pleasure during the stage. In order to make a smooth
transition from one psychosexual stage to the next, the child must neither be
overgratified nor undergratified because it can lead to fixation or regression. Freud
uses the term fixation to describe what occurs when a person does not progress
normally from stage to stage and remains overly involved with a particular stage.
That person will prefer to gratify his or her needs in simpler or more child like ways,
rather than in an adult mode that would result in normal development.
A. Pregenital Stage
1. Oral stage (1st year of life) – the erogenous zone is the mouth,
particularly the lips, tongue and later the teeth. Physical expressions
are sucking, biting and licking or smacking one’s lips, it is normal to
retain some interest in oral pleasures. It can be looked upon as

8|P age
 pathological if it is a dominant mode of gratification, that is, if the child
is excessively dependent on oral habits to relieve anxiety or tension.
2. Anal stage (2nd year of life) – the erogenous zone is the anus or
buttocks region. In the first part of this stage, pleasure is derived from
feces expulsion and fixation results in the lack of sphincter control or
enuresis. Symbolical acts are over generosity or wanting to give away
everything he or she owns. This is termed anal-explosive character.
In the later anal stage, pleasure comes from feces possession and
affection is manifested through constipation. Symbolic acts are
stinginess, orderliness and perfectionism. This is termed anal-
retentive character.
3. Phallic stage (3rd to the 5th year of life) – the erogenous zone is the
genital area. This is considered the most controversial stage. Both
female and male children develop strong positive feelings toward the
mother because she satisfied their needs, while the father is resented
because he is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention and affection.
This feeling will persist in male but will change in female children. The
male child will fear the father as he views him as his dominant rival.
The fear becomes a constriction anxiety, where the boy develops the
fear that he will lose his sex organ since it is assumed to be
responsible for the conflict between him and his father. The anxiety
causes a repression of sexual desire for the mother and hostility
towards the father. When he grows up, he will seek characteristics of
women like his mother’s. The female child discovers that she does
not possess a penis, holds the mother responsible and comes to hate
her for it. This is known as the electra complex. Her positive feelings
for her father are mixed with envy since he has something she does
not have. Freud term this penis envy. The only hope for a female child
is to have a baby boy.
The three stages – oral, anal and phallic – are considered by Freud
as the basic ingredients of the adult personality.
B. Latency stage – lower sexual energy and no live object, a time of relative
calm. For Freud, one’s personality is generally completed by this stage.
C. Genital stage – the final stage following puberty. This is the time when
the person emerges from the pre-genital stages as the adult he or she is
destined to become. Hopefully, the child has now been transformed from
a selfish, pleasure-seeking child to a realistic social adult with
heterosexual interests leading to marriage and child rearing. If the
experiences during the pre-genital stages caused fixations, it will be
manifested throughout one’s adult life. Only psychoanalysis could bring
out these repressed experiences and make the individual face them so
that their effects on one’s life may be reduced.
Contemporary Erikson’s View of Human Nature
Psychoanalytic or Erikson contends the study of the developing child beyond puberty, emphasizing
Ego Psychology that the ego continues to acquire new characteristics as it meets new situations in
(Erik Erikson) life. He selected the ego as the tool by which a person organizes outside
information, tests perception, selects memories, governs action adaptively and
integrates the capabilities of orientation and planning. This positive ego produces
a sense of self in a state of heightened wellbeing. This state of wellbeing is when
what one thinks and does is close to what one wishes and feels he or she ought
to be and do. The wishing and the “oughtness” form polarities in Erikson’s scheme.
Excessive and barbaric wishes pull at one end of the horizontal axis and the
internalized restrictions of parents and society pull at the other end. Erikson’s
super ego is as barbaric as the id. The traditional technique of releasing the
contents of the unconscious mind could do more harm than good. The main focus
should be in the ego. Strong ego is characterized by eight virtues resulting from

9|P age
the positive solution of each crisis in the eight stages of development. The
resolution of a crisis is reversible. For example, a person leaving the first stage of
development without developing basic trust may gain it a later stage, and a person
having it may lose it later.
Epigenetic Model of Human Development
Epigenetic development begins with a single fertilized cell that initiates a proves
of division and differentiation. The sequence of development from a single cell to
a complex organism follows a clear pattern and sequence. Each organ system of
the body has its own time of special growth and development. It follows a pre-
determined sequence. The strength and capacities developed at each stage are
related to the entire personality and can be affected at any point of one’s life.
These psychological capacities are affected most strongly during the stage in
which they are developing. Erikson stresses that each stage is systematically
related to all the others and must develop in a given sequence. Each stage has a
crisis in which the strength and skills that form the essential elements of that stage
was developed and tested. By crisis, Erikson means a turning point. Crises are
special times in an individual’s life- moments of decision between progress and
regression, integration and retardation. Each stage is a crisis in learning and
developing new skills and attitudes. The crisis may not seem dramatic or critical,
an observer will see only later that it was a major turning point that was reached
and passed.
Ego Psychology
Erikson gave the ego properties and needs of its own. The ego may have started
out in the service of the id but, in the process of serving it, developed its own
functions. For example, it is the ego’s job to organize one’s life and to assure
continuous harmony with one’s physical and social environment. This concept
emphasizes the influence of the ego in healthy growth and adjustment and as the
source of self-awareness and identity. Because Erikson stressed the autonomy of
the ego, his theory was called Ego Psychology.
Psycho-Social Development of Personality
1 ORAL SENSORY MODE (Infancy)
Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Birth – 1 year old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, hope emerges.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, fear/withdrawal emerges.”
Significant Relations: Mothering One
Infants develop a relative sense of trust and mistrust of the world around
them. Crucial to this development is experience with the mother. If the
mother is sensitive and responsive to her child, the infant’s sense of
security increases, and frustration due to hunger and discomfort is more
tolerated. According to Erikson, development of a strong sense of basic
trust implies not only that one has learned to rely on the sameness and
continuity of outer providers, but also that one may trust oneself and the
capacities of one’s own organs to cope with urges. A sense of trust
develops not so much from absolute quantities of food or demonstrations
of love from the quality of maternal care. Mothers who trust their ability to
care for their babies and trust in the healthy development of their children
are able to communicate to the infant the sense of trust in the self and the
world.
2 MUSCULAR ANAL MODE (Early Childhood)
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (2-3 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, self-control and will power emerges.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, self-doubt/compulsion emerges.”
Significant Relations: Parents

10 | P a g e
 This stage is concerned with muscular maturation and the accompanying
ability to hold on or to let go. The child interacts with the world by grasping
and dropping objects and in toilet training. The child begins to exert control
over him/herself and parts of the outside world. Holding on or letting go
have both positive and negative aspects. Letting go can be a release of
destructive forces or it can be a relaxed allowing, a “letting be”. A sense of
autonomy develops with the sense of free choice, a feeling of being able
to choose what to keep and what to reject. The infant’s basic faith in
existence is tested in sudden and stubborn wishes to choose. Example, to
grab demandingly or to eliminate inappropriately. Shame stems from a
sense of self-exposure, a feeling that one’s deficiencies are exposed to
others. It is associated with the first experience of standing upright – small
wobbly and powerless in an adult world. Doubt is closely related to the
consciousness of having a front and a back. Our front is the acceptable
face that we turn towards the world. The back part of the body cannot be
seen by the child. It is an unknown and unexplored territory and yet, at the
stage of toilet training, one’s backside can be dominated by the will of
others. Unless the split between front and back is reduced, the feelings of
autonomy will become tinged with doubt.
3 GENITAL-LOCOMOTOR MODE (Play Age)
Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, direction and purpose emerge.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of unworthiness emerge.”
Significant Relations: Family
At this stage, the child experiences mobility and inquisitiveness, an
expanding sense of mastery and responsibility. The child is eager to learn
and perform well. Language and imagination develop. The sense of
mastery is tempted by feelings of guilt. The new freedom and assertion of
power create anxiety. The child develops conscience, a parental model
that supports self-punishment. At this stage, the child can do more than
before and must learn to set limits.
4 LATENCY MODE (School Age)
Industry versus Inferiority (6-11 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, competence emerges.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, inferiority/inertia emerges.”
Significant Relations: Neighborhood and School
This stage is the beginning of life outside the family. In our culture, school
life begins here. This is a stage of systematic instruction, a movement from
play to a sense of work. The child needs to do well and develops a sense
of work completion and satisfaction in a job well done. Otherwise, the child
develops a sense of inferiority and inequality.
5 PUBERTY MODE (Adolescence)
Identity versus Identity Confusion (12-20 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, fidelity emerges.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, uncertainty/role repudiation
emerges”.
Significant Relations: Peer Groups
As childhood ends, adolescence begins. Former role models and
identifications are questioned and new roles are tried. A new sense of
identity develops, which includes integrating past identifications with
present impulses and aptitudes while developing skills with opportunities
offered by society and culture. This difficult transition from childhood to
adulthood can be strongly affected by social limitations and possibilities.
The adolescent is likely to suffer from sone confusion roles. Doubts about
sexual attractiveness and sexual identity are common at this stage. The

11 | P a g e
 inability to develop a sense of identification with an individual or cultural
role model that gives direction to one’s life can lead to a period of
floundering and insecurity. There is also the possibility of over
identification with youth culture heroes or clique leaders leading to a loss
of identity.
6 GENITALITY MODE (Young Adulthood)
Intimacy versus Isolation (20-24 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, the capacity for love emerges.
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, promiscuity/exclusivity emerges”.
Significant Relations: Sexual Partner and Friends
Only after a relatively firm sense of identity is developed are we capable
of committing to a partnership, an affiliation and an intimate relationship
with others. A critical commitment that generally occurs at this stage is
mutuality with a love partner. This level of intimacy is significantly different
from the earlier sexual exploration and intense search for sexual identity.
Without a sense of intimacy and commitment, one may become isolated
and be unable to sustain an intimate relationship. If one’s sense of identity
is weak and threatened by intimacy, the individual may turn away from or
attack the possibility of a relationship.
7 PROCREATIVITY MODE (Adulthood)
Generativity versus stagnation (25-65 years old)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, care emerges.
If the crisis unsuccessfully resolved, selfishness emerges.”
Significant Relations: Divided labor and shared household
Intimate commitment widens to a more general concern of guiding and
supporting the next generation. Generativity includes concern for our
children, and for the ideas and products that we have created. We are
teaching as well as learning human beings. Creations are important to
ensure the health and maintenance of ideals and principles. Otherwise,
we fall into a state of boredom and stagnation.
8 GENERALIZATION OF SENSUAL MODES (Old Age)
Ego Integrity versus Despair (65 years to death)
“If the crisis is successfully resolved, wisdom emerges,
If the crisis is unsuccessfully resolved, feelings of despair and
meaninglessness emerge”.
Significant Relations: All humanity
The sense of ego integrity includes the acceptance of a unique life cycle
with its triumphs and failures. It brings a sense of order and meaning to
the person and the world around him or her, as well as a new and different
love of parents. The sense of ego integrity includes an awareness of the
value of other lifestyles including those that are very different from one’s
own. Those who have a sense of integrity are ready to defend the dignity
of their lifestyles against criticisms and threats. Erikson formulated the
“golden rule” in the light of modern psychological understanding. He states
that worthwhile moral acts strengthen the doer as they strengthen his
values and enhance the relationship between the two. The therapist is
encouraged to develop as a practitioner and as a person, and to develop
the patient as a patient and as a person.
BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
Cognitive Piaget’s View of Development
Development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
(Jean Piaget) through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the
increasing sophistication of children's thought. Each child goes through the stages
in the same order, and child development is determined by biological maturation
and interaction with the environment. At each stage of development, the child’s

12 | P a g e
thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is, each stage involves
a different type of intelligence. Although no stage can be missed out, there are
individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and
some individuals may never attain the later stages. Piaget did not claim that a
particular stage was reached at a certain age - although descriptions of the stages
often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each
stage.
Schemas
Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience;
some initial structure is necessary to make sense of the world. According to
Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited
and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.
Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us
to form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema
as: "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that
are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning." In more simple terms
Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way
of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of
knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions,
and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts. Wadsworth (2004) suggests that
schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards' filed in the brain,
each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information. When
Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was
referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person
had learned. When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it
can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of
cognitive (i.e., mental) balance. Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in
cognitive development and described how they were developed or acquired. A
schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world,
which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is
that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.
Examples of Schemas
A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema
is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu,
ordering food, eating it and paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema
called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from
memory and apply it to the situation. The schemas Piaget described tend to be
simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how - as a child
gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate. Piaget
believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even
before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal
schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes
are genetically programmed into us. For example, babies have a sucking reflex,
which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple,
a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the
baby has a 'sucking schema.' Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when
something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a
baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate
schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping
and shaking.
The Process of Adaptation
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a
process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through
assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

13 | P a g e
Assimilation
Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into
existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and
understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information. This
means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this
information by referring to information you already have (information processed
and learned previously) and try to fit the new information into the information you
already have. For example, a 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of
his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler
shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
Accommodation
Psychologist Jean Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of
revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new
information can be incorporated. This happens when the existing schema
(knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object
or situation. In order to make sense of some new information, you actual adjust
information you already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for
this new information. For example, a child may have a schema for birds (feathers,
flying, etc.) and then they see a plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their
bird schema. In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the
man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t
wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With
this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make
this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with
contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we
seek 'equilibrium' in our cognitive structures. Equilibrium occurs when a child's
schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an
unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted
into existing schemas (assimilation). Piaget believed that cognitive development
did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is
the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and
will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new
schema will continue until the next time, we need to make an adjustment to it.

1 THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (Birth to 2 Years)

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant learns about the world through their senses and through
their actions (moving around and exploring its environment).

14 | P a g e
 • During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop.
These include: object permanence; self-recognition; deferred
imitation; and representational play.
• They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which
is the capacity to represent the world mentally
• At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of
objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them and
the infant will search for them when they disappear.
During this stage the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a
mental picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have
a sense of object permanence. If it cannot see something then it does not
exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant, while it watches, but it
will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight. The main
achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental
representation (i.e., a schema) of the object. Towards the end of this stage
the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in
their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language
starts to appear because they realize that words can be used to represent
objects and feelings. The child begins to be able to store information that
it knows about the world, recall it and label it.
2 THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2 - 7 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent
the world through language and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically.
This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object,
stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the
world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of
thought.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency
for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life
and feelings like a person.
By 2 years, children have made some progress towards detaching their
thought from physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or
'operational') thought characteristic of later stages. Thinking is still intuitive
(based on subjective judgements about situations) and egocentric
(centered on the child's own view of the world).
3 THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7 - 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete
events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation;
understanding that, although things may change in appearance,
certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture
a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to
think about how other people might think and feel.
The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much
more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or
pictures of them. Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning
point in the child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning
of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out

15 | P a g e
 internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real
world). Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight
(age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same
in quantity even though its appearance changes. But operational thought
only effective here if child asked to reason about materials that are
physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be
overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical
problems.
4 THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12 and Over)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal
operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is
entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no
longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to
understand division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in
terms of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible
solutions. E.g., if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished
in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many possible
consequences.
From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument
without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the ability
to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses. This stage
sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and
hypotheses when faced with a problem.

Operant View of Human Nature

Reinforcement Skinner concentrated on the relationship between environmental events and
Theory behavior. Skinner refers to behavior elicited or emitted by a known stimulus as
(Burrhus Skinner) respondent behavior, and all conditioned and unconditioned responses are
examples. He believes that behavior can be explained and controlled purely by
the manipulation of the environment that contains the behaving organism, and that
there is no need to take the organism a part or make any inferences about the
events that are going on inside the organism.
Structure of Personality
Skinner has shown the greatest indifference to structural variables. He instead
focused on modifiable behavior and de-emphasized the biological or genetic
determinants. A key concept in Skinner’s system is the process of operant
conditioning, simply stated as, “if the occurrence of the operant is followed by the
presentation of reinforcing stimulus, the strength is increased”. In other words, if
a response is followed by a reward, the response will be strengthened or if you
want to strengthen a certain response of a behavior pattern, reward it. A reinforcer,
positive or negative, always increases the operant response rate. A punishment
does the reverse. Skinner believes that personality is but a collection of behavior
patterns, and that the development of personality is but the development of these
behavior patterns.

Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, the best way to teach a complex skill is to divide it into its
basic components and gradually shape it one small step at a time. The shaping
process has two components: (1) the differential reinforcement, which means that
some responses are reinforced and some are not; and (2) the successive
approximation, which means that some responses are reinforced successively

16 | P a g e
 and some are not. The successive approximations that are reinforced are those
that come increasingly closer to the response ultimately desired. Shaping is a
process in which reinforcement is used to create new responses out of the old
ones. An experimenter can use this method to teach someone to do something
which he or she have never done before by immediately rewarding any action that
brings one to do the desired response. Operant conditioning occurs when an
organism’s spontaneous activities are either reinforced or punished. Any
consequence that increases the likelihood of a response is termed as a
reinforcement. Extinction of a response occurs when it is no longer rewarded or
reinforced. Different schedules or a reinforcement produce different patterns of
behavior. When reinforcement depends on a number of responses (ratio
schedule), the organism will tend to pause after a reward; if the reinforcement
appears irregularly (variable schedule), the organism will keep going at a steady
state.
Schedules of Reinforcement
a. Fixed Ratio Schedule – the organism is reinforced intermittently
according to the number of responses it makes. Ratio refers to the ratio
of responses to reinforcers. An experimenter may decide to reward a
pigeon with a grain pellet for every fifth peck it makes at a disc. The pigeon
is then conditioned at a fixed-ratio schedule of 5 to 1, that is, FR 5.
b. Variable-Ratio Schedule – the organism is reinforced after every nth
response. With the variable-ratio schedule, it is reinforced after the nth
response on the average. Again, training must start with continuous
reinforcement, proceed to a low response number, and then increase to
a higher rate of response. A pigeon rewarded every third response on the
average can build to a VR 6 schedule, the VR 10, and so on; but the mean
number of responses must be increased gradually to prevent extinction.
After a high mean is reached, say VT 500, responses become extremely
resistant to extinction.
c. Fixed-Interval Schedule - the organism is reinforced for the first
response following a designated period of time. For example, FI 5
indicates that the organism is rewarded for its first response after every 5-
minute interval.
d. Variable-Interval Schedule – the organism is reinforced after the lapse
of random or varied period of time. For example, VI 5 means that the
organism is reinforced following random-length intervals that average 5
minutes.
HUMANISTIC THEORIES
Humanistic View of Human Nature
Psychology Maslow advocated a holistic analytic approach to study the total person. It should
(Abraham emphasize the positive qualities of human beings. His theory is concerned with
Maslow) growth motivation, which can be gained through self-actualization. Human nature
consists of a number of instinctual (innate but weak) needs that are arranged in
hierarchy according to their potency. Self-actualizing individuals are no longer
motivated by deficiencies (D Motivation); they are motivated by being values (B
Motivation; B values are also called metamotives. D motivation is called D
perception or D cognition. Maslow believed that there is basic goodness in human
nature and a natural tendency toward self-actualization.
Self-actualizing people exhibit the following characteristics:
a. They perceive reality accurately and fully;
b. They demonstrate a greater acceptance of themselves, others and nature
in general;
c. They exhibit spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness;
d. They tend to be concerned with the problems rather than with themselves;
e. They have a quality of detachment and the need for privacy; and

17 | P a g e
 f. They are autonomous, and therefore tend to be independent of their
environment and culture.
Hierarchy of Needs
Growth towards self-actualization requires the satisfaction of the hierarchy of
needs. In Maslow’s Theory, there are five basic needs. The base of the hierarchy
is more basic needs relative to those above them.
1. Physiological Needs – food, clothing, shelter and sleep
2. Safety Needs – security, protection, stability, freedom from fear and
anxiety and the need for structure and limits.
3. Love and Belongingness – need for family and friends, relationships and
being part of the group.
4. Esteem Needs – refer to the reaction of others towards the individual,
how one views him/herself, and the need for a favorable judgement.
5. Need for Self-Actualization – the tendency, in spite of the lower needs
being satisfied, to feel restless unless we are doing what we think we are
capable of doing.
Self-Theory or Structure of Personality
Person-Centered The principal conceptual framework of Roger’s theory revolves around:
Theory 1. The organism, which is the total organism. It is the focus of experience
(Carl Rogers) that includes everything potentially available to awareness. The organism
has one basic tendency – it is striving to actualize, maintain and enhance
the experiencing organism. It possesses the following properties;
a. It reacts as an organized whole to the phenomenal field in order to
satisfy its needs;
b. It has one basic motive – to strive to actualize, maintain and enhance
itself; and
c. It can symbolize its experiences so that it becomes conscious; it may
deny symbolization so that this remains unconscious, or it may ignore
its experiences.
2. The phenomenological field, which is the totality of experience. It is
perceptually, is “reality” accepted by the individual’s perceptual system.
Hence, the best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the
internal frame of reference of the individual him/herself; and
3. The self, which is a differentiated portion of the phenomenological field,
consists of a pattern of conscious perceptions and values of the “I” or
“me”. Parental influence is essential at this stage of structuring the self.
The ultimate goal – to be a fully functioning person
Rogers believes that the ultimate goal of each human being is to be a fully
functioning person. It is a process in which the individual is constantly pursuing
his or her actualizing tendency and at the same time behaving in a manner that is
true to the self. Individuals, not limited by conditions of worth, perform behavior
that they believe are appropriate on the basis of their experiences. They are willing
to accept the pain and anxiety that may accompany their unwillingness to act in a
manner inconsistent with the expectations of their significant others.
Characteristics of a fully functioning person
1. Open to experiences
2. Existential living
3. Self-trust
4. Sense of freedom
5. Creativity
The Actualizing Tendency
It is an inherent tendency or the organism to develop all its capacities in ways that
serve to maintain or enhance the organism. It involves development toward the
differentiation of organs and functions, expansion in terms of growth, effectiveness

18 | P a g e
through the use of tools, and expansion and enhancement through reproduction.
It is development towards autonomy and away from heteronomy or control by
external forces. For Rogers, all human beings as well as other living organisms
have an innate need to survive, grow and enhance themselves. All biological
drivers are under the actualizing tendency. The organism must be satisfied for it
to continue its positive growth. This “forward thrust of life” continues in spite of
many obstacles. For Rogers, human beings are basically good and therefore need
no controlling. It is the attempt to control human beings that make them “act” bad”.
All experiences are evaluated using the actualizing tendency as a frame of
reference. Experiences which are in accordance with the actualizing tendency and
which are satisfying are therefore used and maintained. Experiences which are
contrary to the actualizing tendency and are unsatisfying are avoided and
terminated. The organismic valuing process creates a feedback system that
allows the organism to coordinate its experiences towards self-actualization. The
tendency towards self-actualization is not simply a motive among many others.
This basic actualizing tendency is the only motive in the system.
The actualizing tendency, the driving force of life, makes the individual become
more differentiated (complex), more independent and more socially responsible.
The development of the self is the major manifestation of the actualizing tendency
that inclines the organism towards greater differentiation or complexity. The
actualizing tendency prior to the development of the self that characterize the
organism as a whole now characterizes the self as well. In other words, those
experiences seen as enhancing one’s self concept are positively valued, while
those seen as detrimental to the self-concept are negatively valued.
Charting the development of the self starts with examining the characteristics and
experiences of infants. During this stage, differentiating parts of experiences
begins and labeled as the “I” or “Me”. It is this differentiation of his or her interaction
with the environment and that which results in the development of a self-concept.
The most important part of the infant’s environment in terms of the development
of the self concerns the significant others in his or her life. These significant others
are usually the parents who are responsible for satisfying the physiological needs
of the infant, and thus enabling the expression of his or her actualizing tendency.
As the infant develops and the self begins to emerge, the importance of the
parents and other significant individuals increases. During this time, infants
develop a need for positive regard. This is the need to be loved and accepted by
those who are important to them. As behavior becomes more intentional, the need
for self-regard developed. At this stage, aside from the positive regards of others
towards the child, he or she also wants to feel positive about him/herself. The
needs of positive regard and self-regard are generally easily satisfied for the
young child because little is expected of him or her. As the child approaches the
toddler stage, the significant others begin to expect more of him. Warmth and
affection are sometimes given only upon demonstration of pleasing behavior. In
this situation, the child is developing conditional self-regard in which the child’s
view of him/herself mirrors the attitudes of the significant others. The child views
him/herself positively only in situations where a series of conditions, established
by his or her significant others, have been successfully met. In many cases, the
child becomes excessively concerned with performing behaviors that are
consistent with his or her conditions of worth. This can lead the child to deny
experiences which are important to the development of the self but are contrary
to his or her conditions of worth. In this case, the child is said to be in a state of
incongruence, which in essence means that the child has not been true to
his/herself. The only way not to interfere with a child’s actualizing tendencies is to
give unconditional positive regard. This will allow children to experience positive
regard for whatever they do.

19 | P a g e
Theoretically, conditions of worth and subsequent state of incongruence do not
have to occur. It is possible that, in place of conditional positive regard, the child
will develop a feeling of unconditional positive regard in which the child feels loved
and respected regardless of individual behavior. Congruence or consistency
between the self and experience is said to exist the best when unconditional
positive regard to a child enables the free express of his or her actualizing
tendency and becomes a growth motivated person.
Properties of the self
The concept of the self has become the cornerstone of Rogers’ theory. That is
why his theory of personality is often labeled “self-theory”. The properties of self
include the following:
a. It develops out of the organism’s interaction with the environment;
b. It may introject the values of other people and perceive them in a distorted
fashion;
c. The self strives for consistency;
d. The organism behaves in ways that are consistent with the self;
e. Experiences that are not consistent with the self-structure are perceived
as threats; and
f. The self may change as a result of maturation and learning.
Incongruency arise when individuals are no longer using their organismic valuing
process as a means of determining whether or not these experiences are in
accordance with their actualizing tendency. If people do not use their own valuing
process for evaluating their experiences, then they must be using someone else’s
introjected values or someone else’s conditions of worth.
Rogers summarized the development of incongruence between the self and
experience as follows:
1. When conditions of worth develop, people respond to their experiences
selectively. Experiences that are in accordance with a person’s conditions
of worth are perceived and symbolized accurately in awareness.
Experiences which are not in accordance with a person’s conditions of
worth are distorted and are denied awareness;
2. After conditions of worth develop, people must edit out their awareness of
experiences that are contrary to those conditions. Thus, the self is denied
experiences that may beneficial to it; and
3. Selective perceptions create an incongruence between the self and
experience because certain experiences that are conducive to positive
growth may be distorted or denied. When incongruence between self and
experience exists, people are vulnerable and psychological
maladjustment may result.
Rogers views incongruence as the cause of all human adjustment problems.
When an incongruency exists between self and experience, the person is by
definition maladjusted. The person becomes vulnerable to anxiety and threat and
is therefore defensive. Anxiety results when people “subconceive” an experience
as being incompatible with their self-structure and its introjected conditions of
worth. According to Roger, the process of defense consists of editing experiences
via the mechanism of denial and distortion to keep them in accordance with the
self-structure.
Client-Centered
Like Freud and Kelly, Rogers’ notions of personality came from his therapeutic
practice. Therapy has always been most important to Rogers. His personality
theory developed as he tried to become more effective as a therapist and
comprehend the principles that were operative during the therapeutic process.
Through the years of his practice, Roger’s definition of therapeutic process
changed. First, he referred to his approach to therapy as nondirective, which

20 | P a g e
emphasized the client’s ability to solve their own problems if they were given the
proper atmosphere for doing so. Later, Rogers labeled his technique client-
centered therapy, where he regarded therapy as a joint venture deeply involving
both client and therapist. Aside from providing an atmosphere in which the client
could gradually see more clearly the nature of their problems, the therapist should
attempt to understand the client’s phenomenological field or internal frame of
reference. Rogers’ current notion of the therapeutic process is labeled person-
centered, where therapy extends treatment beyond the therapeutic process.
Rogers felt that it is the applicability of the therapy which is more important, the
emphasis is on the total person rather than looking at a person as merely a client
or student. Although there were changes in Rogers’ definitions, some components
of his theories remained constant. These are: (1) the importance of the actualizing
tendency; (2) the importance of the organismic valuing process as a frame of
reference in life; and (3) the importance of unconditional positive regard in allowing
a person to live a rich and full life. The process of therapy brings clients closer to
using their own organismic valuing process in living their lives. Rogers describes
what he hopes his client will be as the result of therapy: “He will be, in a more
unified fashion, what he organismically is, and this seems to be the essence false
front door, the masks, or the roles with which he has faced life. He appears to be
trying to discover something more basic, something more truly himself”. Therapy
is designed to eliminate incongruity between experience and the self. When the
person is living in accordance with his or her organismic valuing process rather
than conditions of worth, defense of denial and distortion is no longer needed and
the individual can be called a fully functioning person.

21 | P a g e
THE FILIPINO FAMILY
Definition of Family
The family plays a very important role in the life of any nation. It is the basic or most
fundamental unit in any society. Universal Declaration of Human Rights declared that, “The family
is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and
the State.” (Article 16, 3).
Murdock (1949) gave the following definition of the family:
“… a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and
reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, owned or adopted,
of the sexually cohabiting adults.”
Article II, Section l2 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution asserted that the "State recognizes
the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social
institution". Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution pointed out that "the state recognizes the
Filipino family as the foundation of the nation ... it shall strengthen its solidarity and actively
promote its total development". Further, marriage as an inviolable social institution and the
foundation of the family was emphasized in Article XV. Moreover, Article 147 of the Family Code
of the Philippines stated that:
“The family, being the foundation of the nation, is a basic social institution which
public policy cherishes and protects. Consequently, family relations are governed
by law and no custom, practice or agreement destructive of the family shall be
recognized or given effect. (216a, 218a)”
Article 150 of the same law states that family relations include those: (1) Between husband
and wife; (2) Between parents and children; (3) Among brothers and sisters, whether of the full or
half-blood. (217a).
It has been frequently stated that the Filipino family in the past was patriarchal in form and
characteristic and the absolute authority of the father is still viewed as a representative feature of
the Filipino family. The predominating influence of the man over woman is characteristically
Oriental while the growing acceptance today of equality of man and woman is typically Occidental.
Characteristics of the Family
The family has certain unique characteristics summed up in the following:
1. The family is a social group that is universally recognized and is a significant element in
every individual’s life. As Murdock put it, “The family exists because there is no other social
unit which can fulfill its vital functions in and for the society;
2. The family is the most basic autonomous unit in any given society and the first social group
the individual is exposed to;
3. Family contact and relationships are repetitive and continuous. They extend over a long
period of time, often a lifetime. It is said that the individual’s earliest and longest experience
in living takes place in a family setting;
4. The family is a very close and intimate group. This is very true to Filipinos and other Asian
families, where family ties among members are close;

22 | P a g e
 5. It is the setting of the most intense emotional experiences during the lifetime of an
individual – birth, childhood, puberty, adolescence, marriage and death. Thus, the family’s
influence on personality and character is significant and pervasive;
6. The family affects the individual’s social values, disposition, and outlook in life. The family
is the source of the individual’s ideals, aspirations, and basic motivations in life;
7. The family has the unique position of serving as a link between the individual and the
larger society. It is through the family’s functions of reproduction, biological and
psychological support, and training for social participation and citizenship that society is
able to elicit contribution from an individual; and
8. The family is also unique in providing continuity of social life. It is the meeting ground of
generations not only in terms of biological traits but also socio-cultural heritage. The family
is the major agent of transmitting culture. This means that cultural traditions are handed
down from generation to generation through socialization of family members.
Contemporary Filipino Family
Filipino families by culture are known to be closely knitted and centered on good and deep
relationships among its members. The Filipino family is the center of the Philippine social structure
and includes the nuclear family, aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such
as godparents, sponsors, and close family friends (Villareal, 2018). Even though series of
colonization and ongoing distraction to Filipino culture and traditions are perennial—as evident to
the colonial mentality observed in various sectors and medias specifically, Filipino families remain
strong and solid in general. This does not safeguard them from certain familial problems that are
both external and internal in nature. Societal and familial distresses may inevitably develop both
from within (intrafamilial) and without (extrafamilial) the family system (Masanda, 2019) which
may negatively impact its dynamics and equilibrium.
Socio-Cultural Factors Influencing the Filipino Family
Family Patterns and Changing Roles - Types of Family Structure
1. According to organization, structure and membership
a. Nuclear Family – this is also known as the primary or elementary family. It is
composed of a husband (father), his wife (mother), and their children in the union
recognized by the society. Any individual belongs to two kinds of families: family of
orientation and family of procreation. The family of orientation is that into which one is
born, and where one is reared and socialized. On the other hand, the family oof
procreation is that established by the person through marriage.
b. Extended Family – this is composed of two or more nuclear families related to each
other economically and socially. Two types of families may be derived from this
classification:
i. Conjugal Family – this classification stresses on the marriage bond, which is
the couple and their children while relatives are comparatively less of
unimportant.
ii. Consanguineal Family – this classification, on the other hand, puts stress on
the nucleus of blood relatives, the blood kin, than the couple.
2. According to place of residence
a. Patrilocal Family – it requires that the newly married couple live with the family of the
bridegroom or near the residence of the parents of the bridegroom.

23 | P a g e
 b. Matrilocal Family – it requires that the newlywed couple live with or near the
residence of the bride’s parents.
c. Bilocal Family – it provides the newlywed couple the freedom to select where to
reside, that is near the groom’s or the bride’s parents.
d. Neolocal Family – it permits the newlywed couple to reside independently of their
parents. They can decide on their own as far as their residence is concerned.
e. Avunculocal Family – it prescribes that the newlywed couple resides with or near the
maternal uncle of the groom.
In the Philippines, the place of residence is influenced by the close ties prevailing among
family members, economic dependence of children on their parents, ownership of property, or
parent’s decision.
3. According to descent
a. Patrilineal Descent – it affiliates a person with a group of relatives related to him/her
through his/her father. The child is also related to his/her mother’s kin, but in terms of
closeness, he/she turns to his/her father’s kin.
b. Matrilineal Descent – it affiliates a person with a group of kinsmen related to him/her
through the mother.
c. Bilateral Descent – it affiliates a person with a group of kinsmen related to him/her
through both the father and mother.
4. According to authority
a. Patriarchal Family – one in which authority is vested in the oldest male member, often
the father or grandfather, or in the absence of parents, on the oldest male member.
This is characterized by family solidarity and ancestor worship. The double standard
of morality exists.
b. Matriarchal Family – one in which authority is vested in the elder of the mother’s kin.
This is rarely found in societies. However, many societies have the mother dominating
the household.
c. Equalitarian Family – one where the husband and wife exercise a more or less equal
amount of authority.
d. Matricentric Family – one where the absence of the father who may be working gives
the mother a dominant position in the family. This type of family is prevalent in the
suburbs. However, the father shares with the mother in terms of decision-making.
5. According to terms of marriage
a. Monogamy – it allows a man to have only one wife at a time
b. Polygamy – it is plural marriage. It has many forms: polygyny (one man marrying two
or more women at a time), polyandry (one woman marrying two or more men at the
same time), and group marriage (marriage of several men and several women at a
time).
6. Variations in the Family structures
a. Two-parent married couple families
b. One-parent family (solo parents)
c. Step families
d. Cohabiting couple
e. Gay and Lesbian couples
f. Single persons

24 | P a g e
Family Patterns and Changing Roles – Functions of the Family
1. Sexual Regulation – the family regulates the sexual behavior of people in any given
society. Through marriage, sexual intercourse is sanctioned by society.
2. Biological Regulation – all societies need to reproduce their members. For any society
to survive from one generation to the next, it must have arrangement for replacing its
members. This function is done by the family and cannot be undertaken by any other
social institution.
3. Organizing, Production and Consumption – in pre-industrial and agricultural societies,
the family is the basic and the main economic system. It defines production and
consumption with its surplus extended into trade of some kind. The family produces its
own food and ensures its own survival over a prolonged period of time. For this reason,
even as an economy evolves, a society’s economic system and family structures tend to
be closely correlated.
4. Socializing Children – the family is responsible not only for producing children but also
for ensuring that their children are encouraged to accept the lifestyle it favors, to master
the skills it values, and to perform the work it requires. The society provides predictable
social contexts within which their children are to be socialized. The family provides such
a context almost universally, at least during the period when the infant is dependent on
the constant attention of others.
5. Providing Emotional Intimacy and Support – in most societies, the family serves as the
primary group for its members, giving individuals a sense of security, belonging, and
personal worth.
6. Providing Care and Attention – every human being needs food and shelter. He/she
needs people who will care for him/her emotionally to help him/her with the problems that
arise in daily life, and back him/her up whenever he/she comes into conflict with others.
7. Providing Social Status – since every individual is born into a family, each individual
inherits both material goods and a socially recognized position defined by ascribed
statuses. These statuses include social class or caste membership or ethnic identity.
One’s inherited, social position or family background is probably the important social
factors affecting the predictable course of our lives.
8. Providing Mechanism for Social Control – the family continually exerts pressure on its
members to make them conform to what it considers as desirable behavior. To maintain
the good name of the family, the family has to keep its members within bounds in the
various aspects of living – relationships with their fellowmen, morality, control of sex
drives, human relations, and other aspects.
9. Serves as the Individual’s First and Foremost School Where Every Child Learns the
Basic Lessons in Life – as such, the parents serve as the real and foremost teachers
performing a very vital role in the child’s development and formation. It is in the family
where basic values are learned from the parents.
10. Providing Maintenance of Order – the family provides every member with a
maintenance order. It provides means of communication, establishes types of intensity of
interaction, patterns of attention and affection, and sexual expression. It administers
sanctions ensuring conformity to group norms.
11. Providing Placement of Members in the Larger Society – it prepares the community,
the church, the school, and other organizations. It protects members from any undesirable
outside influence.

25 | P a g e
 12. Maintaining Motivation and Morale – it rewards members for achievements; satisfies
individual needs for acceptance, encouragement, and affection; meets personal and
family crises; refines a philosophy of life; and gives a sense of family loyalty through rituals
and festivities.
Cultural Variables
1. Folkways – those types of behavior that are organized and repetitive. The group way of
doing things in a common manner are called customs. The folkways of a group are the
behavior patterns of everyday life. Changes and additions gradually are made for folkways
adapt themselves to the conditions of life of each generation.
2. Mores – special folkways which involve moral or ethical values since they involve respect
for authority, marriage and sex behavior patterns, religious rituals and other basic codes
of human behavior.
3. Folklore – traditional customs, beliefs, dances, songs, tales or saying preserved orally
and unreflectively among a group or people.
4. Customs – distinctive styles and prevailing fashions, characteristic of any period, country,
class, occupation or occasion.
5. Language – the special manner or characteristic mode of expression significant for
human intercourse.
6. Values – according to R.J. Williams, refers to any aspect of a situation, event or object
that is invested with preferential interest as being good, desirable and the like. It may be
classified as personal (individual) or social (group). Functions of values include:
a. Being a criterion of choice, which allows economy of human energy
b. Giving direction to interest and attention
c. Serving as referent of social function and sanction
The following are the Filipino Family Values based on a research paper by Fr. Jaime
Bulatao:
a. Emotional closeness and security in a family - the family is seen as having a double
function. First, it provides an outlet for the need of a person to get out of himself and
come into contact with another person in a free and unguarded emotional exchange.
Second, it provides understanding, acceptance, a place where, no matter how far or
how wrongly one has wandered, he can always return. The family is seen as a defense
against a potentially hostile world, as insurance against hunger and old age, as a place
where one can be oneself without having to worry too much about maintaining "smooth
interpersonal relations," or SIR (Lynch 1970), with outsiders.
b. The authority value - this may be defined as: "Approval by the authority figure and by
society, authority's surrogate." It is a concern for what the important person is thinking
about oneself and a tendency to shape one's behavior accordingly. There is a fear of
stirring up conflict with "people who count," this fear giving rise to a need for smooth
interpersonal relations. One does not reveal one's real thoughts completely to
strangers, foreigners, or powerful individuals, but only those aspects of one's thoughts
which will be acceptable to them. Fundamentally, the fear is that of exposing one's ego
to danger. Underlying this value is the anxiety of a "self-esteem based on group
estimation." Attack upon this value, as when an authority figure fails to recognize a
person's merit or treats a person casually, is a wound to the amor propio and may
result in violent retaliation.

26 | P a g e
 c. Economic and social betterment - it appears most often as a desire to raise the
standard of living of one's family, or of one's hometown, often as repayment for one's
debt of gratitude to parents and relatives. Usually, it is merely sufficiency or else
economic security that one is after. More rarely, the value is expressed as a desire for
individual success, to make good in one's career. Sometimes one wants to do well in
order to repay the parents' sacrifices; at other times there is no mention of the family.
d. Patience, suffering, endurance - it is this value which has become fused with the
religious value, since it seems that God is called upon when other means fail. It is
associated with women more than with men. Sometimes this value appears with a
certain magical quality about it as if one were to render oneself worthy of divine
blessing simply by being patient and long-suffering.
Physical Factors Influencing the Filipino Family
Environmental Changes
The environmental changes that affect the Filipino Family. These include: (1)
environmental pollution; (2) space relationships; (3) denudation of forest areas resulting in the
destruction of trees and humus in the forest; (4) transformation of rural areas into urban centers
leading to population congestion resulting in health, social, educational, problems, etc.; and (5)
automation and structural employment
Despite having a low level of public awareness on climate change, most Filipinos were
concerned of the effects of climate change on their health, among other potential impacts. This
was according to a research published by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative (HHI) on 20 October
2020. HHI’s study showed that nationwide, 71% of Filipinos believed that they would be at least
“somewhat affected” by climate change. Among them, 46% reported that they would likely get
harmed, injured, or ill due to climate change. Among the 17 regions of the Philippines, those living
in the National Capital Region (70%) were the people most concerned with contracting an illness
or getting harmed as an effect of climate change. Aside from health issues, other potential impacts
reported by the respondents were loss of income (22%); damage to crops (20%); damage to
house and property (19%); and infeasibility of farming and change of livelihoods (18%). Those
living in Davao (57%) were particularly concerned about the impact of climate change on their
household income. Those living in Eastern Visayas, meanwhile, were most concerned with the
impact on farming (40%) and on their houses (41%).
Overall, HHI’s study has found a low level of public awareness about climate change
among Filipinos. At the national average, most respondents had not heard of and did not feel
well-informed about climate change (60%), and only 12% of respondents had heard a lot or felt
“extremely well-informed” about it (12%). Bicol stood out as the region with the highest percentage
of people who never heard of climate change (38%). Awareness of climate change varied
regionally, ranging from 3% in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Regional in Muslim Mindanao
(BARMM), to 24% in Caraga reporting high or very high knowledge. Similarly, low or very low
knowledge were reported from 45% in Caraga, to 72% in Bicol. Inhabitants of Zamboanga and
BARMM reported the lowest levels of knowledge with 70% and 71%, respectively, reporting low
or very low levels of knowledge about climate change.
Across the country, roughly half (47%) of respondents believed that climate change was
due to both natural and human factors. Roughly a third (32%) believed climate change to be solely
due to human activity, and a fifth (20%) believed climate change was purely due to natural

27 | P a g e
processes. Most or 42% agreed that the disasters they had experienced were due to climate
change. However, many also disagreed. 47% of those living in Zamboanga Peninsula, for
instance, strongly disagreed that climate change was linked to disasters. Respondents believed
that the top consequences of climate change were: increased temperature (46%); shifting of
seasons (42%); and heavier rains (23%). They also reported that the following changes in the
environment over the past 30 years might worsen the effects of disasters: deforestation (21%);
increased poverty (13%); poor waste disposal (12%); increased population (11%); and worse
infrastructure (5%). Deforestation was ranked extremely highly in certain regions, including Davao
(45%); Zamboanga Peninsula (42%); Western Visayas (40%); MIMAROPA (32%); and Caraga
(36%). 18% of those living in Zamboanga Peninsula also highlighted mangrove degradation as a
factor contributing to the intensified impact of disasters.
Overall, this research by HHI examined and explored various dimensions and factors
contributing to the association between climate change perception and disaster preparedness,
including socio-demographics, impact of disasters, knowledge of climate change, and risk
perception. The study found that Filipinos who perceive climate-related changes as directly
impacting their households reported taking greater action to prepare for disasters. Filipinos who
believe they have been directly impacted by climate-related changes are also more likely to
prepare for disasters, take planning actions, and undertake material actions to prepare, such as
improvements in the household.
Ecology
The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their
environment especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development
and structure, interaction between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions and
populations. The problems arising from the politics of ecology include:
1. The concept of life as intrinsically good and death as intrinsically bad. The result of an
imbalance between birth and death rates, thus accelerating human numbers as the
inevitable consequence.
2. The rapid rate of population increase would not enhance industrialization which might
lead to underdevelopment.
3. The contraceptive revolution has had as yet no effect upon the family life of the people
in underdeveloped countries.
4. Birth control is expensive and involves the whole adult population.
5. To persuade men and women to abandon their traditional views of sexual morality is
a huge and difficult task.
6. Poverty, combined with ignorance, breeds that lack of desire for better things
(wantlessness), hence the resigned acceptance of a subhuman plot.
Population Explosion
The problem of overpopulation inevitably arises in connection with every approach to the
analysis of our civilization and its prospects – emphasis on quantity rather quality; the question of
economic stability; the specter of war; the equally terrifying specter of universal starvation. Nature
left to herself works out a balance of population adjusted to the available space and food supply
but it may be disturbed and then destroyed by what might appear to be the very slight intervention
of man. The factors to be considered in the study of family planning and population control are
the following:

28 | P a g e
 1. Consequences of fertility on health, child development, family income, housing and
interpersonal relationships;
2. Effect on economy, air and water resources, human services;
3. Education;
4. Political factors;
5. Emigration and immigration;
6. Impact of fertility on society and people;
7. Need for new values and behaviors; and
8. Role of social worker.
Industrialization/Modernization
The global community today is experiencing a comprehensive process of modernization
and change at a rapid scale. The changes are so complex and often resist categorization, from
rapid improvement in transportation such as fast trains and instant and affordable communication
modes to growing recognition and defense of human rights. There is a spread of technical
rationality, cultural globalization, social and instant media, the digital age, the Internet, economic
efficiency, artificial reproductive technology, a growing separation of work and family, sex and
marriage, reproduction and marriage, and reproduction and parenting, increased divorce rates,
non-marriage and live-in partner arrangements, advocacy for same sex marriage, and other
concomitant features of modernization which are radicalizing the social and ecological landscape
of the urbanization and industrialization. All these trends are changing the family.
Industrialization is a process where production is done not by human or animal power but
by technological and power-driven machinery. These changes in modes of production and means
of livelihood also result in to change in the family structure and family relations. Each member of
the family tends to be hooked directly into the external means rather than relying on the family
itself to realize personal needs. The entire kin altruism, attachments and investments that
members of the biologically related family provide each other, becomes diluted.
Modernization, urbanization and industrialization consequently affect the family in
considerable ways:
1. There is favorable attitude toward working wives and mothers;
2. The technological advancement and the transfer of production function from the family
to the factory of the industry have opened new avenues for female employment with
increasing number of female workers and employees sharing roles with men in equal
proportions;
3. The employment of wives affects the structure of the family, transforming the role of
the family management and house chores, becoming gender neutral;
4. Decline in the authority of husband and father. This happens since the working man
or husband may always be away from home due to his work outside;
5. Decline in the family’s influence on the individual. The growth of industrialization has
taught individuals other skills not acquired in the family. Problems used to be handled
by the family are now handled by outside agencies;
6. More permissive forms norms and behavior. This happens because of the influence
of outside forces, particularly in city life where there is much anonymity; and
7. Breakdown of the consanguineal family as a functional unit. This happens as the
community becomes more and more metropolitan/urbanized.

29 | P a g e
Courtship and Marriage
Courtship is a social process engaged in by two individuals. It is a form of behavior seeking
to win the consent of another for marriage. It is a progressive commitment leading to a succession
of event towards the development of stable interpersonal relationships. Most significant is the
development of love and affection. Courtship is a process which undergoes various stages:
1. Dating – getting acquainted
2. Going Steady – practice of dating one person exclusively
3. Private Understanding – open declaration of each other’s desire for marriage
4. Engagement – public announcement of love involving parents, relatives and friends.
Marriage and Human Sexuality
It is a socially sanctioned union of a man and woman with the expectation that they will
assure the role of husband and wife. It is a social and legal norm by which the relationship of the
two sexes is controlled and restricted by society. Though considered a private affair, it involves
public sanction as well as systematic social control. The role of husband and wife in marital
adjustments are:
1. Understanding of each other’s personality and behavior;
2. Recognition of individual private worlds;
3. Communication; and
4. Obligation of fidelity.
Culture colors the love relationship. It provides the terms in which love may be expressed.
But mature affection in wedlock has much in common in all times, places, and even social classes.
It is a sense of interdependence of having a refuge in one another and of being able to find identity
and worth in one another. Once sex is placed in a friendly perspective between mates, it serves
as a powerful solvent of controversy. Marriages with sexual incompatibility may continue if they
are based on personal or social expediency rather than love. Sex is a biological phenomenon –
and is so related to the whole human psyche that it cannot be understood in isolation from the
evolving human individual fully considered. Love, regardless of how ethereal it may appear, is so
intimately to all of life that it cannot be considered meaningfully as an abstraction. While sex and
love are not identical, they are forever intertwined and understandable only when so interrelated.
Human sexuality does not only mean sex. Sex is just one aspect of human sexuality.
Human sexuality is a way of life, not just something that one has. To be human is to be sexual,
and to be sexual is to be human. Sexual here means everything that makes a man a man, and a
woman a woman. Therefore, one’s sexuality pervades all areas of his or her life – way of thinking,
acting, loving and receiving love, approaching and relating to God and people, religious
experiences. When taken in this sense, it can be said that one’s fulfillment as a person is taken
as tantamount to fulfillment of one’s sexuality. Therefore, in any stage and state of life, one’s
sexuality is an integral part of that life. It is his or her way of life. One has to be confident and
comfortable with one’s sexuality before he can successfully accept and relate to the opposite sex.
Sex education is the process of teaching an individual to understand and accept himself as a
whole person and as such to relate himself to other people in a healthy, constructive and
meaningful manner. Sex education has its roots in the attitudes of the parents. The child must
receive his first education about sex from his parents. Questions of the child about sex should be
answered by parents in the simplest, honest and most objective manner understood by the child.

30 | P a g e
Parenthood
Thomas Carlyle correctly noted “The history of the world is but the biography of great
men”. The ordinary man is seldom featured in the pages of history, and the child virtually never.
History is the record of public, not private, events and the “crowds and crowds of little children are
strangely absent from the written record”. The net result of this fact is a noticeable absence of
detail about childrearing practices of the past. The pattern of childrearing provides the basis for
adult personality and therefore has a vital influence on public events and world history, yet very
little is known about it. No-one really knows whether childrearing depends on cultural traits or
vice-versa. Recent research has begun to shed some light on conditions of childhood through the
ages. Anna Burr, in her 1909 review of 250 autobiographies, noted that not one contained happy
memories of childhood, whilst Valentine, reading letters covering a 600-year period, was unable
to find a father who wasn’t insensitive, moralistic and self-centered. A summary of this and other
research shows that the further back into history one goes, the lower the level of child care and
the more likely children were to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized and sexually abused.
Alternately, with the passage of time childrearing practices and the quality of childhood
have shown a sustained improvement. This begs the question “Why?" It has been suggested that
the major force for change in parent-child relations is not technology or economics but rather the
psychogenic changes in personality occurring because of successive generations of parent-child
interactions. This “psychogenic theory of history” proposes that when parenting, each successive
generation of adults regresses to the psychic age of their children and in parenting they re-
experience childhood. Having already experienced their own childhood, this second encounter is
more successful with fewer anxieties and improved parenting. The net result is that each
generation improves on the preceding one. This pressure for change results from spontaneous
regressing, independent of social and technological change.
Parent-Child reactions
If we accept this theory, then in viewing childhood over generations it is important to look
at factors which may influence the psyche of the next generation. That is, what happens when an
adult is faced with a dependent child. There are three possible reactions:
1. The projective reaction - here the child is used by the adult as a vehicle for the projection
of the contents of his own unconscious. This results in the child being seen as part of the
parent, reflecting their unacceptable subconscious thoughts, emotions and beliefs.
Because these subconscious feelings, and by projection the child, are unacceptable to
the parent the child is seen as something evil which needs to be disposed of or controlled.
This led to practices such as infanticide and abandonment and later to various actions
aimed at suppressing the evil within the child. Initially these took a physical form such as
the swaddling of babies, leading strings to restrain infants, and severe beatings for older
children. Physical restraint was often accompanied and later replaced by mental restraints
achieved through terrorising children with stories of ghost-like figures, corpses and
witches. Projective reactions are well illustrated by two common phenomena of the past.
The extreme beatings commonly given to children and the frequency of severe and fatal
accidents involving children. Beatings were an easy way of controlling the evil in the child
and because the parent viewed himself and the child as the same person, when the child
was being beaten the parent was actually beating himself and therefore felt no guilt. Hence
the frequency and severity of the beatings for relatively trivial offences. Similarly because

31 | P a g e
 the parent sees the child as so full of portions of himself, accidents to the child are seen
as injuries to the parent. “Alas, for my sins the just God throws my child into the fire.” Once
again it is the parent who is being punished for some presumed offence or oversight, not
the child, so there is no feeling of guilt for the child's hurt and no steps are deemed
necessary to prevent further accidents. The mortality from accidents was high and the
type of accident repetitive, with drownings and burns being particularly common.
2. The reversal reaction - in this interaction the roles of adult and child become reversed.
The child is used by the adult as a substitute for an adult figure who was important in his
own childhood. Here the child exists to satisfy parental needs and is seen as a source of
love, protection and nourishment. This view of children as parents paves the way for a
variety of excesses in which the child is misused to fulfill the needs “physical emotional,
sexual and economic “of the parent. Foremost amongst these excesses are sexual misuse
and child labour. An additional and interesting consequence of this interaction was infant
deaths following “overlaying". Here the parent was unable to part from the child so the two
slept together with the parent clutching the child like a security blanket, eventually
smothering him. More recently the failure of the child to fulfill this parental role often
triggers child abuse. As one abusing parent has commented, “I have never felt loved all
my life. When the baby was born I thought he would love me. When he cried it meant he
didn’t love me. So I hit him”. Projective and reversal reactions often occurred
simultaneously in parents of the past, producing an effective double image where the child
is seen as both full of the adult’s unacceptable projected needs and desires, and at the
same time as a mother or father figure. That is, the child is both bad and loving.
3. The empathic reaction - reflects a more recent interaction in which the adult empathizes
with the child. Basically, this means that the adult is able to regress to the level of a child's
need, correctly identify it and without imposing adult projections, satisfy it.
Both the projective and the reversal reactions are adult-centered with the child existing as
either an extension of the adult or to provide for the needs of the adult. In contrast the empathic
reaction shifts the focus of attention from the adult to the child. Children of the past were most
commonly subject to the projective reaction where they were seen as evil or a combination of
projective and reversal reactions where they were both bad and loving. It is only recently, in
historical terms, that the empathic reaction has played a significant role in parent-child relations.
The first two reactions do not indicate lack of love for their children by historical parents but rather
an inability to accept the child as an individual separate from themselves. Children were viewed
as bad and loving, hated and loved; rewarded and punished.
Modes of parenting have evolved from practices dominated by projective reactions,
through reversal reactions to the most recent modes encompassing empathic reactions. Whilst
these forms of parent-child reactions form the basis for each mode of child rearing they have been
influenced to a varying degree by a number of external factors. The two most significant factors
being: (1) firstly, the acceptance that a child, like an adult, possesses a soul and; (2) secondly,
recognition that the child is an individual in his own right and not merely an extension of an adult.
The above interactions between adult and child have, singly or in combination, evolved
over time to produce six modes of childrearing practices. It is difficult to place these modes into a
time sequence as rates of evolution vary from society to society and show class and regional
differences. Therefore, any mode may have prevailed at a time, though periods can be recognized
during which each mode was the dominant pattern of childrearing.

32 | P a g e
Modes of Childrearing
1. The infanticidal mode - this mode, characterized by both projective and reversal
reactions, dominated the period from antiquity to the fourth century A.D. As a
consequence of projective reactions children were perceived as representative of evil and
as such had to be controlled. The easiest way to do this was to remove the source of evil
permanently by killing the child. It is well known that infanticide of both legitimate and
illegitimate children was a regular practice of antiquity. The killing of legitimate children
slowly reduced during the Middle ages, and illegitimate children continued to be killed up
into the nineteenth century. Until the fourth century neither law nor public opinion found
infanticide wrong; indeed Grecian and Roman scholars promoted the practice as a means
for coping with abnormal or excessive children. It was only in 374 A.D. that the law and
the Church first began to consider the killing of an infant to be murder. Prior to this it was
justified in the belief that a child had no soul. Despite the changed attitude, parents in the
Middle Ages were seldom punished for practicing infanticide. Illegitimate children were
killed routinely, girls frequently, the third or later boy invariably, and abnormal children
always. Child sacrifice was common in the years B.C. and drowning, starving or exposure
of unwanted babies, the practice in the years A.D. Although infanticide was the dominant
mode of child-rearing up to the fourth century it persisted in various forms well into the
nineteenth century. One good example was the central European practice of sealing
infants in the walls or foundations of buildings and bridges to strengthen the structure.
This persisted as late as the mid 1800's. The presence of the reversal reaction during this
period is evident in the extreme sexual abuse of all children from infancy to adolescence.
2. The abandonment mode - this mode stretched from the fourth to the thirteenth century
and was also dominated by both projective and reversal reactions, although the latter
reaction diminished considerably towards the end of the period. Once parents accepted
that children had souls it was no longer possible to escape the evil projections they
represented by killing them. The solution was to distance themselves from these
dangerous projections by abandoning their children. This was done in a variety of ways.
Children were sold into slavery, sent to a wet nurse, the monastery or convent, to foster
families, to the homes of nobles as servants or hostages or by extreme emotional
abandonment at home. Severe beatings and child labour were very common but with the
reduction in reversal reactions sexual abuse became a little less widespread. The sale of
children was the first form of abandonment to be tackled when, in the seventh century, the
Church ruled that a man could not sell his son into slavery after the age of seven. It is
known that well into the twelfth century the English were selling their children to the Irish
as slaves. Elsewhere child sale continued sporadically into modern times and was only
outlawed in Russia in the last century. The use of children as political hostages and
security for debts was common in the middle ages, even though invariably unsuccessful.
The fostering of children persisted into the 1600's whereby children were sent to other
families to be reared. They stayed there until the age of 17 and in return for their keep
worked for the foster family. This was common in all classes and was equivalent to an
apprenticeship or the practice in the upper classes of sending children to monasteries
nunneries or to act as clerks or ladies-in-waiting. Many historians feel this represented a
form of kindness “the parents being unwilling to make their own children work within the
home. Up until the eighteenth century the average child of wealthy parents spent his first
three to five years with a wet nurse, returned to the care of other servants until being sent

33 | P a g e
 out to service, apprenticeship or school by the age of seven. The amount of contact
between parent and child was minimal. Justifications for these practices have included: to
teach the child to speak; to cure timidness; to improve the child's health; as payment of
debts; or simply because the child was unwanted.
3. The ambivalent mode - between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries both
projective and reversal reactions persisted but to lessening degrees. As the empathic
reaction emerged conflict arose leading to an ambivalence towards children. The child
was still seen as a container of dangerous projections but, as long as he was restrained,
was allowed near his parents resulting in improved physical contact and the beginnings of
positive emotional responses towards the child. The role of the parents was to accept
responsibility for their children and to physically mold each child into shape. This was
achieved through physical beatings and various restraints. In infancy swaddling was
essential to protect the infant from the dangerous adult projections within him. If left
unswaddled infants were supposedly at risk of blinding themselves, tearing off their ears,
scratching themselves, breaking limbs or crawling about on all fours like an animal.
Swaddling consisted of depriving the infant of total use of his limbs by enveloping them in
an endless length of bandage and compressing the trunk and head to whatever shape
one desired. It took about two hours to apply and resulted in excoriated skin, pressure
sores, brachycardia, lethargy and drowsiness. A swaddled infant was extremely passive
and undemanding. This favoured the child-minders who could leave their infants, like a
parcel, in any convenient corner. Total swaddling continued for about four months at which
stage the arms were left free whilst the legs and trunk remained swaddled for a further six
to nine months. Once swaddling was discontinued children were controlled by beatings,
by being tied to furniture, by the use of leading strings and other such devices. It is
interesting to note that in 70 biographies of children who lived before the seventeenth
century all were subject to severe beatings. One last practice common during this and
earlier periods was that of giving children enemas. Children have apparently always been
identified with their excrement. In French newborns are called ecreme, and merdeux (or
“little child") is derived from the Latin merde, excrement. It was common belief during this
period that the inner state of the child could be determined by examining his urine and
faeces. Consequently purges, suppositories and enemas were the rule of the day. The
fact that the child's faeces looked and smelled unpleasant supported the belief that the
child was possessed of an inner demon which spoke to the adult world insolently,
threateningly and with malice.
4. The intrusive mode - the eighteenth century saw the disappearance of reversal reactions,
a reduction in projection and the emergence of empathic reactions. This accompanied
major changes in parent-child relations. The child was no longer seen as being full of
dangerous projections and was therefore so much less threatening to the parents that true
empathy was possible. Parents became more involved in their children's upbringing and
rather than physically controlling the child tried to conquer their minds, thereby controlling
the child's insides, his anger, his needs and his will. Children raised by intrusive parents
were nursed by the mother, not swaddled, given fewer enemas. They were toilet trained
but neiter played with nor beaten. They were made to obey promptly with threats, guilt and
other punishments such as being shut up in dark closets for hours. This period saw a
decline in the universal practice of giving enemas and with the decline in projective
reactions true toilet training became increasingly more important. As empathic reactions
emerged, paediatrics was born and child rearing manuals, which first appeared in the

34 | P a g e
 previous period, became increasingly common. The general trend was towards improved
child care and reduced infant mortality.
5. The socialising mode - since the nineteenth century this mode, reflecting an empathic
reaction between parent and child, has dominated. With the shift from projective to
empathic reactions, child-rearing became less a matter of conquering the child and more
a process of training the child, guiding him into the right direction and socialising him. This
mode is thought by many as the only mode within which discussions of child care can
proceed and it is the source of all psychological modes from Freud's channelling of
impulses to Skinner’s behaviourism. Of note is that it is during this period that the father
at last began to participate positively in child rearing.
6. The helping mode - since the mid twentieth century this mode, in which the empathic
reaction is taken to the extreme, has began to emerge. This mode proposes that the child
knows better than the parent what his needs are at each stage of his development. Parent
and child supposedly empathise and work together to fulfil these needs. Discipline is
unnecessary as the parent functions as the child's servant, playing with him, tolerating
regressions, interpreting emotional conflicts and providing objects specific to his evolving
interests. This involves an enormous amount of time, energy and patience from the parent
and few parents have tried it. The result is reportedly a gentle, sincere, independent child
with a strong will and little fear of authority.
Child-Rearing Practices
The child-rearing practices in the Philippines present different dimensions as compared
those prevailing in other countries.
1. Goals of Socialization. The goals of socialization may be stated in the following:
“To teach the child to be respectful, obedient to parents, identify strongly with his
family, to be a good neighbor and kinsman, recognize and reciprocate favors received and
if possible, improve his economic state”.
The above goal has been found very dominant in most rural communities in the country.
However, similar goals were discovered to have been in existence in most urban settings:
“to produce unaggressive, respectful, obedient, and self-reliant individuals”.
From the foregoing goals, it may be said that the ideal Filipino child is one who
primarily possesses excellent interpersonal skills in relation to authority figures and peers.
He must also possess a second cluster of traits revolving around achievement, self-
reliance and industry.
2. Childcare Practices. Children are considered by couples, particularly those living in the
countryside, to be economic investments. Children are considered gifts or blessings from
God. Pregnant women are expected to keep away from foods that are considered taboo
for they are believed to affect the features of the unborn child. To the rural people,
pregnancy makes the mother and the unborn child attractive to supernatural beings.
Babies are fed anytime. Toilet training has been found to begin at 10-15 months, lasting
up two years old, with the child being taught to call for the mother or other adults whenever
he/she needs to relieve himself/herself.
3. Child-Rearing Techniques. Filipino parents tend to be stricter in the enforcement of
discipline for older children. Parents consider the institution of discipline and good
manners as one of their primary responsibilities. Punishments are used more often than
rewards in disciplining children. In all attempts to control children’s behavior, the primary

35 | P a g e
 emphasis is on parental authority. Good behavior is reinforced and this is expressed
through affectionate gestures such as kissing, embracing, patting on the head, and calling
the child affectionate names. However, Jocano noted that differential treatment of boys
and girls in rural and lower-income urban communities results in well-defined
expectations: boys are to be economically useful and girls are supposed to master
domestic chores. As they grow old, the games and activities they indulge in encourage
sexual segregation. Ramirez (1984) noted that in the Filipino family, boys are given more
freedom and fewer responsibilities. On the other hand, girls are given more responsibilities
and less freedom.
4. Parenthood Requires Adjustments:
a. Parental Role
b. Emotional Adjustments
c. When to have Children
d. Precautions for Physical Safety
5. Points to Consider in the Rearing of Children:
a. Each method or rearing the child is individualized, depending upon the nature of the
child;
b. There is no child without some problems: relationship between parents and child must
be dynamic; and
c. Each child is a “bundle of potentialities”.
6. Forces Outside the Home which Helps to Shape and Mold the Personality
a. School
b. Religious Training
c. Community Standards
d. Friends and Contemporaries
The Filipino Family in Crisis
Dysfunctional Family
A dysfunctional family (DF) is one where the normal healthy functioning of the family is
impeded through negative behavior such as abuse, apathy, neglect, or lack of emotional support.
In DF, the relationship between the parent and child is tensed and unnatural; parents constantly
neglect or abuse the child and the other family members accommodate such behavior. In some
cases, children end up with low self-esteem and grow up with the belief that such behavior is
normal.
The following are some examples of patterns that frequently occur in dysfunctional
families.

• One or both parents have addictions or compulsions (e.g., drugs, alcohol, promiscuity,
gambling, overworking, and/or overeating) that have strong influences on family members
• One or both parents use the threat or application of physical violence as the primary
means of control. Children may have to witness violence, may be forced to participate in
punishing siblings, or may live in fear of explosive outbursts
• One or both parents exploit the children and treat them as possessions whose primary
purpose is to respond to the physical and/or emotional needs of adults (e.g., protecting a
parent or cheering up one who is depressed)

36 | P a g e
 • One or both parents are unable to provide, or threaten to withdraw, financial or basic
physical care for their children. Similarly, one or both parents fail to provide their children
with adequate emotional support.
• One or both parents exert a strong authoritarian control over the children. Often these
families rigidly adhere to a particular belief (religious, political, financial, personal).
Compliance with role expectations and with rules is expected without any flexibility.
There is a great deal of variability in how often dysfunctional interactions and behaviors
occur in families, and in the kinds and the severity of their dysfunction. However, when patterns
like the above are the norm rather than the exception, they systematically foster abuse and/or
neglect. Children may:

• Be forced to take sides in conflicts between parents.

• Experience “reality shifting” in which what is said contradicts what is actually happening
(e.g., a parent may deny something happened that the child actually observed, for
example, when a parent describes a disastrous holiday dinner as a “good time”).
• Be ignored, discounted, or criticized for their feelings and thoughts.
• Have parents that are inappropriately intrusive, overly involved and protective.
• Have parents that are inappropriately distant and uninvolved with their children.
• Have excessive structure and demands placed on their time, choice of friends, or
behavior; or conversely, receive no guidelines or structure.
• Experience rejection or preferential treatment.
• Be restricted from full and direct communication with other family members.
• Be allowed or encouraged to use drugs or alcohol.
• Be locked out of the house.
• Be slapped, hit, scratched, punched, or kicked.
Here are a few other reasons for the dysfunctionality in families:
1. Addiction: When one or both parents in the family have an addiction to drugs, alcohol, or
gambling, they tend to neglect their responsibilities, including those towards their family.
For people suffering with an addiction, relationships and love for their children can suffer
also. Once addiction takes over, it becomes hard to show compassion and foster their
relationships. They seem to be in a separate world, away from reality.
2. Violent behavior: The violent behavior of one or more members of the family breaks
down the foundation of that family. The others live in a fear of being physically and
emotionally hurt and thus keep a distance from each other. Lack of interaction creates a
distance between them.
3. Financial situation: Money is an essential requirement for having a functional family
because you simply need money to survive. In scenarios where parents discontinue
working or are unable to meet the financial requirements of the family, it leads to instability
and makes the family dysfunctional.
4. Authority: The urge of a person to have control of the members of the family vitiates the
atmosphere at home. They might unleash tyranny and the others do not have an option
but to do what the person tells them to. Such behavior curtails their freedom and makes
the members dislike each other.
5. Religious fundamentalism: When the parents have strong religious beliefs, they might
develop rigidity, thus enforcing their beliefs on children. Such actions restrict the

37 | P a g e
 environment at home for the kids to grow up and feel accepted. The reasons and
circumstances behind dysfunctionality vary from one family to another. And each situation
might have varied effects on the child.
Family Disorganization
Family disorganization may be thought to include any sort of non-harmonious functioning
within the family. Thus, it may include not only the tensions between the husband and wife but
those arising between and among children and parents as well. Tensions between children and
parents often present serious problems of adjustment. This result in friction and such
disagreements may also result in tensions between husband and wife.
However, the children’s conflict with parents does not threaten the family organization as
a degree of conflict between husband and wife over trivial matters as well as fundamental social
issues, which makes the rifts more serious leading to family disruption. Disruptions of the marriage
relationship are occasioned by tensions between husband and wife. Like marriage, it is governed
by a variety of cultural and legal regulations that show how difficult it is to accomplish and the
social and personal consequences it produces. This conjugal relationship is the central bond
uniting the family in any society. When this bond is broken, it may take the form of desertion,
separation, divorce, physical violence or use of abusive language. But these manifestations are
only the superficial symptoms of a breakdown in the intimate relationships within the family.
Family disorganization in the external manifestation may take the form of desertion, separation,
divorce, physical violence or use of abusive language. It is to be pointed out that tension in family
life is growing in the modern age because of the rapid changes in the role and status of the
partners. In which it takes the legal or social function of a normal family life to be maintained even
when these personal relationships are at a minimum.
There have always been men and women who found their marriage ties bitter, their life
together unhappy. A changed economic and social order has only facilitated release from such
bonds. Marriage has now taken on a more personal aspect so far as wishes, desires and attitudes
of the contracting parties are concerned. Family tension is any conflict situation that generates
opposing attitudes between its members, particularly between husband and wife. In a sense
tension grows out of an original disparity in attitudes and values and as the tension increases
greater antagonism in attitudes develops.
On understanding the above, family disorganization leads to personal and impersonal
factors which play a greater part in family breakdown, disparities in attitudes and values which
make life together intolerable to one or both.
1. Personal Factors:
a. Romantic Fallacy: Romantic fallacy brings many lovers together these days because
of less parental control in the choice of mates and founded on freedom of choice owing
to rising democracy and other social forces such as emancipation of women in religion,
in economic affairs, in politics and above all in the power of marital choice. In fact,
equality of sexes was an important factor in the romantic courtship, which gives the
individuals more liberty. The wives and husbands who are convinced that romantic
happiness is the sole criterion of marriage are likely to think that something has
happened when the edge has worn off the first careless rapture. They may believe
that the only way that they can recapture this romantic infatuation is with another
spouse. On the other hand, marriage is a practical and serious relationship, not a

38 | P a g e
 romantic interlude. The person, later on, concludes that he has made an unfortunate
initial choice and the joy of true romance may be realized more completely with
someone else. Thus, the romantic fallacy is the cause of many family tensions for
newly-married young couples.
b. Clashing Temperament: In the initial acquaintanceship, when each is bent on making
a good impression on the other, the real personality and temperament are not brought
to light. Later, however, classes in temperament may take on a violent aspect. The
overcritical, pessimistic, nagging wife may make life wretched for the happy, carefree
youth who prefers a gay party to spend the evening at home. Or, again one person
may be quick-tempered, choleric, and the other quiet, slow to anger. Highly
individualized temperaments take on a characteristic pattern of behaviour, which the
other resents and dislikes despite a certain bond of affection.
c. Philosophy of life: More important than temperament is the role of an individual’s
philosophy of life in the marital relationship. If both husband and wife possess some
identity of important values, as expressed in the social attitudes, their marriage
problems will tend to be adjusted successfully. On the other hand, if they differ on
fundamental values, the relations are likely to be strained easily. For example, conflict
will always be imminent if the woman’s highest aim is social ascendancy, the whirl of
bridge parties, and the tea parties whereas her husband prefers intellectually
stimulated contacts, the new books on art and philosophy, and friendships of a
scholarly sort.
d. Personal-Behaviour Patterns: The personal-behaviour patterns may include both
habits and the more generalized manner of conduct. Irritating petty habits, insignificant
thought they may seem, may bring high marital friction. A woman may talk so loudly
on the street that she embarrasses her husband. A husband may be accustomed to
eating something in the street, whereas his wife was reared in a home where such
conduct was an offence to “good manners”. Both of these divergences present serious
implications because they present a disregard for values that the other has accepted
as important. Even in the most successful marriages, there are irritating little habits
and mannerisms of which the other was not aware at the time of marriage. If these
can be accepted without any serious adjustment of life values, in a spirit of tolerant
give and take, they may cause no serious trouble. But if they are not able to develop
the power of tolerance serious troubles may arise.
e. Psychopathic Personalities: Psychopathic personality of one partner or the other
may affect marital relationships. Such persons have mental instability and are often
charged with cruel and inhuman treatment, mental cruelty, or physical violence (and
have the symptoms of psychosis and neurosis).
2. Impersonal Factors or Social and Cultural Factors:
a. Economic Tensions: The economic tensions cover a variety of sub-classification
and may be due to –
i. Sheer Poverty: Despite romantic ideal of love, long-continued worry over
financial matters is not conducive to healthy marital relations. Poverty is ‘of
course’ a relative term. An income that a middle-class family defines as
insufficient may be enough for a lower-class family. A person whose income
is not enough to meet the necessities of life in a particular position may affect
his temper. His wife may be sympathetic, but she is equally worried. Irritated

39 | P a g e
 and distressed because the children want shoes or there is nothing to eat she
may lose her temper, or her husband may leave the house.
ii. Business Reverses: Business reverses may sometimes bring troubles,
particularly when the wife comes from an upper-class family and is of
aristocrat nature and she is not able to readjust with the existing lower
income.
iii. Economic independence of wife: Where wife and husband are both in the
same profession, but eh wife’s capacity is recognized as surpassing her
husband, her spouse may resent playing the inferior role. Professional
jealousy in such circumstances may affect marital relations. Similarly, the
economic dependence of wife who has a professional career before marriage
may become thorn in flesh. She may find it difficult to adjust her experience
to fit the scale of her husband’s purse. It is often impossible for her to achieve
standards of consumption that she enjoyed previous to marriage. As a result,
she may be dissatisfied with the whole relationship.
b. Occupational Tensions: Occupational misfits may be another cause of marital
discord. No amount of income in a business to a young man of literary and academic
taste can bring contentment. Similarly, unstable occupation from store clerk to the
insurance business or from salesman to window dresser, the continual readjustment
and lean income period inevitably entail family hazards. Burgess and Cottrell found
that frequent change of position is correlated with low scores in marriage adjustment.
There arises a conflict between his ideals and practices which may easily be a
source of friction in the family.
c. Differences in Cultural Background: When husband and wife come from different
cultural backgrounds, there may be no grave difficulty, if both have approximately the
same education and are somewhat cosmopolitan in their taste. But persons have a
different cultural background in the absence of above similarities may find it difficult
to adjust. Burgess and Cottrell found that the cultural background of both husband
and wife to be one of the five groups of factors affecting family adjustment.
d. The disparity in Age: Any wide disparity in age is likely to mean divergences in
attitudes and interests. Regarding age at the time of marriage though there can be
no absolute rule as to the ideal age for marriage, yet those marriages appeared to be
more successful when both parties were fairly mature or in any case the bride was
over twenty-one. Because she then had insight and emotional maturity for marital
problems. Age is, however, only one element in this complex relationship.
e. Ill-Health: At the first instance, a sick wife or husband may conjure up a real emotion
of sympathy. But long continued ill health, with its drain on the family budget, the
irritability because of nervous tension may, however, become a source of many
family difficulties. Lack of stimulating contact, monotonous aspects of housework
coupled with the husband’s indifferent expression of affection may lead to her
nervous breakdown. Good health must be an accepted premise of satisfactory
marriage.
f. Parent-child Relationships: Although childless marriages, on the whole, are
admittedly less successful than those with children, the children themselves may be
the centre of family tension and family conflict. There may be disagreement as to the
policy of discipline, the type of training, the nature of the child’s education, social
activities and so on. The father may become jealous of the attention which the wife

40 | P a g e
 gives to her children, especially in case of a son, and feel that he is largely shut out
from his wife’s affections. Similarly, the mother may resent the favouritism which the
father displays for his daughter.
g. Interference of In-Laws: Parents are often imbued with ambitions and the desire for
their children’s happiness, and consequently they often insist upon imposing their
decisions upon the reluctant children. They may insist that the daughter-in-law is too
extravagant, or she is uncooperative, or she is unsuited to her task as a mother. In
countless ways, their undue criticism may play havoc with youthful marriage.
Generation Gap
Generation gap is a difference in values and attitudes between one generation and
another, especially between young people and their parents. These differences stem from older
and younger people not understanding each other because of their differences in experiences,
opinions, habits, and behavior.
Each generation must be different in order to meet the changed conditions of its time, but
many families continue to follow established customs and appear bewildered by the pressures
upon them to decide upon the necessary or desirable changes in their life patterns. The increasing
multitude of mothers who are employed outside the home are making the girl’s problem of
maturation more difficult.
Role Pressures and Strains
Role strain refers to the stress when, for any number of reasons, an individual cannot
meet the demands of their social roles (Goode 1960). It happens when someone has multiple
overlapping, incompatible roles, and thus taking on one roll interferes with their performance in
another. For example, someone taking on the roles of parent, manager, caretaker, and writer may
experience role strain because these roles combined may take up more time and resources than
that person has or require that person to be in multiple places simultaneously. As a result, the
person is unable to perform these roles as well as they could if they had fewer roles (Creary &
Gordon 2016). Goode (1960) was the first sociologist to introduce the concept of role strain as
difficulty in meeting the expectations of roles. In Goode’s view, individuals make a series of
bargains within societies about what roles they will take on and perform either well or poorly in
any role. Role strain is a normal or perhaps inevitable consequence of balancing multiple at times
conflicting, ambiguous, or overwhelming roles, and that the task for everyone in a society is to
figure out how to reduce this strain.
Implicit in Goode’s (1960) theory of role strain is that everyone must manage its effects.
Sociologists such as Bird and Bird (1986) have measured the efficacy of several role-
management strategies in the work and family context. These have varying amounts of efficacy.
1. The legitimate excuse — asserting that another responsibility of equal or higher priority
prevents the individual from fulfilling a new task or completing one is not perceived as a
legitimate response for employees (Marks 1977) but is in informal situations.
2. Stalling - this involves putting off a task before obligations can either be fulfilled or left
undone and is most successful when the pressure to perform two or more roles is
temporary (Toby 1952). For example, it may be possible to put off deciding until demands
are relaxed.

41 | P a g e
 3. Compartmentalization - this involves restricting roles to a certain location or context. For
example, one may only do work while at their office, and not check emails at home, where
the new dominant role is the one of a parent, spouse, or household manager.
4. Barriers against intrusion - These are strategies proposed by Goode (1960) to prevent
others from initiating or continuing role relationships. For example, making appointments
can be delegated to a secretary. This can also take the form of making definite plans for
using time that no other activities can interfere with.
5. Reduce responsibilities - people could change their standards of performance in a role
to have more time available for responsibilities or to perform tasks in other roles. They
may also refuse to accept additional responsibilities in a role, saying that they already
have too many responsibilities.
6. Delegation - here, a person assigns the tasks of a role to another. For example, a mother
could hire a nanny or an older child to care for her children.
7. Organization - this involves ranking the order of importance of various activities and doing
the most important ones first (Hall 1972), and finally, empathy as a role strain reducing
strategy describes building social support between people sharing the same roles and
circumstances. For example, a group of students could provide mutual support in
managing the responsibilities of their education.

Here are some examples:

Family-to-work Role conflict between one’s family and one’s work is called “work-family
conflict and Role conflict.” Typically, sociologists measure role conflict in two directions (Creary
Strain & Gordon 2016). Work roles can create conflicts with one’s family roles (work-
to-family conflict) and one’s family roles can create conflict with one’s work
(family-to-work conflict). As a result, sociologists call work-family conflict
bidirectional or reciprocal (Creary & Gordon 2016). Balancing a job with caring
for children and managing household chores can cause significant family-to-
work conflict.
The care of young children requires significant time and mental resources, in
the same vein as having a job. Those who lack sufficient resources may
struggle to fill the responsibilities of both roles, and this can have negative
effects on both physical and mental health (Creary & Gordon 2016). For
example, single working mothers experience role strain at higher rates than
their married counterparts, as they have to take on full child-rearing and
breadwinning responsibilities. Consequently, single mothers experience
depression and anxiety at twice the rate of their partnered counterparts (Liang
2018). However, role strain does not affect every single mother who has the
same roles in the same way. Those whose workplaces are more flexible (for
example, through flexible hours and remote work) and those who have a
“leaner” concept of motherhood (for example, in taking less direct control over
their children’s lives) experience less role strain than those with strict
workplaces and rigid ideas of motherhood (Gasse 2020).
Other factors can exacerbate family-to-work conflict and consequently role
strain in parents. A migrant background, having toddler-aged children, young
maternal age, and previous maltreatment and lack of social support all
contribute to role strain. Indeed, these are also psychosocial risk factors for
depression and anxiety (Liang 2018).
Work-to-family Work-to-family conflict can occur when the demands of one’s job make it so
conflict and role that one cannot fill their family roles adequately. For example, working long
strain hours at a job may cause a parent to neglect their childcare responsibilities.
Recent research suggests that work-family conflict and family-work concepts
can be interrelated. For example, someone who has low control over their

42 | P a g e
decisions, job stress, high amounts of involvement in their job, or who must
care for a family member unexpectedly could come in conflict with their work,
and the same factors could lead to conflict with family (Creary & Gordon 2016).
Because work-to-family conflict and family-to-work can overlap, sociologists
such as Carlson and Frone (2003) have used scales to evaluate the
directionality of work-family conflict. This means that these scales measure the
extent that the demands of work interfere with family life and the demands of
family life interfere with work (Creary & Gordon 2016).
Work-family conflict creates role strain as these conflicting roles lead to
negative psychological effects. Hospital employees experiencing behavior-
based work-family conflict have lower levels of job satisfaction (Bruck et. al
2002). A family situation that requires an emotional response may strain a
doctor who must be neutral in delivering a negative prognosis to patients.
Work-to-family conflict, but not family-to-work conflict, is associated with
greater levels of absenteeism, especially in those whose gender and relation
to others leads to a greater assumption of responsibility in the family (Boyar
2005). Those who experience high levels of work-family conflict also report
lower job performance and greater intention to leave their organization
(Boshoff 2002). Work-to-family conflict can also cause lower levels of life
satisfaction, burnout, stress-related illnesses, and generally reduced health
and well-being (Creary & Gordon 2016).

43 | P a g e
SOCIAL PROCESSES IN THE GROUP AND COMMUNITY
Definition of Group
A group is composed of two or more persons interacting with each other, guided by a set
of norms. Sociologists point out that social interaction or interpersonal behavior of group members
are the most important criteria in the concept of group.
For a social group to exist, the individuals must interact with other individuals and with one
another according to the established patterns in terms of the statuses and roles they recognize.
The members develop expectations of proper behavior from people occupying different positions
in the social group. The people have a sense of identity and realize they are different from others
who are not members. Social groups have a set of values and norms that may or may not be
similar to those of the larger society.
Social Processes
Social processes refer to patterned forms of social interaction. They are forms of
interaction that are repeated. This concept is used sociologically in at least two different
meanings:
1. Some particular patterns among humans or groups may be described in general terms
2. Generalized sequence of social development or changes are obvious
In the words of Fichter (1977), social process is smore than the link between two statuses
or roles. Two persons who cooperate with one another or fight with one another are carrying on
a social process that is something more than either their social relation or their role relation. Both
the process relation and the role relation involve patterns of interactional behavior by two or more
persons, performed together by both terms of the relationship. The process of competition or
contravention transcends the role of the salesman who engages in these processes.
BASIC SOCIAL PROCESS
COOPERATION Cooperation may be defined as a more specific aspect of human
intercourse, one having to do with mutual aid or alliance of persons or
groups seeking a common goal or reward. It is a kind of conjoint rather
opposing action. As a social process, it involves two or more parties joined
together in pursuit of common objectives. This is the most common form of
social relations. It is very essential and an indispensable requirement in
maintaining and sustaining any given group or society in general. It is a
reciprocal relation may achieve more of the desired goals than does the
other party.
The factors that account for cooperation are complex and numerous. Some
of them are as follows:
1. Conscious desire for an object which may be reduced to self-
interest
2. Loyalty to one’s group and its ideals
3. The fear of attack by an out-group
4. Basic structural need for mutual dependence
Cooperation may be viewed as social solidarity in action. Factors attributing
to this process are often described as social integration, cohesion and
solidarity.
Cooperation may be either informal, formal or symbiotic:

44 | P a g e
 1. Informal cooperation – characterized as spontaneous and involves
mutual give-and-take. This is commonly shown in primary groups
or gemeinschaft existing in the family, in the rural areas, and in very
simple societies.
2. Formal or organized cooperation – deliberate and contractual
nature prescribing the specific reciprocal right and obligations of the
members. There are formal goals and objectives. Leadership is
also provided. This type of cooperation exists in large societies,
government, non-government agencies, and civic groups.
3. Symbiotic cooperation – a condition in which two or more members
of society live together harmoniously and interdependently
resulting in mutual self-interests. It lacks a common goal or
objective. This kind of cooperation is seen in the division of labor in
society, and in the marketplace. It involves interdependent activities
but the people involved do not even think of their activity as
cooperation.
Cooperation has different functions:
1. It creates social cohesion and integration between groups
2. It contributes to social stability and order
3. It fosters consensus and compromise in various social issues
CONFLICT Conflict arises when two or more people or more people of groups come
together while the rules of cooperation fail and the opponents become
openly confrontational to each other in the struggle for power or self-
assertion. This can happen from the very start or as a result of having
broken the rules of cooperation that may have sustained their co-existence
for some time or even a long time. Mack and Pease (1973) defined conflict
as a form of emotionalized and violent opposition in which the major
concern is to overcome the opponent as a means of securing a given goal
or reward. Conflict results in hurting others physically, mentally or depriving
others of liberty or property. As an act of self-preservation, conflict is
designed to prevent one from being intentionally hurt and from being
deprived by others. Like competition, conflict is motivated by the desire to
secure a scarce goal or common values. In conflict, the focus of attention
is on the opponent. The person or group tries to block, defeat, destroy or
annihilate the opponent, with utter disregard of the rules. It is a reciprocal
relation and the relationship is personal and highly emotionalized. Hostility,
fear, hate, or anger accompany conflict. The most basic form of conflict is
armed warfare in which large groups or persons meet in combat with the
intention of destroying one another. The focus of attention in the conflict
situation is always the parties involved in the relationship, but there is
always other stated objective or purpose for which the conflict is waged. It
may be interpreted as a means to an end.
Conflict may take the following:
1. On a person-to-person basis as may be seen in spontaneous
fights, duels or hand-to-hand combat in war
2. Between groups as may be witnessed in riots, violent strikes,
lynching or massacre
3. National and international as shown in rebellion, revolution or war
The process of conflict is always characterized by physical violence.
However, there are instances of non-violent conflict like psychological
warfare with its propaganda battles, espionage, economic struggle between
industrial giants and intergroup relations marked by hostility and
ethnocentrism. Preliminaries to conflict include various forms of
disagreements such as insult, abhorrence, rivalry, contempt, or by personal
and physical contravention.

45 | P a g e
 Conflict possesses the following functions:
1. Conflict may help establish unity and cohesion within a group which
has been threatened by antagonistic feelings among the members
2. Internal conflict becomes a stabilizing and integrating mechanism
in certain instances
3. Conflict provides an outlet for the expression of suppressed
emotions and frustrations
COMPETITION Competition is a social process in which two or more persons or groups are
striving to attain the same objective. While in the process of conflict and
contravention, attention in competition is focused primarily on the other
party. In the process, both parties focus primarily on the objective that both
want to achieve and only secondarily on each other. Persons and groups
compete for an object, and the competition is always stronger when the
object is in short supply and of high value. Competition is a form of
opposition or struggle for securing a reward or goal like a prize, a material
object, a position, leadership, prestige or power. Mack and Pease (1973)
defined it as a less violent form of opposition in which two or more persons
or groups struggle for an end or goal but in the course of which attention is
focused chiefly on the reward rather than on the competitor. Competition
may be person or impersonal. Personal competition involves direct, face-
to-face contact as may be seen in the competition for a spouse, grade, a
beauty title, trophy, prize, a job, and business gain, among others.
Competition has the following functions:
1. Personal competition assigns to each individual or group his/her
place in the social system
2. To a certain extent, competition plays a wide role in the selection
of the members of the different functional groups which provide
what Durkheim described as the social division of labor
3. Competition encourages achievement and leads to efficiency in the
various functional units of the social system
4. It contributes to social change. It motivates persons into adopting
new forms of behavior to attain desired goals that may lead to
innovation or inventions.
DERIVED SOCIAL PROCESS
ACCOMMODATION Accommodation is a compromised working arrangement that enables
people to engage with one another in activities or living together even when
their differences are irreconcilable. When cooperation is not attainable,
groups or society tends to settle accommodation to achieve harmonious co-
existence. This is common in the context of minorities and the dominant
groups who have to live together. The minorities tend to simply
accommodate the dominant but resist cooperation.
Accommodation may be defined as that form of social process in which two
or more persons or groups interact in order to prevent, reduce, or eradicate
conflict. This is also a necessary process in most post-conflict contexts
where the survivors are obliged to adjust to each other to sustain attained
peace. The objective of accommodation is to have a means of living
peacefully, co-existing with one another, which may eventually lead to
positive cooperation. It is essentially a two-sided relationship in which both
parties, whether individuals or groups or whole societies, are participants in
interaction. It is characterized by give-and-take in the sense that each side
makes an altercation in its behavior patterns in order to accommodate the
other. It also refers to the state of equilibrium between individuals and
groups and rules of the game which have developed. As a process, it refers
to the conscious efforts of men to develop such working arrangements

46 | P a g e
 among themselves as will suspend conflict and make their relations more
tolerable and less waste of energy.
The common forms of accommodation are:
1. Domination – this is a characteristic of the subordinate type of
domination wherein the stronger party imposes its will and makes
the other yield. In the family, a dominant father may subdue the
other members, and conflict is minimized.
2. Truce – this is an argument to cease hostilities or fighting for a
certain period of time. In the meantime, both parties talk for a
peaceful solution to a problem, which will be satisfactory to both
groups. If no agreement is realized, fighting continues.
3. Compromise – this refers to the giving up by both parties of some
of their demands and the mutual giving of concessions. This is
possible when conflicting parties exercise more or less equal
power.
4. Conciliation and mediation – in settling disputes by conciliation
and mediation, a third party is selected to reconcile the differences
of two opposing parties. This is usually used in settling contract
disputes between labor and management. In conciliation,
organizations may be set up by both parties to handle the disputes.
An effort is made to get parties to agree freely based on a proposal
made by either side, but no recommendation is made by the third
party. In mediation, suggestions are made by the neutral party as
bases for a settlement which have not been put forward by either
side. In the case of warring nations, the head of state/or his/her
representative may bring about peaceful settlement. If the
recommendation by the third party is acceptable to the opposing
parties, the conflict stops.
5. Arbitration – this is a special method of settling disputes through
the efforts of a third party who may be chosen by the contending
parties or appointed by some large agency of power. That the
solution of the third party must be acceptable to each side is agreed
upon beforehand.
6. Toleration – this is a form of accommodation without formal
agreement. It is a result of the live-and-let-live policy or the
agreement to disagree. Individuals or groups put up with each other
without trying to modify the patterns of others.
ASSIMILATION Park and Burgess (1921) defined assimilation as a process of
interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the
memories, sentiments and attitudes of other persons or groups; and by
sharing their experiences and history, are incorporated with them in a
common cultural life. Cultural differences are reduced and eliminated.
Values, attitudes and beliefs blend and there is some kind of cultural
fushion.
For successful assimilation, communication is essential. As a first step in
assimilation, learning the language of the other group is vital. Knowledge of
the language gives the members of the other ethnic group a feeling that
they are interested in them; hence, friendly and intimate social contacts can
follow. Also, the attitudes of the members of the other group are important.
Toleration of persons and groups with different cultures facilitates
communication among them and speeds up the process of assimilation. If
the members of the group are willing to extend equal political and cultural
opportunities to members of other ethnic groups, cultural barriers are
broken down. The blending of folkways, mores and values is likely to occur.

47 | P a g e
 AMALGAMATION Amalgamation refers to the process in which separate organizations unite
to form a larger organization or group, or an organization or group formed
in this way. It is a term that refers to two or more cultures blending together
to create a new, unique culture. This concept is sometimes referred to as
the melting pot theory because the objective is for the individual pieces of
each culture to become indistinguishable once they have blended with the
others.
To hasten assimilation, amalgamation is important. In relation to this, it is
also defined as the process that refers to the intermarriage of persons
coming from different ethnic groups resulting in biological fusion. It hastens
assimilation when groups are similar or when the groups are friendly with
each other. Amalgamation cannot speed up assimilation if the ethnic groups
are divergent in both physical and cultural characteristics.
ACCULTURATION Acculturation on an individual level implies acquisition of a culture by an
adult coming from another culture. On larger scale, acculturation is an
encounter between two cultures whereby in the process both are modified
through fairly close and long continued contact without necessarily blending
with one another. One society borrows from the culture of the other without
losing its identity. For instance, in the contact between the Filipinos and the
Chinese, there has been reciprocal borrowing of cultural patterns and
values. Another example is the enrichment of the Filipino language; there
have been a lot of borrowings from the Spanish, English, Indian, Chinese,
Latin and other languages. Acculturation does not imply the loss of original
or native culture but merely the acquisition of some new elements from
another culture. The process of acculturation is facilitated by encounter and
very often unconsciously. In the Philippines, there has been fast and great
acculturation in terms of the religious system, political system, food and
dresses, as well as in language through various cultural encounters with
outside cultures.

Understanding the Group Behavior

Group Qualities
1. A definable membership
2. Group consciousness or a conscious identification
3. A sense of shared purpose
4. Interdependence in satisfaction of needs
5. Interaction
6. Ability to act in unitary manner
Properties of Group
1. Background – composition of the group, preparation, expectation, arrangements made
for the meeting.
2. Participation pattern – pattern may be one way with leader talking to members or two-
way with leader talking and members responding or multi-directional with all members
speaking to one another
3. Communication – consists of verbal and non-verbal communication of ideas, values and
feelings between the members. It concerns the intentions of the communications and the
impressions received by the ones to whom the communication is addressed. It may be
formal i.e., conveys in an organization through regular channels or informal than
interaction among friends. Difficulties in communication may result from imaginary threats

48 | P a g e
 to group members or may be related to questions of power and influence. Channels of
communications may be built into the structure of a group or may be developed informally
as a function of interpersonal needs and conflict.
4. Atmosphere – this refers to the group’s social climate.
5. Standards or Code of Ethics – development of code ethics or set of standards of proper
and acceptable behavior.
6. Sociometric Pattern – relationship of friendship and antipathy.
7. Structure organization – it may be either of the following: (1) visible organization
structure involves committees, appointed positions or an informal division of labor; and (2)
invisible organizations procedure involve arrangements of members according to relative
prestige, influence, power and seniority.
8. Procedures – ways of working to get things done i.e., used of Robert’s Rules of Order,
making decisions by voting or consensus, etc.
9. Goals – immediate or long range which the group hopes to accomplish.
Meaning of Forming Groups
1. Deliberate Formation – formed to accomplish some objectives. Certain types of groups
are:
a. Work groups – to perform some tasks more efficiently through the pooling and
coordination of the behavior and resources of a collection of individuals.
b. Problem-solving groups – formed on the belief that a group can form a solution more
efficiently than a single individual.
c. Social action groups – formed from the desire to influence the course of events in
society.
d. Mediating groups – it includes coordinating councils, interdepartmental committees,
arbitration boards, etc.
e. Legislative groups – formed to formulate rules, regulations, law, policies.
f. Client groups – formed based on the assumption that the performance on certain
services is more effective or efficient if the “clients” are treated as groups rather than
as individuals.
2. Spontaneous Formation – many groups arise because people expect to derive
satisfaction from associating together.
3. External Designation – a collection of individuals may become a group because they are
treated in a homogenous way by other people. People may be placed into categories on
the basis of color, age, sex, height, weight, ability, education, religion, ethnic group, etc.
Functions of Group Members
Group Building and 1. Encouraging – being friendly, warm responsive to
Maintenance Roles others, praising others and their ideas, agreeing with
(Roles which contribute to and accepting the contributions of others.
building relationships and 2. Mediating – harmonizing, conciliating differences in
cohesiveness among members) points of view, making compromises.
3. Gatekeeping – trying to make it possible for another
member to make a contribution by saying, “we
haven’t heard from Jim yet”, or suggesting limited
talking time for everyone so that all will have a
chance to be heard.

49 | P a g e
 4. Standard Setting – expressing standards for the
group to use in choosing its subject matter or
procedures, rules of conduct and ethical values.
5. Following – going along with the group, somewhat
passively accepting the ideas of others, serving as
an audience during group discussion, being a good
listener.
6. Relieving Tension – draining off negative feeling by
jesting or throwing oil on troubled waters, diverting
attention from unpleasant to pleasant waters.
Group Task Roles 1. Initiating – suggesting new ideas or a changed way
(Roles which help the group do of looking at the group problem or goal, proposing
its work. This is required for the new activities.
locomotion of the group toward 2. Information Seeking – asking for relevant facts or
its goals) authoritative information or relating personal
experience pertinently to the group task.
3. Information giving – providing relevant facts or
authoritative information or relating personal
experience pertinent to group task.
4. Opinion giving – stating a pertinent belief or opinion
about something the group is considering.
5. Classifying – probing for meaning and
understanding, restating something the group is
considering.
6. Elaborating – building on a previous comment,
enlarging on it, giving examples.
7. Coordinating – showing or clarifying the
relationships among various ideas, trying to pull
ideas and suggestions together.
8. Orienting – defining the progress of the discussion
in terms of the group’s goals, raising questions
about the direction the discussion is taking.
9. Testing – checking with the group to see if it is ready
to make a decision or to take some action.
10. Summarizing – reviewing the content of past
discussion.
Non-Formal Roles Emanating 1. Blocking – interfering with the progress of the group
from Self-Centered Behavior by going off on a tangent, citing person experiences,
arguing too much on a point the rest of the group
has revolved, rejecting ideas without consideration,
preventing a vote.
2. Aggression – criticizing or blaming others, showing
hostility toward the group or some individuals
without relation to what has happened in the group,
attacking the motives of others, deflating the ego or
status of others.
3. Seeking recognition – attempting to call attention to
one’s self by excessive talking, extreme ideas,
boasting and boisterousness.
4. Special pleading – introducing or supporting ideas
related to one’s own pet concerns or philosophies

50 | P a g e
 beyond reason, attempting to speak for the
“grassroots”, “the housewife”, “the common man”,
and so on.
5. Withdrawing – acting indifferent or passive,
resorting to excessive formality, whispering to
others.
6. Dominating – trying to assert authority in
manipulating the group or certain members of it by
“pulling rank”, giving directions authoritatively,
interrupting contributions of others.

Group Cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness – the degree to which the members of a group desire to remain in
the group – has been established to be a motivational force for the group members to: (a)
contribute to the group’s welfare; (b) advance the group’s objectives; and (c) participate in the
group’s activities. The discussion of group cohesiveness is based on scheme for analyzing group
cohesiveness.

A person’s attraction to a group is determined by four interacting variables:

1. Motive base for attraction. This refers to the individual’s reasons for joining a group.
Thus, he may have a need for affiliation, recognition, security, money, or he may have
certain values that can be mediated by the group.
2. Incentive properties of the group. These include, among others, the group’s goals,
programs, style of operation, prestige, and the characteristics of its members that are
significant to his motive base.
3. The individual’s expectancy concerning outcomes. This refers to the probability,
subjectively perceived, that membership in the group will actually have beneficial or
detrimental consequences for him.

51 | P a g e
 4. The individual’s comparison level. This refers to his conception of the level of outcomes
that group membership will provide. The greater the number of satisfying memberships a
person has, the more he will demand from membership in any particular group.
Consequences of Group Cohesiveness
1. Maintenance of membership. If a group is attractive to a member, by reasons of the
different factors, then he is likely to remain in the group.
2. Power of group over members. The consequence of cohesiveness most thoroughly
investigated is the power that cohesiveness gives a group to influence its members.
3. Participation and loyalty. Studies have shown that as cohesiveness increases, there is
more frequent communication among members, a greater degree of participation in group
activities and a lower rate of absences.
4. Personal security. There is evidence that cohesiveness has effects on the personal
adjustment of members.
5. Self-evaluation. Knowing one’s sense of personal worth.
Group Solidarity
Given the strong emphasis on group solidarity in the Philippines, conformity to group
norms is heavily rewarded while to deviate from them is to court strong social disapproval.
Some mechanisms which support the system of social control are:
1. Technique discernible in group interaction like:
a. The commitment to pakikisama
b. The tendency to level an individual who is out of line
c. Gossip
2. The curbing of anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or by ascribing undesirable
statuses to deviants.
A conversational technique which Lynch has called sociostat cuts down to size any
individual who publicly takes credit for an act or claims any kind of superiority over his in group.
He who tries to be different from members of his group in an attempt to improve his lot is quickly
shown that his efforts are not appreciated. If he values the social approval of the old in group
more than he does the approval of others who would benefit from his alternate forms of behavior,
then he falls back to the ways of the old group.
Leadership and Performance of Group Functions
Traits of Leaders
1. Essential requirements for Bagobo Leadership are: dexterity, morality and wisdom that
conform to the overall accepted community patterns.
2. Traditionally, the qualities associated with the pangat, the elected leader are: wealth,
industry, righteousness, magnetic bearing, bravery, justice honesty and sincerity.
3. A true leader does not solve the people’s problems.
4. To be a leader in most societies in the Philippines, he must be economically stable, an
effective reconciler, a convincing speaker and active in community affairs.
5. A new view of leadership is emerging which stresses performance of needed functions
and adaptability to changing situations.

52 | P a g e
Role Performance
Leadership is one of the most studied aspects of group communication. Scholars in
business, communication, psychology, and many other fields have written extensively about the
qualities of leaders, theories of leadership, and how to build leadership skills. It’s important to
point out that although a group may have only one official leader, other group members play
important leadership roles. Making this distinction also helps us differentiate between leaders and
leadership. Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice
(London: Routledge, 2011), 456. The leader is a group role that is associated with a high-status
position and may be formally or informally recognized by group members. Leadership is a
complex of beliefs, communication patterns, and behaviors that influence the functioning of a
group and move a group toward the completion of its task. A person in the role of leader may
provide no or poor leadership. Likewise, a person who is not recognized as a “leader” in title can
provide excellent leadership.
Throughout human history, some people have grown into, taken, or been given positions
as leaders. Many early leaders were believed to be divine in some way. In some indigenous
cultures, shamans are considered leaders because they are believed to be bridges that can
connect the spiritual and physical realms. Many early kings, queens, and military leaders were
said to be approved by a god to lead the people. Today, many leaders are elected or appointed
to positions of power, but most of them have already accumulated much experience in leadership
roles. Some leaders are well respected, some are feared, some are hated, and many elicit some
combination of these reactions.
In general, some people gravitate more toward leadership roles than others, and some
leaders are designated while other are emergent. Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction:
Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 456. Designated leaders are officially
recognized in their leadership role and may be appointed or elected by people inside or outside
the group. Designated leaders can be especially successful when they are sought out by others
to fulfill and are then accepted in leadership roles. On the other hand, some people seek out
leadership positions not because they possess leadership skills and have been successful
leaders in the past but because they have a drive to hold and wield power. Many groups are
initially leaderless and must either designate a leader or wait for one to emerge organically.
Emergent leaders gain status and respect through engagement with the group and its task and
are turned to by others as a resource when leadership is needed. Emergent leaders may play an
important role when a designated leader unexpectedly leaves.
Leadership Styles
Given the large amount of research done on leadership, it is not surprising that there are
several different ways to define or categorize leadership styles. In general, effective leaders do
not fit solely into one style in any of the following classifications. Instead, they are able to adapt
their leadership style to fit the relational and situational context. Julia T. Wood, “Leading in
Purposive Discussions: A Study of Adaptive Behavior,” Communication Monographs 44, no. 2
(1977): 152–65. One common way to study leadership style is to make a distinction among
autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leaders. Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White,
“Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created ‘Social Climates,’” Journal of Social
Psychology 10, no. 2 (1939): 269–99. These leadership styles can be described as follows:

53 | P a g e
 • Autocratic leaders set policies and make decisions primarily on their own, taking
advantage of the power present in their title or status to set the agenda for the group.
• Democratic leaders facilitate group discussion and like to take input from all members
before making a decision.
• Laissez-faire leaders take a “hands-off” approach, preferring to give group members
freedom to reach and implement their own decisions.
While this is a frequently cited model of leadership styles, we will focus in more detail on
a model that was developed a few years after this one. I choose to focus on this later model
because it offers some more specifics in terms of the communicative elements of each leadership
style. The four leadership styles used in this model are directive, participative, supportive, and
achievement oriented. Robert J. House and Terrence R. Mitchell, “Path-Goal Theory of
Leadership,” Journal of Contemporary Business 3 (1974): 81–97.
Directive leaders help provide psychological structure for their group members by clearly
communicating expectations, keeping a schedule and agenda, providing specific guidance as
group members work toward the completion of their task, and taking the lead on setting and
communicating group rules and procedures. Although this is most similar to the autocratic
leadership style mentioned before, it is more nuanced and flexible. The originators of this model
note that a leader can be directive without being seen as authoritarian. To do this, directive leaders
must be good motivators who encourage productivity through positive reinforcement or reward
rather than through the threat of punishment. A directive leadership style is effective in groups
that do not have a history and may require direction to get started on their task. It can also be the
most appropriate method during crisis situations in which decisions must be made under time
constraints or other extraordinary pressures. When groups have an established history and are
composed of people with unique skills and expertise, a directive approach may be seen as
“micromanaging.” In these groups, a more participative style may be the best option.
Participative leaders work to include group members in the decision-making process by
soliciting and considering their opinions and suggestions. When group members feel included,
their personal goals are more likely to align with the group and organization’s goals, which can
help productivity. This style of leadership can also aid in group member socialization, as the
members feel like they get to help establish group norms and rules, which affects cohesion and
climate. When group members participate more, they buy into the group’s norms and goals more,
which can increase conformity pressures for incoming group members. As we learned earlier, this
is good to a point, but it can become negative when the pressures lead to unethical group member
behavior. In addition to consulting group members for help with decision making, participative
leaders also grant group members more freedom to work independently. This can lead group
members to feel trusted and respected for their skills, which can increase their effort and output.
Supportive leaders show concern for their followers’ needs and emotions. They want to
support group members’ welfare through a positive and friendly group climate. These leaders are
good at reducing the stress and frustration of the group, which helps create a positive climate and
can help increase group members’ positive feelings about the task and other group members. As
we will learn later, some group roles function to maintain the relational climate of the group, and
several group members often perform these role behaviors. With a supportive leader as a model,
such behaviors would likely be performed as part of established group norms, which can do much
to enhance social cohesion. Supportive leaders do not provide unconditionally positive praise.

54 | P a g e
They also competently provide constructive criticism in order to challenge and enhance group
members’ contributions.
Achievement-oriented leaders strive for excellence and set challenging goals,
constantly seeking improvement and exhibiting confidence that group members can meet their
high expectations. These leaders often engage in systematic social comparison, keeping tabs on
other similar high-performing groups to assess their expectations and the group’s progress. This
type of leadership is similar to what other scholars call transformational or visionary leadership
and is often associated with leaders like former Apple CEO Steve Jobs, talk show host and
television network CEO Oprah Winfrey, former president Bill Clinton, and business magnate
turned philanthropist Warren Buffett. Achievement-oriented leaders are likely less common than
the other styles, as this style requires a high level of skill and commitment on the part of the leader
and the group. Although rare, these leaders can be found at all levels of groups ranging from local
school boards to Fortune 500 companies. Certain group dynamics must be in place in order to
accommodate this leadership style. Groups for which an achievement-oriented leadership style
would be effective are typically intentionally created and are made up of members who are skilled
and competent in regards to the group’s task. In many cases, the leader is specifically chosen
because of his or her reputation and expertise, and even though the group members may not
have a history of working with the leader, the members and leader must have a high degree of
mutual respect.
Power and Influence in Groups
Agents Exerting Influence
One person has power over another if he can perform an act that will result in a change
in the other person. The source of interpersonal power has at least two components: (a) certain
properties of O, called resources; (b) certain needs or values of P, the motive base of power.
1. Resources – list of resources of interpersonal power usually contain such items as
wealth, prestige, skill, information, physical strength and the ability to gratify the ego
needs that people have for such intangibles as recognition, affection, respect and
accomplishment.
2. Power Motivation – a person with resources has the capacity to perform acts that will
influence those who value these resources. On the other hand, a person with few
resources is likely to realize that ordinarily there is little point in his attempting to
influence others.
The decision whether to engage in an act of influence is determined and governed by
these four considerations:
1. The net advantage to the individual performing the act;
2. The consequences of the act for the group;
3. The subjective probability that the act will be successful; and
4. The prospect of being rewarded for fulfilling role expectations.
The Person Subjected to Influence
Motive Base of Influence refers to conditions affecting a person’s willingness to be
influenced. This includes:

55 | P a g e
 1. Desire to receive reward – reward power or avoid punishment (coercive power).
2. Desire to be like an admired person – referent power
3. Desire to abide by one’s values – appeal is made to values like fairness, generosity,
honesty, acceptance of authority structure (legitimate power)
4. Desire to correct – to have an accurate view of reality. If P views O as having special
knowledge or expertness, P attributes expert power to O. This may be due to O’s
experience, training, intelligence, reputation for credibility or special access to relevant
information.
5. Group-oriented desires – when influence attempts are seen as instrumental to
accomplishing group goals or maintaining the group.
6. Intrinsic gratification – appreciates the change sought by O as desirable.
By-Products of Power
Effects on the Person having Power

• The high-power person is able to initiate activities, set the pace, and “call the changes” in
the interaction;
• The possession of power increases one’s sense of person security and permits making
plans that extend farther into the future; and
• Since powerful persons can readily have their own way, they may tend to be insensitive
to the needs of others.
Effects on the Person Subjected to Power

• The existence of a power relationship poses a threat to P and he seeks ways of defending
himself;
• The use of ingratiation, to induce powerful person to use his power in a benevolent way;
• Powerless people take actions to change the power relation itself – revolution or rebellion;
and
• Way to improve situation of little people:
a. Restrict the range of legitimate power (e.g., by legislation and collective bargaining);
b. Avoid social situations where superior may perform strong disagreeable act; and
c. Redistribute power by redistribution of resources (e.g., pooling of resources in a
concerted way, forming coalitions with others).
The long-term effects on persons consistently subjected to power by others: tendency to
become apathetic, submissive, pessimistic or tendency to become hostile, angry, aggressive or
rebellious against authority.
Influence of Group on Individual Behavior
1. The way on which individuals learn, the speed of their learning, the retention of learned
material, and the way in which they solve problems are influenced by the group to which
they belong and participate.
2. The group influences the individual’s formation of attitudes and tends to be decisive in the
development of norms of response to situations (predictable behavior reactions).
3. Group experiences operate to change an individual’s level of aspiration and striving.
Individual goal setting is highly dependent upon group standards and their attainment is
related to the extent to which the whole group moves toward them.

56 | P a g e
 4. Group experience operates to modify the individual’s habits of living, working and carrying
on life’s pursuits (dominant group pattern setting).
5. Group experience has a powerful influence upon the individual’s perception of himself and
his role in a given situation (acquisition of self-insight and self-understanding).
6. Group tends to provide psychological support for individuals and helps them express
themselves positively and negatively (noticeable in his acceptance and adaptation to life
situation).
7. Group tends to influence the choices that individuals make in situations where there are
alternatives.
8. Groups affect an individual’s speed, accuracy and productivity in work.
9. Group have a strong effect upon an individual’s susceptibility to fear, frustration and his
recovery from them is hastened because of the security giving function of the group.
10. Group tends to place limits on the individual’s drive for power and his need to be controlling
(resolve conflicts between authority and dependence).
Theory of Collective Behavior
Social Strain Theory was proposed by Neil Smelser. This was referred to by other
sociologists as the value-added theory, the most comprehensive way of explaining collective
behavior. It tries to explain whether collective behavior will occur. Smelser claimed that there are
six conditions that typically precede collective behavior. These conditions occur in sequence,
each creating a social environment that makes possible the occurrence of the next.
1. Structural Conduciveness. Certain aspects of social organizations facilitate collective
action. For instance, a radio broadcaster or a television news watch can start a collective
behavior. This form of structural conduciveness may provide a setting that makes possible
forms of collection action. This refers to the conditions that may promote or encourage
collective behavior, which is related to the arrangements of the existing social order.
2. Social Strain. This is referred to as the structural strain. This can arise from different
sources such as sudden disruption of the existing social order, for example, natural
disaster or value conflicts between different segments of society. This occurs when a
group’s ideals conflict with their everyday realities.
3. Growth and Spread of a Generalized Belief. This usually develops to explain the strain
that people are experiencing. It is possible that people develop explanations for the
structural strains under which they must struggle to exist. When explanations are already
expressed and widely shared, collective behavior may take the shape of well-organized
social movements like labor movement, civil rights movement, and human rights
movement, among others. Group action may result in a riot if the explanation of an event
is less clearly expressed.
4. Precipitating Events. Collective behavior usually takes place when something happens
to confirm people’s generalized belief. For instance, the political establishment may be
oppressive and it would use any measure to stop the opposition of a group staging a rally
or demonstration. It is likely that a collective behavior may erupt. In all types of collective
behavior may erupt. In all types of collective behavior, there is an event or a related set of
events that triggers a collective action.
5. Mobilization of Participants for Action. A group of people needs to be mobilized or
organized into taking action. Whenever evidence for a cause accumulates, people begin
to act on their beliefs and they mobilize. Mass hysteria usually breaks out, panic erupts,

57 | P a g e
 mobs form, social movements organize, and some other forms of collective behavior take
place. For instance, before the various groups of people trouped to EDSA in 1986,
Cardinal Sin called on the people, specifically various leaders – lay and religious – to
march to EDSA and express their opposition to the dictatorship. This call served to
mobilize group action.
6. Breakdown or Mechanism of Social Control. The governing elite often attempts to stop
or prevent collective behavior. In doing this, it can influence the timing, content, direction
and outcome. The results are not always what the agents of social control intend to elicit.
At this point, the course that collective behavior follows depends on the various ways those
in power respond to the action in order to establish order. Their efforts usually backfire.
Instead, these efforts only fueled protest and violence. During the EDSA 3, with the efforts
of the law enforcers to prevent the rallyists to go near Mendiola and Malacanang, violence
took place.

58 | P a g e
COMMUNITY FORCES INFLUENCING GROUP BEHAVIOR
Physical Environment Forces
Environment Cycles
Environment cycles which govern the behavior of the three (3) Great Global Systems: air,
water and soil.
Within each of these three, live many thousands of different species of living things, each
species affects the physical and chemical properties of the immediate environment.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem refers to a system composed of living and non-living things. There are two
major types of ecosystem: terrestrial and aquatic.
Technology
Technology refers to the industrial science, particularly its application to replacement of
skilled labor by modern machinery. It includes the following types:
1. High-Capital Intensive - refers to business processes or industries that require large
amounts of investment to produce a good or service and thus have a high percentage
of fixed assets, such as property, plant, and equipment (PP&E).
2. Low-Labor Intensive - implies those tasks which require a small workforce for
accomplishment. The industry is considered low labor-intensive in producing goods
and services if the manufacturing process relies more on machinery than human
resources.
3. Intermediate – involves less capital and more labor than that in general; use in more
advanced countries.
Urbanization
Urbanization refers to the increasing appearance in rural and small-town areas of behavior
patterns and cultural values characteristically associated with big-city life.
The characteristics of Urban Social Relations are as follows:
1. Superficial – an urban person has the limited number of persons with whom he
interacts and his relations with them are impersonal and formal. People meet each
other in highly segmental roles. They are dependent on more people for the
satisfactions of their life needs.
2. Anonymous – urbanites do not know each other intimately. Personal mutual
acquaintance between the inhabitants which ordinarily inheres in a neighborhood is
lacking.
3. Transitory – an urban inhabitant keeps on forgetting his own acquaintances and
develops relations with new people. Since he is not much attached with his neighbors,
members of the clubs, he does not mind their leaving these places.
4. Overload – system’s inability to process inputs from the environment because there
are too many inputs for the system to cope with or because successive inputs come
so fast that input A cannot be processed when input B is presented.

59 | P a g e
Adaptive Responses to Overload
1. Allocation of less time to each input.
Example: Sales personnel devote limited time and attention to customers.
2. Disregard of low-priority inputs.
Example: Urbanite disregards the drunk sick on the street as he purposefully navigates
through the crowd.
3. Boundaries are redrawn in certain social transactions so that the overloaded system
can shift the burden to the other party in the exchange.
Example: Love Bus Drivers require passengers to have exact fare ready rather than
making change for customers.
4. Reception is blocked off prior to entrance in the system.
Example: Some city dwellers assume an unfriendly countenance thereby discouraging
others to initiate contact.
5. Intensity of inputs is diminished by filtering devices, so that only weak and relatively
superficial forms of involvement with others are allowed.
6. Specialized institutions are created to absorb inputs that would otherwise swamp the
individual.
Example: Social Welfare Agencies
Industrialization
Industrialization is a stage of social-technological development or movement toward such
a stage characterized particularly by assembly-line mass production – large factories employing
extensive power-driven machinery and specialized work with a finely wrought division of labor
and characterized also by urbanization and by highly mechanized method of communication and
transportation.
Values that Underwrote the Rise of Industrialization
1. Treatment of nature as simply an object to be exploited for the satisfaction of human
desires;
2. Emphasis on quality as a key to the true measure of the good; and
3. Valuation plays upon knowledge as a source of power and the conscious organization
of the pursuit of knowledge as part of the quest for power.

60 | P a g e
DYNAMICS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS
Deviations in Human Behavior/Social Functioning
Deviance is generally defined as an act that violates a social norm. Other sociologists
define deviance as the recognized violation of cultural norms. True to all societies, norms, shape
a wide range of human activities. It also refers to an action that is perceived as violating widely
shared moral values or norms of a society or group culture. Certain socially defined standards
are violated. Because moral standards change over time and vary from one society or group to
another, ideas of what is deviant vary and change.
Prerequisite to deviance is the violation of standards of conduct or expectations of a group
of society. Sociologists believe that deviant behavior fails to conform to the norms of the group.
The norms violated may not have been formalized into law. It includes broad violation ranging
from criminal behavior and actions not subject to prosecution. It has to be noted that deviation
from norms may not always be negative.
Deviance can be understood only within its social context. For instance, a portrait of a
nude lady is definitely a deviation from existing norms if displayed in a classroom. However, if
displayed in an art gallery, it would mean simple work of art. Also, ladies in two-piece swimsuit
will definitely be accused of violating certain norms of conduct if found going inside a mall.
However, that attire will be appropriate and acceptable in a beach resort.
Theoretical Perspective
BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DEVIANCE
Biological and Psychological Theories
Cesare Lombroso, considered as the Italian Father of Criminology, thought he was able to sort out who
was and was not a criminal. He concluded based on his observations and experiences as army physician
that criminals possess low cranial capacity, retreating forehead, highly developed frontal sinuses, tufted
hair, large ears and relative insensibility to pain. According to him, the criminal occupies the lowest rung
on the human evolutionary ladder. Lombroso developed an index of criminality based on the shape of a
person’s head and earlobe. However, he was not able to distinguish between a criminal from those who
were not. In other words, his study did not pay so much attention to the physical traits of non-criminals.
However, in 1919, an English physician Charles Goring subjected Lombro’s claims to scrutiny and found
out that criminals and non-criminals are physically the same. In short, it was discovered that Lombroso’s
ideas caused researchers to focus attention on the causes of crime, rather than on physical features of
the criminals.
Somatotypes
In 1940, William H. Sheldon conducted another study related to Lombroso’s claim that crime is
biologically determined. This is contained in his book The Varieties of Human Physique, where he
concluded that we could predict man’s likes and dislikes by measuring his body. The theory of body
types of somatotypes stated that people’s behavior or temperament is determined by their physique.
Temperamentally, endomorphs are relaxed, outgoing people who like physical comfort and eating.
Meanwhile, ectomorphs shrink from big crowds, noise and distractions and have numerous complaints,
allergies, and skin troubles, and usually suffer from chronic fatigue and insomnia. Mesomorphs are
usually the troublemakers and have the greatest chance of becoming delinquent. They are active, walk
and talk, and often behave aggressively. However, Sheldon did not claim that body type causes
criminality, but rather it influences how an individual responds to society and how society responds to
him/her. In many studies, it was shown time and again that there appears a relationship between body
type and criminality. However, these studies did not show that body type causes delinquency. They
showed that body type is related to aggression among females than among males.

61 | P a g e
Genetics
Another attempt to answer whether criminals are born is through genetics. This comprises one of the
present-day criminology theories that continues to offer a genetic explanation for the cause of violent
crime. This theory suggests that excessive aggression and hostility are the result of the presence of an
extra Y chromosome. Proponents of this theory argue that there is a disproportionate number of criminal
men with an XYY chromosomal make-up. However, there has been no conclusive findings on whether
criminals actually have a higher rate of XYY chromosomal make-up as compared to the remaining
population. In short, the series of studies conducted did not clearly prove that crime is genetically
determined.
Pathology
Another biological explanation of deviance today is evident in Alcoholic Anonymous (AA) programs
which, according to Preston (1975), are based on the belief that alcoholism is both a physical allergy and
a mental compulsion, or a physical sickness as a form of social deviance. According to Smith and Preston
(1982), pathology has been popular and has satisfying explanation for deviance for two main reasons:
1. Pathology-based theory is easily understood since everyone knows what disease is and this is
easily given credibility; and
2. Pathology removes the element of blame, that is, no person or institution is responsible for
deviant behavior since it is caused by physical or emotional problem of the individual.
Pathology-based theories of deviance have many limitations. To say that sick person is deviant is
erroneous.
SOCIOBIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DEVIANCE
In his book titled Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1978), Edward O. Wilson conceived sociobiology as
a science with a broad scop: entire societies. However, his general assumption has been based on the
works of those applying biology in explaining deviance behavior. He assumed that human social behavior
is genetically determined to the extent that biology defines human learning potential. The human mind is
not blank that simply records and assimilates experiences, but instead, it is biologically programmed to
accept certain experiences while rejecting others. In the earliest period, biological research tended to
focus on rare and abnormal cases. Later, sociobiological researchers suggested that common biological
traits may be linked to criminality. However, since so little is understood about genetics and human
behavior, causal connections have not been established. Later, researches put more emphasis on social
influences on human behavior.
There are many other sociobiological approaches to explain deviant behavior. According to Charles H.
McCaghy in his book Deviant Behavior: Crime, Conflict and Interest Groups (1985), while they differ, in
which biological factor is emphasized, the approaches themselves fall into one of the following
categories:
1. Evolutionary Processes. These theories are concerned with a long-term development of
specific behaviors over the course of many generations. Wilson’s thesis (1975) on how the incest
taboo evolved is an example of this. It is doubtful that such theories will have much impact on
the study of deviant behavior. The most that these studies contributed is that they sensitize us
to the manner in which biological factors may affect behavior.
2. Genetic Differences. These theories are concerned with how behavior is influenced by
hereditary factors that are more immediate than those formed during evolution. Contemporary
proponents of this are unlikely to claim the Jukes and Kallikas (a phrase that originated from a
study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness by Henry H. Goddard, an American psychologist and
eugenicist in 1912) as evidences. But they heavily rely on family and twin studies to demonstrate
that some traits and behaviors may be inherited. Of particular interest here is the hypothesis that
certain mental disorder often reoccurs among generations of the same family.
3. Neurophysiological Differences. These theories concern a wide range of physiological factors
that might influence human behavior. They include hormone imbalance, vitamin deficiency, brain
malfunctioning, or any organic aspects that might interfere with learning or behaving. It has to
be noted that psychological, like biological explanations of deviance, tend to be individualistic,
focusing on abnormalities in the individual personality. Although some of these abnormalities are
hereditary, psychologists view most of these as a result of socialization under socialization.
Under the psychological theories, it is held that since personality is shaped by social experiences
throughout life, deviance is usually understood to be the result of unsuccessful socialization.

62 | P a g e
 There are a number of biological factors that psychological explanations of deviance tend to
downplay or dismiss. Some school of psychology tend to emphasize the role of parents and
early childhood experiences in explaining deviance. Behavioral conditioning is generally
considered responsible for producing deviant behavior. Psychological explanation of deviance
assumes that the seeds of deviance are planted in childhood and that adult behavior is a
manifestation of early experiences rather than an expression of ongoing social or cultural factors.
Therefore, the deviant individual is viewed as a psychologically sick person who experienced
emotional deprivation or damage during childhood.
4. Psychoanalytic Theory. This is based on the work of Sigmund Freud and his followers.
Psychoanalytic theory holds that the unconscious (the part of individual; consisting of irrational
thoughts and feelings of which he/she is not aware) causes one to commit deviant acts.
According to Freud, our personality has three parts: (a) the id (our irrational drives and instincts),
(b) the superego (our conscience and guide as internalized from our parents and other authority
figures), and (c) the ego (the balance among the impulsiveness of the id, the restrictions and
demands of the superego, and the requirements of the society). According to this theory, all of
us have deviant tendency because of the id. However, we learn to control our behavior because
of socialization. Most people are able to function effectively according to society’s norms and
values. This theory is criticized due to the very abstract concepts it used, which can hardly be
tested.
5. Behavioral Theories. People adjust and modify their behavior in response to the rewards and
punishments elicited by their actions. If an action leads to a favorable outcome, one is likely to
repeat that action. If a behavior leads to unfavorable outcomes, one is not likely to do the same
action. According to this approach, deviant behavior is learned by a series of trials and errors.
One learns to be a snatcher or a thief in the same way the professionals learn their profession
or the artists learn from their craft.
6. Containment Theory. Reckless and Dinitz (1967) explained juvenile delinquency as the
outcome of the children’s personality traits. Under this theory, the desire to engage in delinquent
activities can be contained if the young individuals have developed string moral values and a
positive self-image in their younger age. It is held in this theory that the good children seem to
have a strong conscience (or Sigmund Freud’s superego), generally coped well with frustration,
and identified positively with cultural norms and values. Thus, they are far from becoming
deviant. This is usually not the case among what is described as bad children. Many
psychological researches have demonstrated that personality patterns have some relationship
to delinquency and other types of deviance. There are, however, some weaknesses of this
approach because of the following: (a) many crimes are committed by people who are not
psychologically abnormal; and (b) the approach looks at the individuals and it ignores how
normal and abnormal personality traits vary from society to society in the same manner that
deviance varies with cultural values. On the other hand, other sociologists hold the view that
delinquency and criminal behaviors are less a product of association than of differential
opportunity. They claim that the opportunity to learn criminal behavior is greater in certain
communities than in others, as criminality is not equally prevalent throughout the society.
In conclusion, it can be said that both the biological and the psychological approaches view deviance as
an individual attribute without exploring how conceptions of right and wrong, desirable and undesirable
are made without considering the deviant’s place in the larger society. Hence, sociological analysis is
vital.
Albert Cohen, in his book Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang, proposed a related and more
particular theory which states that the adolescent behavior is influenced by delinquent subcultures who
particular norms and values are far removed from those of the larger society. In contrast to the values of
deferred gratification, hard work, moderation, and sobriety, which are emphasized in the larger society,
the values of the gang center on short-run hedonism and promote adventure, thrills and lawlessness.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF DEVIANCE
1. Functionalist Theory. According to Emile Durkheim, deviance can serve a number of functions
for society. He asserted that there is nothing abnormal in deviance. He enumerates four major
functions of deviance:

63 | P a g e
 a. Deviance is a function of cultural values and norms. When one rejects conformity to
cultural values and norm, then society, wrong or right, treats him/her as a radical or lacking
in the ability to conform. Norms vary in abstraction and clarity. Folkways, for example, are
very fluid and vague; laws are blacker and whiter; ethics and morals tend to be rigidly and
professionally or religiously defined; mores are very rigid and strict; while traditions may be
both rigid and flexible. As such, norms are subject to conflicting interpretations. Society
requires clear definition of norms. According to rules, what is right and wrong, what is
desirable and undesirable are defined. A boundary between these needs to be well
established and respected.
b. Responding to deviance clarifies a moral boundary. it strengthens solidarity among law-
abiding members of society. A collective outrage against deviants, the common enemy of
the community can unite the people. It promotes social cohesion, and because of that, it
decreases crime. Durkheim calls this a factor in public health, an integral part of all healthy
societies.
c. Responding to deviance promotes social unity. People typically react to serious violation
of societal norms and threat to public security. Due to this, they reaffirm the social ties that
bind them. It provides a safety valve for discontented people. For example, peace-loving
people tend to get united in working to fight terrorism.
d. Deviance encourages social change. An example of this social change is when Martin
Luther King Jr. and other civil rights advocates got imprisoned. But this event moved the
United States toward greater racial equality. It is therefore possible that what is deviance
today may become societal norm tomorrow.
Durkheim, in his The Division of Labor in Society, published in 1893, argued that deviant
behavior can be understood only in relation to the specific moral code it violates. He argued. “we
must not say that an action shocks the common conscience because it is criminal, but rather
that it is criminal because it shocks the common conscience.” He held that the common
conscience or moral code has an extremely stronghold on societies in which there are few social
distinctions among people and everybody, more or less, performs the same tasks. The main
reason is that in mechanically integrated societies, people are organized in terms of shared
norms and values and therefore all members feel equally committed to and responsible for the
moral code that binds them together. Here, deviant behavior that violates the code is felt by all
members of the society to be a personal threat. However, as society becomes more complex,
they drift from the mechanical solidarity mode to organic solidarity mode where social
organization is maintained by the interdependence of individuals or various social organizations.
The complexity of larger societies necessitates division of labor with individuals and groups
becoming more specialized and differentiated but remaining organically integrated. At this stage,
society is held together less by moral consensus than by economic interdependence. A shared
moral code continues to function but it tends to be broader and less powerful in determining
individual behavior. However, in highly complex and rapidly changing societies, some individuals
start to feel that the moral consensus has weakened. Some lose their sense of belonging, the
feeling of participating in a meaningful social whole. Values and norms start to have little impact
to them. The culture no linger provides adequate guide for behavior. Some of them feel
disoriented, frightened and alone. There appears a state of normlessness, which Durkheim
referred to as anomie, the feeling of individuals that their culture no longer provides adequate
guidelines for behavior, and values and norms begin to have little impact on them. He discovered
that this is the major cause of suicide. What is useful in Durkheim’s theory is that it demolishes
the common-sense belief that deviance is always harmful. Deviance can also bring benefit if it
occurs with limits.
2. Strain Theory. Robert Merton is remembered for this theory. He claimed that American society
pushes individuals toward deviance by overemphasizing the importance of monetary success
while failing to emphasize the importance of using legitimate means to achieve that success. He
meant that those people occupying favorable positions in the social class structures have many
legitimate means at their disposal to achieve success. On the other hand, those in unfavorable
positions do not have such means. In this case, the goal of financial success combined with

64 | P a g e
 unequal access to important environmental resources creates deviance. Merton (1957) gave the
following types of deviance that emerge from this strain:
a. Conformity is the most popular type of response that involves accepting both the cultural
goal of success and the use of legitimate means for achieving that goal. The conformists
use positive success goal and legitimate means.
b. Innovation is the response that involves accepting the goal of success but rejecting the use
of socially accepted means to achieve it, turning instead to unconventional, illegitimate
means. The innovator resorts to deviant ways of reaching a cultural validated goal.
c. Ritualism occurs when people no longer set high success goals but continue to toil as
conscientious, diligent workers. The ritualists are people who de-emphasize or reject the
importance of success once they realize they will never achieve it, and instead concentrate
on following or enforcing these rules than intended.
d. Retreatism means withdrawal from society, caring neither about success nor about working.
The retreatists are individuals who have pulled back from society altogether and who do not
pursue culturally legitimate goals. Examples of these are vagabonds, outcasts, drug addicts,
alcoholics, and other similar groups.
e. Rebellion occurs when people reject and attempt to change both the goals and the means
approved by society. The rebels try to overthrow the existing system and establish a new
system with different goals and means. They reject both the goals of what to them are an
unfair social order and the institutionalized means of achieving them. The propose
alternative societal goals and institutions.
It has to be noted that Merton applied Durkheim’s concept of anomie by linking deviance to
certain societal imbalances. He started with the observation that financial success is widespread
goal in America. The society endorses certain means to that goal. Ideally, success is achieved
through obtaining an appropriate education and hard labor. Success gained through theft or
other dishonest activities is a violation of cultural norms. He argued that if people are socialized
to aspire for success and to play for the rules, conformity should result.
3. Deviant Subcultures. There is an extension of Merton’s theory developed by Richard Cloward
and Lloyd Ohlin. They pointed out that criminal deviance results when there is limited legitimate
opportunity to achieve success plus available illegitimate opportunity. To them, patterns of
deviance and conformity largely reflect the relative opportunity structure confronted by various
categories of young people.
Cloward and Ohlin (1966), in their position on Delinquency and Opportunity, said: “if an illegal
(criminal) structure is not readily available in a given social location, a criminal subculture is not
likely to develop among adolescents. If violence offers a primary channel to a higher status in a
community, a greater participation by juveniles in conflict (violence) will normally occur.” This
means that if relative opportunity favors what Merton might call organized innovation, criminal
subculture is likely to develop. Such subculture offers the knowledge, skills and other resources
needed to succeed in unconventional ways. Moreover, among those who have failed success
even using criminal means, retreatist subculture may arise. Commonly, delinquency is
pronounced among lower-class youth because they are denied the opportunity to achieve
success in a conventional way.
4. Control Theory. An advocate of this theory is Travis Hirschi. He assumed that the family, school,
and other social institutions can greatly contribute to social order by controlling deviant
tendencies in every individual. If such control is lacking or weak, people will commit deviant acts.
This theory is based on the idea that social ties among people are important in determining their
behavior. It asks what causes conformity, instead of what causes deviance. This theory holds
that what causes deviance is the absence of that which causes conformity. Under this view,
conformity is a direct result of control over the individual. It is therefore the absence of social
control that causes deviance. This means that people will be free to violate norms and standards
of society if they lack intimate attachments of their parents, teachers, and friends. The absence
of these attachments and the acceptance of conventional norms usually lead people to violate
norms since there is no expected disapproval. According to this theory, many people do not
commit deviant acts because of their strong bond to society. Hirschi (1969) suggested four ways
in which individuals become bonded to society and the conventional behavior prevailing in it:

65 | P a g e
 a. Attachment to others. People form intimate attachments to parents, teachers, and their
friends or peer who display conventional attitudes and behavior. Strong attachments to other
enhance conformity. On the other hand, weak relationship with one’s group leaves an
individual free to engage in deviant behavior.
b. Commitment. People who have higher commitment to legitimate opportunity have greater
advantages to conformity. Some individuals spend most of their time and energy in their
education, jobs or further acquiring occupational skills. They are committed to achievement
through these activities.
c. Involvement. Some people find themselves so preoccupied in some conventional activities.
They may find themselves always busy preparing for their classes, practicing their work well,
or simply working out in the gym. They are likely to avoid deviance unlike those who simply
hang out waiting for something to happen. Typical example of the latter is the group of
teenage youth joining their barkada and simply remaining idle.
d. Belief. Belief in the moral validity of social rules, like respect for authority figures certainly
leads individuals to undertake wholesome activities. People with weak beliefs are more
vulnerable to whatever temptation deviance may present.
Macionis (2006) acknowledged that Hirschi’s theory, known as control theory, is widely viewed
as one of the most useful for explaining many kinds of deviant behavior. Here, it is a person’s
location in society that is considered crucial or allowing everyday temptations to turn into
deviance.
5. Shaming Theory. While Hirschi emphasized how society controls individuals through bonding,
John Braithwaite, an Australian sociologist, emphasized how society controls people through
shaming. Making a person feel ashamed is a powerful social control, it does not involve legal
procedures or due process but making one to feel either ostracized or guilty. It is a social
expression of disapproval of someone’s acts or behavior in a way that evokes remorse in the
wrongdoer. Under this theory, there are two types of shaming; (a) disintegrative shaming, in
which the wrongdoer is punished in such a way as to stigmatize, reject, or ostracize the person,
and in effect, banishing the wrongdoer from conventional society; and (b) reintegrative shaming,
which is more positive and involves making the wrongdoer feel guilty while showing him/her
understanding, forgiveness, or respect. This is the kind of shaming that affectionate parents
apply to a misbehaving child. This involves hating the sun, but loving the sinner. This type of
shaming reintegrates or welcomes back the wrongdoer into the conventional society.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE: DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Thio (2001) analyzed the different theories explaining the occurrence of deviance in society. He
capsulized the theories by saying: “Functionalism assumes that deviance has to do with social order in
one way or another.” To Durkheim, deviance can bring about an orderly society. To Merton, deviance
results paradoxically from a culture’s attempt to ensure a prosperous social order by encouraging an
intense pursuit of success. To Hirschi and Braithwaite, social bonding and shaming contribute to social
order, and the lack of them leads to social disorder. In conflict theory, it is assumed that the importance
of social conflict to explain deviance. This includes forms of inequalities or power differences.
1. Conflict Theory. This holds the view that some laws are used to protect and preserve the
capitalist system. Quinney (1974) blamed unjust laws on the capitalist system contrary to the
assumption that the law is based on the consent of citizens, that it treats citizens equally, and
that is serves the best interest of society. According to him, some criminal laws are used by the
state and the ruling class to secure the survival of the capitalist system. This involves the
dominant class doing at least four things: (a) defines as criminal those behaviors like murder and
robbery among others that threaten its interests; (b) hires law enforcers to apply those definitions
and protect its interests; (c) exploits the subordinate class by paying low wages so that the
resulting oppressive life conditions virtually force the powerless to commit what those in power
have defined as crimes; and (d) uses these criminal actions to spread and reinforce the popular
view that the subordinate class is dangerous in order to justify its concerns with making and
enforcing the law. Some people are compelled to committing crime in order to survive since more
and more lose their jobs as the capitalist system continuously increases profits by cutting labor
costs and costs of production that many become, what Marxists call, a marginal surplus
population, the large class of unemployed workers. Marxists also hold the view that the
exploitative nature of capitalism also causes violent crimes such as murder, kidnapping and

66 | P a g e
 others, and even non-criminal deviance such as alcoholism, mental illness and drug addiction.
Some people resort to violence in order to escape from their frustration and rebel against
symbols of authority. Others turn their frustrations inward and experience emotional difficulties
and mental disorders. According to Thio (2000), conflict theory is useful in explaining why most
laws favor the wealthy and powerful, and why the poor and the powerless commit most of the
unprofitable crimes. However, this theory is criticized for implying that all laws are unjust and
that capitalism is the source of all crimes.
2. Power Theory. Power can also be a significant cause of deviance. Thio (2000) noted that
powerful people have stronger deviant motivation. It may stem from relative deprivation, the
feeling of being unable to achieve relatively high aspirations, which may not be true to the
powerless who aspirations may understandably be very low. The more people feel relative
deprivation, the more they are likely prone to deviance. In addition, the powerful enjoy greater
opportunities for deviance. This will explain the bigger corruptions are likely to involve people in
high positions. Also, the powerful are subjected to weaker social control since they have more
influence in the making of laws and in their implementation.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE
The functionalist and conflict perspectives describe deviance as a product of society. On the contrary,
symbolic interactionist perspective considers deviance as a process of interaction between the person
considered deviant and the rest of the society.
1. Differential Association and Opportunity Theories. In the 1930s, Edward Sutherland
proposed a learning theory of social deviance. He stated that individuals are likely to become
deviant if more of their primary group interactions favor deviance rather than oppose it. According
to him, deviance is learned in the same way as normative behaviors through a differential
association. This is founded on the following premises:
a. All criminal behavior, including habitual, professional, organized and white-collar is learned;
b. The learning process requires social interaction and communication;
c. Criminal behavior is the result of personal participation in groups rather than impersonal
contacts with mass media and formal agencies of institutions;
d. The learning of criminal behavior includes the acquisition of criminal techniques and the
formation of new attitudes, motives, drives and forms of neutralization that have been
systematically reinforced;
e. Criminal behavior occurs because group norms favor rather than oppose violation of the law.
This is reinforced by the group commitments or relationships the individual has established.
f. The tendency to commit crime reflect the contacts an individual has with a group that accepts
or approves of such act;
g. Criminal and non-criminal behaviors are learned by the same process; and
h. Criminal and non-criminal behaviors are both expressions of the goals and/or values of the
individual or group.
Sutherland developed this theory to explain the various forms of deviance, including white-collar
crimes such as tax evasion, embezzlement, and price fixing.
2. Labeling Theory. It shifts the focus of attention from the deviant individual to the social proves
by which a person comes to be labeled as deviant and the consequences of such labeling for
the individual. This view emerged in the 1950s from the writings of Edwin Lemert. Since then,
many sociologists have elaborated on the labeling approach. According to the labeling theory,
society tends to react to a rule-breaking act by labelling it as deviant. In this case, it is the label
imposed on that behavior that creates deviance rather than the act a person does:” I become a
criminal because you classify my acts as crimes.” Once a person is labeled a thief or a delinquent
or a drunkard, the individual may be stuck with that label for life, and may be rejected or isolated
as a result. Paradoxically, this labelling process actually helps bring about more of the deviant
behavior in society. Being caught and branded as deviant has important consequences for one’s
further social participation and self-image. It creates a drastic change in the individual’s public
identity. Tischler (1990) identified at least three factors that determine whether a person’s
behavior will set in motion the process by which he/she will be labeled deviant: (a) the importance
or gravity of the norms that are violated; (b) the social identity or status of the individual who
violates them; and (c) the nature of the social context of the behavior in question. The labeling
theory has led to sociologists to come up with two types of deviance behavior: primary deviance

67 | P a g e
 and secondary deviance. Primary deviance is used in labeling theory to refer to the original
behavior that leads to the individual’s being labeled deviant, while secondary deviance refers to
the deviant behavior that emerges as a result of having been labeled deviant.

Typologies/Classification [Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR)]

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision
(DSM-5-TR) was published in 2022. It involved more than 200 experts, the majority of whom were
involved in the development of DSM-5. In addition, four cross-cutting review groups (Culture, Sex
and Gender, Suicide, and Forensic) reviewed all the chapters, focusing on material involving their
specific expertise. A Work Group on Ethnoracial Equity and Inclusion ensure that appropriate
attention to risk factors like racism and discrimination and the use of non-stigmatizing language.
DSM-5-TR includes a new diagnosis, prolonged grief disorder and new symptom codes that allow
clinicians to indicate the presence or history of suicidal behavior and nonsuicidal self-injury. Some
necessary clarifications to certain diagnostic criteria were reviewed and approved by the DSM
Steering Committee, as well as the APA Assembly and Board of Trustees. The Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, (DSM-5) was the product of more than 10
years of effort by hundreds of international experts in all aspects of mental health. Their dedication
and hard work have yielded an authoritative volume that defines and classifies mental disorders
to improve diagnoses, treatment, and research. DSM consists of three major components: the
diagnostic classification, the diagnostic criteria sets, and the descriptive text.
Diagnostic Classification
The diagnostic classification is the official list of mental disorders recognized in DSM. Each
diagnosis includes a diagnostic code, which is typically used by individual providers, institutions,
and agencies for data collection and billing purposes. These diagnostic codes are derived from
the coding system used by all U.S. health-care professionals, known as the International
Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-10-CM).
Diagnostic Criteria Sets
For each disorder included in DSM, a set of diagnostic criteria indicates symptoms that
must be present (and for how long) as well as a list of other symptoms, disorders, and conditions
that must first be ruled out to qualify for a particular diagnosis. While these criteria help increase
diagnostic reliability (i.e., the likelihood that two doctors would come up with the same diagnosis
when using DSM to assess a patient), it is important to remember that these criteria are meant to
be used by trained professionals using clinical judgment; they are not meant to be used by the
general public.
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
Neurodevelopmental disorders are conditions that affect how your brain functions. They range from mild
impairments, allowing those affected to live fairly normal lives, to severe disorders that require lifelong
care.
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
• Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder) - is a disorder evident in
childhood as significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive functioning (Toth & King,
2010). People with ID experience difficulties with day-to-day activities to an extent that reflects
both the severity of their cognitive deficits and the type and amount of assistance they receive.
DSM-5 identifies difficulties in three domains: conceptual (e.g., skill deficits in areas such as
language, reasoning, knowledge, and memory), social (e.g., problems with social judgment and

68 | P a g e
 the ability to make and retain friendships), and practical (e.g., difficulties managing personal care
or job responsibilities).
• Global Developmental Delay - used when a child takes longer to reach certain development
milestones than other children their age. This might include learning to walk or talk, movement
skills, learning new things and interacting with others socially and emotionally. Someone with
another condition, like Down’s syndrome or Cerebral palsy, may also have Global developmental
delay.
• Unspecified Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder) - is a diagnosis
reserved for children over 5 years of age who could not be assessed due to multiple factors,
such as a physical disability or co-occurring mental illness. These two diagnoses require
reassessment at a later date (1). The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria include deficits in intellectual
functions such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic
learning, and learning from experience (2). Deficits in adaptive function affect communication,
social participation, and independent living activities
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
• Language Disorder - a person with a diagnosis of language disorder demonstrates persistent
difficulties in the acquisition and use of language across modalities (i.e., spoken, written, sign
language, or other).
• Speech Sound Disorder (previously Phonological Disorder) - a person with a diagnosis of
speech sound disorder demonstrates persistent difficulties with speech sound production that
interferes with speech intelligibility or prevents verbal communication of messages.
• Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering) - a person with a diagnosis of speech
childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering) demonstrates disturbances in the 'normal' fluency
and time patterning of speech that are inappropriate for the individual’s age and language skills.
• Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder - a person with a diagnosis of speech social
(pragmatic) communication disorder demonstrates persistent difficulties in the social use of
verbal and non-verbal communication.
• Unspecified Communication Disorder - a person with a diagnosis of speech unspecified
communication disorder experiences symptoms of a speech disorder, but does not meet a
sufficient number of the diagnostic criteria to warrant a more specific diagnosis. Their symptoms
have a significant impact on social, occupational, educational, and interpersonal functioning.
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
• Autism Spectrum Disorder - a neurological development disorder that impacts a person’s
thinking, perception, attending, social skills and behavior. ASD has a wide variety of
characteristics that are displayed in a person’s ability or inability to socially interact, communicate
and display unusual behavior or interests in their daily lives.
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - a neurodevelopmental disorder that displays
persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity. Those diagnosed can fall into
either stream or have a combined presentation.
• Other Specified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - diagnosis assigned to individuals
who have symptoms of AD/HD, which cause distress or impair social, educational/occupational,
or other vital areas of functioning, but they do not meet the complete diagnostic criteria for AD/HD
or other disorders in the Neurodevelopmental category.
• Unspecified Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - used in situations in which the clinician
chooses not to specify the reason that the criteria are not met for the ADHD or for a specific
neurodevelopmental disorder and includes presentation in which there is insufficient information
to make a more specific diagnosis.
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER
• Specific Learning Disorder - a neurodevelopmental disorder that presents difficulties in
learning and using academic skills, despite the provision of interventions that target those
difficulties. The affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below those expected
for the individual’s chronological age and interfere with academic performance. Learning
difficulties for these individuals may be mild, moderate or severe and may manifest fully when

69 | P a g e
 the demand for academic skills exceeds the individual’s limited capacities (e.g., timed tests,
reading or writing lengthy reports, heavy academic loads, etc.).
MOTOR DISORDERS
• Developmental Coordination Disorder - Coordinated motor skills, both developing and
executing, is substantially below expectations based on age and education. Symptoms include
clumsiness and slow and inaccurate motor skills. Onset is early in development.
• Stereotypic Movement Disorder - includes repetitive, driven, and purposeless motor behavior
like shaking, rocking and hitting oneself. Onset is early in development
• Tic Disorders - Tics are sudden twitches, movements, or sounds that people do repeatedly.
People who have tics cannot stop their body from doing these things. For example, a person
with a motor tic might keep blinking over and over, or a person with a vocal tic might make a
grunting sound unwillingly. There are five distinct tic disorders in the DSM-5: Tourette disorder,
persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder, provisional tic disorder, other specified tic
disorder, and unspecified tic disorder. Diagnosis varies, depending upon the particular kind of
tic-related motor disorder.
o Tourette’s Disorder - is the most well-known tic disorder, largely because of its
depictions in movies and television shows, but it is relatively uncommon. Symptoms
for Tourette disorder must be present before age 18, and both vocal and motor tics
must be present. The tics may vary over time, but must persist for over one year
since the onset of the original symptoms. Age of onset can be anywhere between
the ages of two and 21, with the most severe tics occurring between the ages of 10
and 12.
o Persistent (Chronic) Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder - involves one or more motor or
vocal tics, but cannot include both. If both motor and vocal tics occur, the child should
be screened for Tourette disorder. The tics may vary in frequency, but must persist
for more than one year after onset. Tics must begin before age 18 and cannot be
attributable to another disorder or substance.
o Provisional Tic Disorder - is diagnosed when tics are present for less than one year.
There can be one or more tics, which can include motor and/or vocal tics. Tics cannot
be attributable to another disorder or substance. Additionally, the child cannot have
been diagnosed with Tourette disorder or persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic
disorder in the past.
o Other Specified Tic Disorder - applies to cases in which there are symptoms
characteristic of a tic disorder that cause significant distress or impairment but do not
meet the full criteria for a tic disorder or for any of the disorders in the
neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic class. This diagnosis is used in situations
in which the clinician chooses to specify the reason that the criteria are not met for a
tic disorder or for a specific neurodevelopmental disorder
o Unspecified Tic Disorder - also applies to cases in which there are symptoms
characteristic of a tic disorder that cause significant distress or impairment but do not
meet the full criteria for a tic disorder or for any of the disorders in the
neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic class. However, this diagnosis is used in
situations in which the clinician chooses not to specify the reason that the criteria are
not met for a tic disorder or for a specific neurodevelopmental disorder. It includes
presentations in which there is insufficient information to make a more specific
diagnosis.
OTHER NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
• Other Specified Neurodevelopmental Disorder
• Unspecified Neurodevelopmental Disorder – is a DSM-5, diagnosis assigned to individuals
who are experiencing symptoms of a neurodevelopmental disorder, but do not meet the full
diagnostic criteria for one of the Neurodevelopmental disorders.
SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS
Individuals with schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders experience a range of often
debilitating symptoms that may include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, speech,
and/or disorganized or unusual behavior. Psychotic disorders include schizophrenia, schizoaffective

70 | P a g e
disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder, shared psychotic
disorder, substance-induced psychotic disorder, and paraphrenia.
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
• Schizotypal (Personality) Disorder - similar to schizophrenia, but episodes are not as frequent,
prolonged or intense. Individuals can usually be made aware of the difference between their
distorted ideas and experiences, and reality.
• Delusional Disorder - an individual displays one or more delusions for at least a month. This is
different from schizophrenia, as functioning is generally not impaired and behavior (other than
the delusion) doesn't appear "odd". There are several different types of delusional disorder,
including: grandiose, jealous, persecutory, somatic, erotomatic, and mixed. If an individual's
delusions do not fall into one of these categories, or cannot be clearly defined, the disorder is
classified as unspecified delusional disorder.
• Brief Psychotic Disorder - classification used when psychotic symptoms come on suddenly
and only last less than a month.
• Schizophreniform Disorder - identical to schizophrenia, but the duration of symptoms is less
(longer than a month but less than six months)
• Schizophrenia
• Schizoaffective Disorder - similar to schizophrenia with major mood episodes (major
depressive disorder or bipolar disorder)
• Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder - is a mental health condition in which
the onset of your psychotic episodes or psychotic disorder symptoms can be traced to starting
or stopping using alcohol or a drug (onset during intoxication or onset during withdrawal).
• Psychotic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Hallucinations, delusions, or other
symptoms may happen because of another illness that affects brain function, such as a head
injury or brain tumor.
Catatonia
• Catatonia Associated with Another Mental Disorder (Catatonia Specifier) - a diagnosis may
be made when a person exhibits three or more of the diagnostic criteria for each type of
catatonia:
o Stupor - no conscious mental activity is witnessed within the person’s environment.
o Catalepsy - the individual maintains a fixed/frozen posture.
o Waxy flexibility - slight, even resistance to bodily manipulation.
o Mutism - little to no verbal response; cannot be explained by aphasia.
o Negativism - opposition or unresponsiveness to external stimuli or instructions.
o Posturing - spontaneous and active maintenance of a posture against gravity.
o Mannerism - exaggerated or repetitive gestures or expressions.
o Stereotypy - repetitive movements without obvious purpose.
o Agitation - emotionally restless; not as a result of external stimuli.
o Grimacing - displaying contorted facial expressions.
o Echolalia - mimics another’s speech.
o Echopraxia - mimics another’s movements.
• Catatonic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition Unspecified Catatonia - in cases
where catatonia is experienced as a result of another disorder, the above measures will again
be used in the diagnosis, alongside several other criteria - namely:
o There is evidence that the disturbance being experienced is a direct result of another
medical condition.
o The disturbance cannot be better explained by another mental disorder.
o The disturbance does not occur only during episodes of delirium.
o The disturbance causes distress or impairment in social, occupational or other key areas
of functioning.
• Other Specified Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorder - applies to
presentations in which symptoms predominate that are characteristic of a schizophrenia
spectrum and other psychotic disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. These symptoms, however, do not

71 | P a g e
 meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic
disorders diagnostic class.
• Unspecified Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorder - if an individual is
experiencing symptoms of catatonia that cause significant distress or impairment but that cannot
be clearly attributed to another mental or medical condition, or there is not enough information
to do so, they may be diagnosed with unspecified catatonia.
BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS
Characterized by shifts of mood with severe highs (mania) and extreme lows (depression). In a
depressed episode, the child may have any or all of the symptoms of a depressive disorder. When in a
manic episode, the child may be overactive, over talkative, and have a great deal of energy (American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2015). Depressive disorders are distinct from the bipolar and related
disorders because they include an elevated mood component as well as a depressed mood state, the
combination of which is reflected in the prefix bi, meaning “dual states” (Wilmshurst, 2014). The
depressive disorders, in contrast, manifest a single (unipolar) emotional state of low positive affectivity
characterized by sadness, lethargy, distress, and/or un-pleasurable engagement (Wilmshurt).
• Bipolar I Disorder - requires a manic (or mixed) episode lasting at least one week, unless
hospitalization is necessary. Depressive episodes are not required, but most youth experience
major or minor episodes during their lifetime.
• Bipolar II Disorder - requires major depressive episodes with at least one hypomanic episode
(a lesser form of mania) lasting at least four days. There are no full manic or mixed manic
episodes.
• Cyclothymic Disorder - requires at least two years (one year in children and adolescents) of
numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms that do not meet criteria for a hypomanic episode
and numerous periods of depressive symptoms that do not meet criteria for a major depressive
episode. Cyclothymic disorder is primarily a chronic, fluctuating mood disturbance.
• Substance/Medication-Induced Bipolar and Related Disorder - requires that bipolar
symptoms developed during or soon after substance exposure, intoxication, or withdrawal, and
that the substance is capable of producing these symptoms.
• Bipolar and Related Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - requires a persistent
elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and high energy. No other mental disorder should be
present that could explain the symptoms; instead, symptoms are a direct pathophysiological
consequence of another medical condition.
• Other Specified Bipolar and Related Disorder - requires symptoms that do not meet the full
criteria for any bipolar disorder but that cause significant distress. This includes short-duration
hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes, hypomanic episodes with insufficient
symptoms or without accompanying major depressive episodes, or short-duration cyclothymia.
• Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorder - this disorder is similar to “other specified bipolar
and related disorder” but is diagnosed when the clinician chooses not to specify why symptoms
do not meet bipolar criteria.
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS
Depression in children and adolescents can manifest in different ways than it does in adults (American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2008). For instance, in adolescents, an irritable
mood rather than a sad or dejected mood often predominates.
• Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder - the core feature of disruptive mood dysregulation
disorder is chronic, severe, persistent irritability. This irritability has two prominent clinical
manifestations, the first of which is frequent temper outbursts. These outbursts typically occur in
response to frustration and can be verbal or behavioral (behavioral outburst take the form of
aggression against property, self, or others). This diagnosis is new. It was created to reduce the
risk of overdiagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder in children (APA, 2013a). The diagnosis
is available for children from six to eighteen years of age.
• Major Depressive Disorder, Single and Recurrent Episodes - characterized by a period of at
least two weeks during which the youth experiences sadness, hopelessness, guilt, loss of
interest in activities that are usually enjoyable, and/or irritability most of the time.
• Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) - a depressive disorder in which the symptoms
are chronic and persistent but less severe than major depressive disorder (APA & AACAP, n.d.).

72 | P a g e
 The disorder occurs when youth experience a sustained depressed mood for most of the day,
for more days than not, for at least one year (compared to two years for adults). Symptom-free
intervals last no longer than two consecutive months.
• Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder - a condition in which a woman has severe depression
symptoms, irritability, and tension before menstruation. The symptoms of PMDD are more
severe than those seen with premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
• Substance/Medication-Induced Depressive Disorder - the diagnostic features of
substance/medication-induced depressive disorder include the symptoms of a depressive
disorder, such as major depressive disorder; however, the depressive symptoms are associated
with the ingestion, injection, or inhalation of a substance (e.g., drug of abuse, toxin, psychotropic
medication, other medication), and the depressive symptoms persist beyond the expected length
of physiological effects, intoxication, or withdrawal period.
• Depressive Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - occurs when there is evidence from
history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that the disturbance is the direct
pathophysiological consequence of another medical condition (Patricelli, n.d.). It must be
established that the depressive symptoms can be etiologically related to the medical condition
through a physiological mechanism before making a judgment that this is the best explanation
for the symptoms of a specific individual.
• Other Specified Depressive Disorder - this category applies to presentations in which
symptoms characteristic of a depressive disorder that cause clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do
not meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the depressive disorders diagnostic class.
• Unspecified Depressive Disorder - this category applies to presentations in which symptoms
characteristic of a depressive disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full
criteria for any of the disorders in the depressive disorders diagnostic class.
ANXIETY DISORDERS
Anxiety disorders are disorders that cause children and adolescents to feel frightened, distressed, and
uneasy due to perceived threats or stressors. Although most children and adolescents experience fears
and worries, which can be labeled as anxiety, the fears and worries present in anxiety disorders actually
impede daily activities or functioning (Christophersen & Mortweet, 2001). The Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) distinguishes anxiety from fear, in that fear is an
emotional response to a real or perceived imminent threat, and anxiety is the anticipation of a future
threat (APA, 2013a). When both anxiety and the impairment of normal activities are evident, an anxiety
disorder may be present.
• Separation Anxiety Disorder - a disabling and irrational fear of separation from caregivers,
who may be children or adults.
• Selective Mutism - now classified as anxiety disorder, as most children affected by selective
mutism are anxious. The child speaks in some locations, but not others, even when expected to
speak.
• Specific Phobia - a disabling and irrational fear of something that poses little or no actual
danger.
• Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) - a disabling and irrational fear of social encounters
with non-family members.
• Panic Disorder - no longer linked with agoraphobia. Chronic fears of having panic attacks after
having at least one uncued panic attack.
• Panic Attack (Specifier) - intense fear or discomfort for distinct timeframe without any real
danger. The DSM-5 no longer utilizes categories of panic attacks, but instead limits the types to
expected and unexpected. Panic attacks may be applied to all DSM-5 disorders as a specifier.
• Agoraphobia - No longer linked with panic disorder. Must endorse fears from two or more
agoraphobic situations.
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder - chronic, exaggerated, and overwhelming worries about
multiple every day, routine life events or activities.

73 | P a g e
 • Substance/Medication-Induced Anxiety Disorder - this disorder is diagnosed when panic
attacks or other anxiety symptoms are brought on by use of or withdrawal from alcohol or other
drugs, taking medications or exposure to heavy metals or toxic substances.
• Anxiety Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - when a person suffers from anxiety
disorder due to another medical condition, the presence of that medical condition leads directly
to the anxiety experienced. The anxiety is the predominant feature and may take the form of
panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive behavior, or generalized anxiety.
• Other Specified Anxiety Disorder - applies to individuals who have symptoms characteristic
of an anxiety disorder but do not meet the full criteria for any of them.
• Unspecified Anxiety Disorder - anxiety-like symptoms that cause severe distress or
impairment, but there is not enough information to determine which specific type of anxiety
disorder. This situation can occur in emergency rooms, where a complete medical history and
psychiatric evaluation are not always possible.
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRD) is the umbrella term that describes disorders that
have several features in common, including obsessive preoccupation and repetitive behaviors. These
disorders have enough similarities to group them together in the same diagnostic classification, but
enough important differences to exist as distinct subtypes.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to
engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions). A person with this disorder might,
for example, spend hours each day washing his hands or constantly checking and rechecking
to make sure that a stove, faucet, or light has been turned off.
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder - an individual with body dysmorphic disorder is preoccupied with
a perceived flaw in physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other
people (APA, 2013). These perceived physical defects cause people to think they are
unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus on any bodily area,
but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair. The preoccupation with imagined physical flaws
drives the person to engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as
constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others,
and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery (Phillips, 2005).
• Hoarding Disorder - people with hoarding disorder cannot bear to part with personal
possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions are. As a result, these
individuals accumulate excessive amounts of usually worthless items that clutter their living
areas.
• Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder) - also known as trich, is when someone cannot resist
the urge to pull out their hair. People with trich feel an intense urge to pull their hair out and they
experience growing tension until they do. After pulling their hair out, they feel a sense of relief.
A person may sometimes pull their hair out in response to a stressful situation, or it may be done
without really thinking about it.
• Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder - also called dermatillomania or excoriation disorder,
excoriation is characterized by picking at one’s own skin, including healthy skin, calluses, and
pimples. Individuals with excoriation disorder pick at actual and perceived skin defects, leading
to physical damage.
• Substance/Medication-Induced Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder - the
symptoms caused by substance/medication-induced obsessive-compulsive and related disorder
can be those of any other OCRD, including obsessions, compulsions, body-focused repetitive
behaviors (APA, 2013a). Symptoms develop during or soon after intoxication or withdrawal from
the substance or medication.
• Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - an
obsessive-compulsive and related disorder diagnosis where there is a prominent and persistent
period of obsessive-compulsive symptoms thought to be related to the direct physiological
effects of another medical condition.
• Other Specified Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder – a category of DSM-5
diagnoses that applies to individuals who have symptoms characteristic of obsessive-compulsive

74 | P a g e
 disorders (e.g. - obsessive compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder) but do not meet the
full criteria for any of them. This category in OCD also includes disorders with cultural
components that have symptoms characteristic of OCD.
• Unspecified Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder - used when the clinician chooses
not to specify the reason criteria are not met, or in situations where there is insufficient
information to make a more specific diagnosis.
TRAUMA- AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS
The trauma- and stressor-related disorders are serious psychological reactions that develop in some
individuals following exposure to a traumatic or stressful event such as childhood neglect, childhood
physical/sexual abuse, combat, physical assault, sexual assault, natural disaster, an accident or torture.
Characteristic symptoms of all other trauma- and stressor-related disorders can be placed into four broad
categories:
• Intrusion Symptoms - include recurrent, involuntary and distressing memories, thoughts, and
dreams of the traumatic event. The individual may also experience flashbacks, a dissociative
experience in which they feel or act as if the traumatic event is reoccurring.
• Avoidance Symptoms - efforts to avoid internal (memories, thoughts, feelings) and/or external
(people, places, situations) reminders of the traumatic event. Preoccupation with avoiding
trauma-related feelings and stimuli can become a central focus of the individual’s life.
• Negative Alterations - include problems remembering important aspects of the traumatic event,
depression, fear, guilt, shame, and feelings of isolation from others.
• Hyper-Arousal Symptoms - include being jumpy and easily startled, irritability, angry outbursts,
self-destructive behavior, problems concentrating, and diffculty sleeping.
• Reactive Attachment Disorder - characterized by serious problems in emotional attachment to
others. These children rarely seek comfort when distressed and are minimally emotionally
responsive to others. RAD results from a pattern of insufficient caregiving or emotional neglect
that limits an infant’s opportunities to form stable attachments.
• Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder - characterized by a pattern of behavior that
involves culturally inappropriate, overly familiar behavior with unfamiliar adults and strangers.
This disorder results from a pattern of insufficient caregiving or emotional neglect that limits an
infant’s opportunities to form stable attachments.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - characterized by significant psychological distress lasting
more than a month following exposure to a traumatic or stressful event. Symptoms from all of
the categories discussed above must be present.
• Acute Stress Disorder - similar to PTSD but the duration of the psychological distress last only
three days to one month following exposure to a traumatic or stressful event.
• Adjustment Disorders - characterized by the development of emotional or behavioral
symptoms in response to an identifiable stressor (e.g., problems at work, going off to college).
Adjustment disorder symptoms must occur within three months of the stressful event. Symptoms
do not persist more than six months.
• Other Specified Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorder - this category applies when
symptoms characteristic of a trauma- and stressor-related disorder do not meet the full criteria
for any of the disorders included in the trauma- and stressor-related disorders diagnostic
category.
• Unspecified Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorder - this category also applies when
symptoms are characteristic of, but do not meet the full criteria for, any of the disorders included
in the trauma- and stressor-related disorders diagnostic category. However, this category is used
when the clinician chooses not to specify why the criteria are not met or there is insufficient
information, such as during an emergency room visit.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
Dissociative disorders are characterized by an involuntary escape from reality characterized by a
disconnection between thoughts, identity, consciousness and memory. People from all age groups and
racial, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds can experience a dissociative disorder.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder - formerly known as multiple personality disorder, this disorder
is characterized by alternating between multiple identities. A person may feel like one or more
voices are trying to take control in their head. Often these identities may have unique names,

75 | P a g e
 characteristics, mannerisms and voices. People with DID will experience gaps in memory of
every day events, personal information and trauma. Women are more likely to be diagnosed, as
they more frequently present with acute dissociative symptoms. Men are more likely to deny
symptoms and trauma histories, and commonly exhibit more violent behavior, rather than
amnesia or fugue states. This can lead to elevated false negative diagnosis.
• Dissociative Amnesia - the main symptom is difficulty remembering important information
about one’s self. Dissociative amnesia may surround a particular event, such as combat or
abuse, or more rarely, information about identity and life history. The onset for an amnesic
episode is usually sudden, and an episode can last minutes, hours, days, or, rarely, months or
years. There is no average for age onset or percentage, and a person may experience multiple
episodes throughout her life.
• Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder - this disorder involves ongoing feelings of
detachment from actions, feelings, thoughts and sensations as if they are watching a movie
(depersonalization). Sometimes other people and things may feel like people and things in the
world around them are unreal (derealization). A person may experience depersonalization,
derealization or both. Symptoms can last just a matter of moments or return at times over the
years. The average onset age is 16, although depersonalization episodes can start anywhere
from early to mid-childhood.
• Other Specified Dissociative Disorder - this category applies to presentations in which
symptoms characteristic of a dissociative disorder that cause clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do
not meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the dissociative disorders diagnostic class.
• Unspecified Dissociative Disorder - this category applies to presentations in which symptoms
characteristic of a dissociative disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full
criteria for any of the disorders in the dissociative disorders diagnostic class.
SOMATIC SYMPTOM AND RELATED DISORDERS
The major diagnosis in this diagnostic class, Somatic Symptom Disorder, emphasizes diagnosis made
on the basis of positive symptoms and signs (distressing somatic symptoms plus abnormal thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours in response to these symptoms) rather than the absence of a medical
explanation for somatic symptoms. A distinctive characteristic of many individuals with somatic symptom
disorders is not the somatic symptoms per se, but instead the way they present and interpret them.
• Somatic Symptom Disorder - is diagnosed when a person has a significant focus on physical
symptoms, such as pain, weakness or shortness of breath, to a level that results in major distress
and/or problems functioning. The individual has excessive thoughts, feelings and behaviors
relating to the physical symptoms.
• Illness Anxiety Disorder - formerly called Hypochondriasis, people with this type are
preoccupied with a concern they have a serious disease. They may believe that minor
complaints are signs of very serious medical problems. For example, they may believe that a
common headache is a sign of a brain tumor.
• Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder) - this condition is
diagnosed when people have neurological symptoms that can't be traced back to a medical
cause.
• Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions - psychological factors affecting
other medical conditions is diagnosed when attitudes or behaviors have a negative effect on a
medical disorder that the person has. People's attitudes or behavior can negatively affect any
disorder (such as diabetes mellitus, heart disease, or migraines) or symptom (such as pain).
Attitudes and behavior can make a disorder or symptoms worse, sometimes resulting in
hospitalization or a visit to an emergency department. For example, severe stress can
temporarily weaken the heart, or chronic work-related stress can increase the risk of high blood
pressure. The risk of suffering, death, or disability due to the disorder can be increased. Factors
that can worsen a medical condition include the following: (1) Denying the significance or severity
of symptoms; (2) Denying the need for treatment; (3) Not following the prescribed treatment plan;
and (4) Not getting the recommended tests.

76 | P a g e
 • Factitious Disorder - a serious mental disorder in which someone deceives others by appearing
sick, by purposely getting sick or by self-injury. Factitious disorder also can happen when family
members or caregivers falsely present others, such as children, as being ill, injured or impaired.
• Other Specified Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder - this category describes situations
in which somatic symptoms occur for less than six months or may involve a specific condition
called pseudocyesis, which is a false belief woman have that they are pregnant along with other
outward signs of pregnancy, including an expanding abdomen; feeling labor pains, nausea, fetal
movement; breast changes; and cessation of the menstrual period.
• Unspecified Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder - DSM 5 reserves this category for rare
occasions where there are predominantly somatic symptoms but there is insufficient information
to make a more specific diagnosis.
FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS
Eating disorders are behavioral conditions characterized by severe and persistent disturbance in eating
behaviors and associated distressing thoughts and emotions. They can be very serious conditions
affecting physical, psychological and social function. Types of eating disorders include anorexia nervosa,
bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, avoidant restrictive food intake disorder, other specified feeding
and eating disorder, pica and rumination disorder.
• Pica - is an eating disorder in which a person repeatedly eats things that are not food with no
nutritional value. The behavior persists over for at least one month and is severe enough to
warrant clinical attention.
• Rumination Disorder - involves the repeated regurgitation and re-chewing of food after eating
whereby swallowed food is brought back up into the mouth voluntarily and is re-chewed and re-
swallowed or spat out. Rumination disorder can occur in infancy, childhood and adolescence or
in adulthood.
• Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder - is a recently defined eating disorder that involves
a disturbance in eating resulting in persistent failure to meet nutritional needs and extreme picky
eating. In ARFID, food avoidance or a limited food repertoire can be due to one or more of the
following:
o Low appetite and lack of interest in eating or food.
o Extreme food avoidance based on sensory characteristics of foods e.g. texture,
appearance, color, smell.
o Anxiety or concern about consequences of eating, such as fear of choking, nausea,
vomiting, constipation, an allergic reaction, etc. The disorder may develop in response
to a significant negative event such as an episode of choking or food poisoning followed
by the avoidance of an increasing variety of foods.
• Anorexia Nervosa - characterized by self-starvation and weight loss resulting in low weight for
height and age. Anorexia has the highest mortality of any psychiatric diagnosis other than opioid
use disorder and can be a very serious condition.
• Bulimia Nervosa - Individuals with bulimia nervosa typically alternate dieting, or eating only low
calorie “safe foods” with binge eating on “forbidden” high calorie foods.
• Binge-Eating Disorder - As with bulimia nervosa, people with binge eating disorder have
episodes of binge eating in which they consume large quantities of food in a brief period,
experience a sense of loss of control over their eating and are distressed by the binge behavior.
Unlike people with bulimia nervosa however, they do not regularly use compensatory behaviors
to get rid of the food by inducing vomiting, fasting, exercising or laxative misuse. The binge eating
is chronic and can lead to serious health complications, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension
and cardiovascular diseases.
• Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder - this diagnostic category includes eating
disorders or disturbances of eating behavior that cause distress and impair family, social or work
function but do not fit the other categories listed here. In some cases, this is because the
frequency of the behavior does not meet the diagnostic threshold (e.g., the frequency of binges
in bulimia or binge eating disorder) or the weight criteria for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa
are not met.
• Unspecified Feeding or Eating Disorder - applies to presentations in which symptoms
characteristic of a feeding and eating disorder that cause clinically significant distress or

77 | P a g e
 impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functions predominate but do not
meet the full criteria for any of the disorders in the feeding and eating disorders diagnostic class.
ELIMINATION DISORDERS
Elimination disorders all involve the inappropriate elimination of urine or feces and are usually first
diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. This group of disorders includes enuresis, the repeated voiding
of urine into inappropriate places, and encopresis, the repeated passage of feces into inappropriate
places.
• Enuresis - this disorder is more commonly known as bedwetting. Children with this condition
are unable to control their urine. This usually results in frequent or irregular release on their beds
or elsewhere.
• Encopresis - occurs in children no younger than four years old. This condition is characterized
by children passing stool in inappropriate locations like their underwear. This condition may be
voluntary or involuntary, and is a common occurrence in male children.
• Other Specified Elimination Disorder - the diagnosis for “other specified elimination disorder”
is given when symptoms of an elimination disorder cause significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning but the symptoms do not meet the
full criteria for any specific disorder such as enuresis (bed-wetting) or encopresis (fecal
incontinence).
• Unspecified Elimination Disorder - the diagnosis for “unspecified elimination disorder” is given
when symptoms of an elimination disorder cause significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning but the symptoms do not meet the full
criteria for any specific disorder such as enuresis (bed-wetting) or encopresis (fecal
incontinence).
SLEEP-WAKE DISORDERS
Sleep disorders (or sleep-wake disorders) involve problems with the quality, timing, and amount of sleep,
which result in daytime distress and impairment in functioning. Sleep-wake disorders often occur along
with medical conditions or other mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, or cognitive
disorders.
Sleep-Wake Disorders
• Insomnia Disorder - the most common sleep disorder, involves problems getting to sleep or
staying asleep. To be diagnosed with insomnia disorder, the sleep difficulties must occur at least
three nights a week for at least three months and cause significant distress or problems at work,
school or other important areas of a person's daily functioning. Not all individuals with sleep
disturbances are distressed or have problems functioning.
• Hypersomnolence Disorder - people with hypersomnolence disorder are excessively sleepy
even when getting at least 7 hours sleep.
• Narcolepsy - people with narcolepsy experience periods of an irrepressible need to sleep or
lapsing into sleep multiple times within the same day.
Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders
• Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea - characterized by repetitive episodes of airflow reduction
(hypopnea) or cessation (apnea) due to upper airway collapse during sleep.
• Central Sleep Apnea Sleep-Related - the brain does not properly control breathing during
sleep, causing breathing to start and stop. It is diagnosed when a sleep study identifies five or
more central apneas (pauses in breathing) per hour of sleep.
• Hypoventilation - people with sleep-related hypoventilation have episodes of shallow breathing,
elevated blood carbon dioxide levels, and low oxygen levels during sleep. It frequently occurs
along with medical conditions, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or
medication or substance use.
Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorders (a person’s sleep-wake rhythms (body clock) and the
external light-darkness cycle become misaligned. This misalignment causes significant ongoing sleep
problems and extreme sleepiness during the day leading to significant distress or problems with
functioning.)
• Non–Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Arousal Disorders - involve episodes of incomplete
awakening from sleep, usually occurring during the first third of a major sleep episode, and are

78 | P a g e
 accompanied by either sleepwalking or sleep terrors. The episodes cause significant distress or
problems functioning.
• Sleepwalking - involves repeated episodes of rising from bed and walking around during sleep.
While sleepwalking, the individual has a blank, staring face; is relatively unresponsive to others;
and is difficult to wake up.
• Sleep Terrors - also called night terrors, are episodes of waking abruptly from sleep, usually
beginning with a panicky scream. During each episode, the person experiences intense fear and
associated physical signs such as rapid breathing, accelerated heart rate and sweating. The
person typically does not remember much of the dream and is unresponsive to efforts of others
to comfort them.
• Nightmare Disorder - involves repeated occurrences of lengthy, distressing, and well-
remembered dreams that usually involve efforts to avoid threats or danger. They generally occur
in the second half of a major sleep episode.
• Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder - involves episodes of arousal during sleep
associated with speaking and/or movement. The person’s actions are often responses to events
in the dream, such as being attacked or trying to escape a threatening situation. Speech is often
loud, emotion-filled, and profane. These behaviors may be a significant problem for the individual
and their bed partner and may result in significant injury (such as falling, jumping, or flying out of
bed; running, hitting, or kicking). Upon awakening, the person is immediately alert and can often
recall the dream.

• Restless Legs Syndrome - involves an urge to move one’s legs, usually accompanied by
uncomfortable sensations in the legs, typically described as creeping, crawling, tingling, burning,
or itching.
• Substance/Medication-Induced Sleep Disorder - the official diagnostic name for insomnia and
other sleep problems which are caused by the use of alcohol, drugs, or taking certain
medications.

• Other Specified Insomnia Disorder

• Unspecified Insomnia Disorder
• Other Specified Hypersomnolence Disorder
• Unspecified Hypersomnolence Disorder
• Other Specified Sleep-Wake Disorder
• Unspecified Sleep-Wake Disorder
GENDER DYSPHORIA
The DSM-5 defines gender dysphoria in adolescents and adults as a marked incongruence between
one’s experienced/expressed gender and their assigned gender, lasting at least 6 months.
• Gender Dysphoria - a marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and
assigned gender, of at least six months’ duration, as manifested by at least two or more of the
following:
o A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and primary
and/or secondary sex characteristics (or in young adolescents, the anticipated
secondary sex characteristics)
o A strong desire to be rid of one’s primary and/or secondary sex characteristics because
of a marked incongruence with one’s experienced/expressed gender (or in young
adolescents, a desire to prevent the development of the anticipated secondary sex
characteristics)
o A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics of the other gender
o A strong desire to be of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s
assigned gender)
o A strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or some alternative gender different
from one’s assigned gender)
o A strong conviction that one has the typical feelings and reactions of the other gender
(or some alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender)

79 | P a g e
 • Other Specified Gender Dysphoria - this category applies to presentations in which symptoms
characteristic of gender dysphoria that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full
criteria for gender dysphoria.
• Unspecified Gender Dysphoria - used in situations in which the clinician chooses not to specify
the reason that the criteria are not met for gender dysphoria and includes presentations in which
there is insufficient information to make a more specific diagnosis.
SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS
Sexual dysfunction is characterized by persistent problems with sexual response or pleasure that cause
clinically significant distress.
• Delayed Ejaculation - sometimes called impaired ejaculation — is a condition in which it takes
an extended period of sexual stimulation for men to reach sexual climax and release semen from
the penis (ejaculate). Some men with delayed ejaculation are unable to ejaculate at all.
• Erectile Disorder - is the inability to get and keep an erection firm enough for sexual intercourse.
• Female Orgasmic Disorder - is lack of or delay in sexual climax (orgasm) or orgasm that is
infrequent or much less intense even though sexual stimulation is sufficient and the woman is
sexually aroused mentally and emotionally.
• Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder - is defined in the DSM-5 as lack of, or significantly
reduced, sexual interest/arousal. A woman must have three of the following six symptoms in
order to receive the diagnosis: absent or reduced interest in sexual activity; absent or reduced
sexual thoughts or fantasies; no or reduced initiation of sexual activity, and typically unreceptive
to a partner’s attempts to initiate; absent or reduced sexual excitement or pleasure in almost all
or all sexual encounters; absent or reduced sexual interest/arousal in response to any internal
or external sexual cues; and absent or reduced genital or non-genital sensations during sexual
activity in all or almost all sexual encounters. These symptoms must cause clinically significant
distress and have persisted for a minimum of six months. The disorder is specified by severity
level and subtyped into lifelong versus acquired, generalized versus situational.
• Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder - involves involuntary contraction of the pelvic floor
muscles when vaginal entry is attempted or completed (levator ani syndrome, or vaginismus),
pain that occurs during deep penetration (dyspareunia) or that is localized to the vestibule
(provoked vestibulodynia), anxiety about penetration attempts, or difficulty having intercourse.
• Male Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder - is defined in the DSM-5 as persistent or recurrently
deficient sexual or erotic thoughts, fantasies, and desire for sexual activity. These symptoms
must have persisted for a minimum of six months, and they must cause clinically significant
distress.
• Premature (Early) Ejaculation - occurs when a man has an orgasm and ejaculates earlier
during intercourse than he or his partner would like.
• Substance/Medication-Induced Sexual Dysfunction - a condition in both men and women in
which patients have difficulties with sexual desire, arousal, and/or orgasm due to a side effect of
certain medications (legal or illicit).
• Other Specified Sexual Dysfunction
• Unspecified Sexual Dysfunction
DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSE-CONTROL, AND CONDUCT DISORDERS
Disruptive, impulse control and conduct disorders are a group of disorders that are linked by varying
difficulties in controlling aggressive behaviors, self-control, and impulses. Typically, the resulting
behaviors or actions are considered a threat primarily to others’ safety and/or to societal norms.
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder- four refinements have been made to the criteria for ODD. First,
symptoms are now grouped into three types: angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant
behavior, and vindictiveness. This change highlights that the disorder reflects both emotional
and behavioral symptomatology. Second, the exclusion criterion for conduct disorder has been
removed. Third, given that many behaviors associated with symptoms of ODD occur commonly
in normally developing children and adolescents, a note has been added to the criteria to provide
guidance on the frequency typically needed for a behavior to be considered symptomatic of the
disorder. Fourth, a severity rating has been added to the criteria to reflect research showing that
the degree of pervasiveness of symptoms across settings is an important indicator of severity.

80 | P a g e
 • Intermittent Explosive Disorder - involves impulsive or anger-based aggressive outbursts that
begin rapidly and have very little build-up (APA, 2013). The outbursts often last fewer than 30
minutes and are provoked by minor actions of someone close, often a family member or friend.
The aggressive episodes are generally impulsive and/or based in anger rather than
premeditated. They typically occur with significant distress or psychosocial functional
impairment.
• Conduct Disorder - children and adolescents with CD exhibit persistent and critical patterns of
misbehavior. Like children with ODD, youth with CD may have an issue with controlling their
tempers; however, these youth also violate the rights of others.
• Antisocial Personality Disorder - a mental health condition in which a person has a long-term
pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others. This behavior is often criminal.
• Pyromania - the essential feature of pyromania is the deliberate and purposeful setting of fires.
It involves multiple episodes.
• Kleptomania - involves the impulsive and unnecessary stealing of things that are not needed
(APA, 2013). Individuals may hoard the things they steal, give them away, or even return them
to the store. The disorder is not about the objects stolen; it is about the compulsion to steal and
the lack of self-control over this compulsion. Females with kleptomania outnumber males at a
ratio of three to one.
• Other Specified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder – a diagnosis of other
specified disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorder is available when patterns of behavior
do not fit the criteria for ODD or CD, yet present significant disruption and impairment in
functioning, and thus require intervention.
• Unspecified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder - diagnosed when the
diagnosing clinician does not specify the reason the criteria are not met for a specific
• diagnosis. This often occurs when there is insufficient information for a specific diagnosis, such
as an emergency room visit.
SUBSTANCE-RELATED AND ADDICTIVE DISORDERS
A substance-related (addictive disorder) is the continued use of a substance despite harmful
consequences, including significant impairment to one’s health or relationships or failure to fulfill major
responsibilities at work, school, or home due to substance use.
Substance-Related Disorders
• Substance Use Disorders - involve a pathologic pattern of behaviors in which patients continue
to use a substance despite experiencing significant problems related to its use. There may also
be physiologic manifestations, including changes in brain circuitry. The common terms
"addiction," "abuse," and "dependence" are too loosely and variably defined to be very useful in
systematic diagnosis; "substance use disorder" is more comprehensive and has fewer negative
connotations.
• Substance-Induced Disorders - are a type of substance-related disorder that involve the direct
effects of a drug; they include intoxication, withdrawal and substance-induced mental disorders.
• Substance Intoxication and Withdrawal - refers to a reversible set of symptoms occurring after
the use or exposure to a drug and diagnosed based on the behavioral, physical, and cognitive
symptoms that occur due to the abrupt reduction or discontinuation of heavy and prolonged
substance use.
• Substance/Medication-Induced Mental Disorders - are mental problems that develop in
people who did not have mental health problems before using substances.
Alcohol-Related Disorders
• Alcohol Use Disorder - a pattern of alcohol use that involves problems controlling your drinking,
being preoccupied with alcohol or continuing to use alcohol even when it causes problems. This
disorder also involves having to drink more to get the same effect or having withdrawal symptoms
when you rapidly decrease or stop drinking.
• Alcohol Intoxication - also referred to as drunkenness, ethanol intoxication, or alcohol
poisoning in severe cases, is a temporary condition caused by drinking too much alcohol. The
amount of alcohol needed for intoxication varies from person to person.
• Alcohol Withdrawal - a set of symptoms that occur when someone who is physically dependent
upon alcohol suddenly stops drinking or drastically reduces their alcohol intake.

81 | P a g e
 • Other Alcohol-Induced Disorders - are mental disorders induced by alcohol use. This includes
alcohol-induced psychotic disorder, alcohol-induced bipolar disorder, alcohol-induced
depressive disorder, alcohol-induced anxiety disorder, alcohol-induced sleep disorder, alcohol-
induced sexual dysfunction, and alcohol-induced major or mild neurocognitive disorder.
• Unspecified Alcohol-Related Disorder
Caffeine-Related Disorders
• Caffeine Intoxication - includes nervousness, restlessness, and psychomotor agitation. People
may ramble while speaking and their thoughts may not be well organized.
• Caffeine Withdrawal - can occur after abrupt cessation of daily use. Withdrawal can occur with
relatively small daily doses.
• Other Caffeine-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorder
Cannabis-Related Disorders
• Cannabis Use Disorder - a diagnosis given for problematic marijuana use.
• Cannabis Intoxication - clinically significant problematic behavioral or psychological changes
(e.g., impaired motor coordination, euphoria, anxiety, a sensation of slowed time, impaired
judgment, social withdrawal) that developed during, or shortly after, cannabis use.
• Cannabis Withdrawal - cessation of cannabis use that has been heavy and prolonged (i.e.,
usually daily or almost daily use over a period of at least a few months); three or more of the
following signs and symptoms develop within approximately one week after cessation of heavy,
prolonged use.
• Other Cannabis-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Cannabis-Related Disorder
Hallucinogen-Related Disorders
• Phencyclidine Use Disorder - pattern of phencyclidine (PCP) or related substance (e.g.,
ketamine) use causing significant concern or harm, and decrease in functioning.
• Other Hallucinogen Use Disorder - pattern of "other hallucinogen" use causing significant
concern or harm, and decrease in functioning.
• Phencyclidine Intoxication – behavioral effects occurring after ingestion of PCP or a related
substance (e.g., ketamine).
• Other Hallucinogen Intoxication - behavioral or psychological effects occurring after ingestion
of a hallucinogen (other than PCP).
• Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder - re-experiencing while sober the perceptual
(often visual) disturbances experienced when an individual was intoxicated with a hallucinogen.
• Other Phencyclidine-Induced Disorders - PCP-induced psychotic disorder PCP-induced
depressive disorder, PCP-induced bipolar affective disorder, PCP-induced anxiety disorder,
PCP-induced intoxication delirium.
• Other Hallucinogen-Induced Disorders - other hallucinogen-induced psychotic disorder (see
schizophrenia spectrum), other hallucinogen-induced depressive disorder, other hallucinogen-
induced bipolar affective disorder, other hallucinogen-induced anxiety disorder, other
hallucinogen intoxication delirium.
• Unspecified Phencyclidine-Related Disorder - a PCP-related disorder causing significant
concern or harm, and decrease in functioning, not meeting full criteria for any particular PCP-
related disorders.
• Unspecified Hallucinogen-Related Disorder - a hallucinogen-related disorder causing
significant concern or harm, and decrease in functioning, not meeting full criteria for any specific
other hallucinogen-related disorders.
Inhalant-Related Disorders
• Inhalant Use Disorder - diagnosed when repeated use of inhalants leads to clinically significant
impairment or distress, or when a problematic pattern of intoxication develops.
• Inhalant Intoxication - occurs when exposure to a high dose of inhalant substances, whether
intended or unintended, causes clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes such
as belligerence, aggressiveness, apathy, euphoria, and impaired judgment.
• Other Inhalant-Induced Disorders

82 | P a g e
 • Unspecified Inhalant-Related Disorder
Opioid-Related Disorders
• Opioid Use Disorder - a medical condition defined by not being able to abstain from using
opioids, and behaviors centered around opioid use that interfere with daily life.
• Opioid Intoxication - a condition in which you're not only high from using the drug, but you also
have body-wide symptoms that can make you ill and impaired.
• Opioid Withdrawal - a life-threatening condition resulting from opioid dependence.
• Other Opioid-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Opioid-Related Disorder
Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic-Related Disorders
• Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Use Disorder - a misuse of sedative, hypnotics, or anxiolytic
substances. Sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics can be obtained legally and illegally. The
addiction of these substances often occurs together with other drugs of abuse. This usually
reflects an effort to counteract the effects of those other drugs.
• Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Intoxication - characterized by significant behavioral
changes. These include aggression, mood swings, and impaired judgment. The disinhibiting
effects of these drugs is similar to alcohol. This may contribute to social blunders, aggression,
and even legal problems.
• Sedative, Hypnotic, or Anxiolytic Withdrawal - occurs after the abrupt cessation (or significant
reduction) of prolonged use. SHA withdrawal may be particularly uncomfortable and quite
dangerous. In general, long-term use, at higher doses, leads to more intense withdrawal.
• Other Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic-Related Disorder
Stimulant-Related Disorders
• Stimulant Use Disorder - substance use disorder involving any of the class of drugs that include
cocaine, methamphetamine and prescription stimulants.
• Stimulant Intoxication - occurs when there is a clinically significant problematic behavioural or
psychological change (e.g. - “high” feeling, euphoria with enhanced vigour, gregariousness,
hyperactivity, restlessness, hypervigilance, interpersonal sensitivity, talkativeness, anxiety,
tension, alertness, grandiosity, stereotyped and repetitive behaviour, anger, impaired judgment)
that develops during, or shortly after use of stimulants
• Stimulant Withdrawal - a withdrawal syndrome that develops within a few hours to several days
after the cessation of (or marked reduction in) stimulant use (generally high dose) that has been
prolonged.
• Other Stimulant-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Stimulant-Related Disorder
Tobacco-Related Disorders
• Tobacco Use Disorder - a misuse of tobacco substances. Cigarettes are the most commonly
used tobacco product, representing over 90% of tobacco/ nicotine use.
• Tobacco Withdrawal - may occur after someone discontinues or significantly reduces tobacco
use following a period of daily use for at least several weeks.
• Other Tobacco-Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Tobacco-Related Disorder
Other (or Unknown) Substance–Related Disorders
• Other (or Unknown) Substance Use Disorder
• Other (or Unknown) Substance Intoxication
• Other (or Unknown) Substance Withdrawal
• Other (or Unknown) Substance–Induced Disorders
• Unspecified Other (or Unknown) Substance–Related Disorder
Non-Substance-Related Disorders
• Gambling Disorder – a condition in which gambling becomes an addiction and interferes with
a person's daily life. Signs may include borrowing money, liquidating investments, and
work/relationship problems

83 | P a g e
NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS
Neurocognitive disorder is a general term that describes decreased mental function due to a medical
disease other than a psychiatric illness. It is often used synonymously (but incorrectly) with dementia.
Neurocognitive Disorders
• Delirium - characterized by a notable disturbance in attention or awareness and cognitive
performance that is significantly altered from one’s usual behavior
• Other Specified Delirium
• Unspecified Delirium
Major and Mild Neurocognitive Disorders
Major Neurocognitive Disorder - individuals with major neurocognitive disorder show a significant
decline in both overall cognitive functioning as well as the ability to independently meet the demands of
daily living such as paying bills, taking medications, or caring for oneself.
Mild Neurocognitive Disorder - individuals with mild neurocognitive disorder demonstrate a modest
decline in one of the listed cognitive areas. The decline in functioning is not as extensive as that seen in
major neurocognitive disorder, and the individual does not experience difficulty independently engaging
in daily activities. However, they may require assistance or extra time to complete these tasks,
particularly if the cognitive decline continues to progress.
• Major Neurocognitive Disorder
• Mild Neurocognitive Disorder
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Alzheimer’s Disease
• Major or Mild Frontotemporal Neurocognitive Disorder
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder with Lewy Bodies
• Major or Mild Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury
• Substance/Medication-Induced Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to HIV Infection
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Prion Disease
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Parkinson’s Disease
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Huntington’s Disease
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition
• Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Multiple Etiologies
• Unspecified Neurocognitive Disorder
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
A personality disorder is a way of thinking, feeling and behaving that deviates from the expectations of
the culture, causes distress or problems functioning, and lasts over time.
• General Personality Disorder - the umbrella category under which a variety of specific
disorders are iterated.
Cluster A Personality Disorders (odd or eccentric behavior)
• Paranoid Personality Disorder - a pattern of being suspicious of others and seeing them as
mean or spiteful. People with paranoid personality disorder often assume people will harm or
deceive them and don’t confide in others or become close to them.
• Schizoid Personality Disorder - being detached from social relationships and expressing little
emotion. A person with schizoid personality disorder typically does not seek close relationships,
chooses to be alone and seems to not care about praise or criticism from others.
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder - a pattern of being very uncomfortable in close
relationships, having distorted thinking and eccentric behavior. A person with schizotypal
personality disorder may have odd beliefs or odd or peculiar behavior or speech or may have
excessive social anxiety.
Cluster B Personality Disorders (dramatic and overly emotional behavior)
• Antisocial Personality Disorder - a pattern of disregarding or violating the rights of others. A
person with antisocial personality disorder may not conform to social norms, may repeatedly lie
or deceive others, or may act impulsively.
• Borderline Personality Disorder - a pattern of instability in personal relationships, intense
emotions, poor self-image and impulsivity. A person with borderline personality disorder may go

84 | P a g e
 to great lengths to avoid being abandoned, have repeated suicide attempts, display
inappropriate intense anger or have ongoing feelings of emptiness.
• Histrionic Personality Disorder - a pattern of excessive emotion and attention seeking. People
with histrionic personality disorder may be uncomfortable when they are not the center of
attention, may use physical appearance to draw attention to themselves or have rapidly shifting
or exaggerated emotions.
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder - a pattern of need for admiration and lack of empathy for
others. A person with narcissistic personality disorder may have a grandiose sense of self-
importance, a sense of entitlement, take advantage of others or lack empathy.
Cluster C Personality Disorders (anxious, fearful thinking and behavior)
• Avoidant Personality Disorder - a pattern of extreme shyness, feelings of inadequacy and
extreme sensitivity to criticism. People with avoidant personality disorder may be unwilling to get
involved with people unless they are certain of being liked, be preoccupied with being criticized
or rejected, or may view themselves as not being good enough or socially inept.
• Dependent Personality Disorder - a pattern of needing to be taken care of and submissive and
clingy behavior. People with dependent personality disorder may have difficulty making daily
decisions without reassurance from others or may feel uncomfortable or helpless when alone
because of fear of inability to take care of themselves.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder - a pattern of preoccupation with orderliness,
perfection and control. A person with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder may be overly
focused on details or schedules, may work excessively not allowing time for leisure or friends,
or may be inflexible in their morality and values.
Other Personality Disorders
• Personality Change Due to Another Medical Condition - personality change is a frequently
associated feature of a delirium or major neurocognitive disorder. A separate diagnosis of
personality change due to another medical condition is not given if the change occurs exclusively
during the course of a delirium.
• Other Specified Personality Disorder
• Unspecified Personality Disorder
PARAPHILIC DISORDERS
Paraphilic disorders are recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors that are
distressing or disabling and that involve inanimate objects, children or nonconsenting adults, or suffering
or humiliation of oneself or the partner with the potential to cause harm.
• Voyeuristic Disorder - is achievement of sexual arousal by observing people who are naked,
disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity. When observation is of unsuspecting people, this sexual
behavior often leads to problems with the law and relationships.
• Exhibitionistic Disorder - is characterized by achievement of sexual excitement through genital
exposure, usually to an unsuspecting stranger. It may also refer to a strong desire to be observed
by other people during sexual activity. Exhibitionistic disorder involves acting on these urges with
a nonconsenting person or experiencing significant distress or functional impairment because of
such urges and impulses.
• Frotteuristic Disorder - it involves the act of touching or rubbing one's genitals against another
non-consenting individual in a sexual manner, to attain sexual gratification.
• Sexual Masochism Disorder - is sexual masochism that causes significant distress or
significantly impairs functioning. It is intentional participation in an activity that involves being
humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused to experience sexual excitement.
• Sexual Sadism Disorder - is sexual sadism that causes significant distress or significant
functional impairment or is acted on with a nonconsenting person. It is infliction of physical or
psychologic suffering (e.g., humiliation, terror) on another person to stimulate sexual excitement
and orgasm.
• Pedophilic Disorder - is characterized by recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges,
or behaviors involving prepubescent or young adolescents (usually ≤ 13 years); it is diagnosed
only when people are ≥ 16 years and ≥ 5 years older than the child who is the target of the
fantasies or behaviors.

85 | P a g e
 • Fetishistic Disorder - refers to recurrent, intense sexual arousal from use of an inanimate object
or from a very specific focus on a non-genital body part (or parts) that causes significant distress
or functional impairment.
• Transvestic Disorder - involves recurrent and intense sexual arousal from cross-dressing,
which may manifest as fantasies, urges, or behaviors.
• Other Specified Paraphilic Disorder
• Unspecified Paraphilic Disorder
OTHER MENTAL DISORDERS
• Other Specified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition
• Unspecified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition
• Other Specified Mental Disorder
• Unspecified Mental Disorder
MEDICATION-INDUCED MOVEMENT DISORDERS AND OTHER ADVERSE EFFECTS OF
MEDICATION
OTHER CONDITIONS THAT MAY BE A FOCUS OF CLINICAL ATTENTION

Economics-Related Problems: Psychosocial Implications

Poverty
Definitions of poverty vary with social, cultural, and political systems. Attempts to
understand poverty from poor people’s perspectives reveal that poverty is a multidimensional
social phenomenon. From an epidemiological perspective, poverty can mean low socio-economic
status (measured by social or income class), unemployment, and/or low levels of education.
Poverty is one of the most significant social determinants of health and mental health,
intersecting with all other determinants, including education, local social and community
conditions, race/ethnicity, gender, immigration status, health and access to health care,
neighborhood factors, and the built environment (eg, homes, buildings, streets, parks
infrastructure). The mental health effects of poverty are wide ranging and reach across the
lifespan.
Individuals who experience poverty, particularly early in life or for an extended period, are
at risk of a host of adverse health and developmental outcomes through their life. Poverty in
childhood is associated with lower school achievement; worse cognitive, behavioral, and
attention-related outcomes; higher rates of delinquency, depressive and anxiety disorders; and
higher rates of almost every psychiatric disorder in adulthood. Poverty in adulthood is linked to
depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, psychological distress, and suicide.
Poverty affects mental health through an array of social and biological mechanisms acting
at multiple levels, including individuals, families, local communities, and nations. Individual-level
mediators in the relationship between poverty and mental health include financial stress, chronic
and acute stressful life events exposure, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis changes,
other brain circuit changes (eg, language processing, executive functioning), poor prenatal health
and birth outcomes, inadequate nutrition, and toxin exposure (eg, lead). Family-level mediators
include parental relationship stress, parental psychopathology (especially depression), low
parental warmth or investment, hostile and inconsistent parenting, low-stimulation home
environments, and child abuse and neglect. The evidence is strong for a causal relationship
between poverty and mental health. However, findings suggest that poverty leads to mental health
and developmental problems that in turn prevent individuals and families from leaving poverty,
creating a vicious, intergenerational cycle of poverty and poor health.

86 | P a g e
Unemployment
Researchers have been looking at how unemployment affects mental health since the
Great Depression of the 1930s, if not earlier. One example is a 1938 review paper by Eisenberg
and Lazarsfeld. They concluded that unemployment “tends to make people more emotionally
unstable than they were previous to unemployment” (p. 359). There has been a great deal of
research on the subject since then.
Sorting out the effects of unemployment on mental health is complicated by the fact that
the cause-and-effect relationship can work in both directions: unemployment may worsen mental
health, and mental health problems may make it more difficult for a person to obtain and/or hold
a job. The latter is referred to as the “selection” effect. However, where data are available on the
same individuals over time — which is called “longitudinal” data — it is possible to use statistical
methods that sort out the causation. For example, researchers can control for the mental health
of individuals before job loss to examine the effects of job loss on mental health. Not all studies
do this: some just look at the relationship between unemployment and mental health at a point in
time, in which case the findings can be difficult to interpret.
There are several ways that unemployment could lead to a worsening of mental health,
as follows.
Standard of living. The loss of income that results from unemployment could lead to a decline
in the standard of living of the individual or household. This, in turn, could affect health. “Income
losses might force the unemployed to reduce their living standards drastically which, of course,
could influence both the physical and mental health of unemployed workers” (Björklund, 1985,
p.471). The extent to which the standard of living declines depends on such factors as the
unemployed person’s assets, the unemployment benefits available, the income and assets of
other household members, and the duration of unemployment.
Insecurity of income. Even if there is no material deprivation, being unemployed could lead to
anxiety about the length of income loss and the risk of a future drop in standard of living. Related
to this anxiety is the possibility that joblessness can generate “a feeling that life is not under one’s
control” (Darity and Goldsmith, 1996, p.123). Of course, employed workers may feel insecurity to
some degree, particularly temporary workers. “Those who are economically insecure, employed
or unemployed, have a lower morale” (Eisenberg and Lazarsfeld, 1938, p.361).
Stigma and loss of self-esteem. Becoming unemployed can result in a drop in status among
friends and family, and in the community at large. This can lead to a loss of self-esteem (Björklund,
1985).
Loss of social contacts. The loss of a job typically means a loss of contact with work colleagues
and a shrinking of social networks. That loss of engagement and “social capital” can bring about
a decline in personal well-being (Helliwell and Putnam, 2004).
The size of these potential effects of unemployment on mental health might vary with age
and gender. For example, job loss could have a larger impact — through all of the above pathways
— on prime-aged workers than on teenagers or young adults. Breslin et al. (2006), in summarizing
previous research on the relationship between depression and activity limitations, noted that
family and social events had more influence on the mental health of women than men, while work
stress and financial difficulties appeared to have a greater impact on men’s mental health. The

87 | P a g e
impact of unemployment on mental health might also vary with the duration of unemployment.
There are competing theories about how it may vary. Some have argued that the trauma of job
loss is most intense at the time it occurs, subsiding later. Others have pointed out that the stigma,
social isolation, and (in some cases) material deprivation associated with unemployment are likely
to be greater over time. As the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
has pointed out (2008), it is plausible to combine these hypotheses into one U-shaped pattern: a
large initial impact, tapering off over time, but growing again if the unemployment continues for a
long period.
A 1933 study looked at a company town in Marienthal, Austria where almost all those with
paid jobs became unemployed after the factory closed. The authors, Jahoda, Lazarsfeld and
Zeisel, found that the closure initially produced a shock effect, with feelings of hopelessness, but
that over time, most people adopted an attitude of resignation. The authors also noted that
deteriorating economic conditions at the time put more people at risk of sliding into despair.
Middle-Class and Social Mobility Maladjustments
The constraints of poverty can cause a cycle of poor mental and physical health, according
to psychologists who presented research at APA's 2003 Annual Convention on the impact of
poverty on people's well-being. The psychologists highlighted findings on poverty's mental health
effects among minority groups, older adults, rural residents and, in particular, people with
HIV/AIDS at a session sponsored by APA's Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the
Public Interest.
Psychologists are beginning to examine those interactive factors, though. For example,
George Washington University associate clinical psychology professor Marcia Cecilia Zea, PhD,
and doctoral student David Dove found in a study of 155 Latino gay men who were HIV-positive-
-40 percent of whom made less than $400 a month--that poverty was linked with poorer mental
health. Specifically, they found that poverty was related to depression and anxiety in the
participants, which in turn negatively affected their HIV prognosis. Dove said psychologists need
to better address this social class factor and how it can potentially influence mental health. "We
can change professional policy by passing specific laws to implement systems and standard
practices of care that ensure we meet the mental health needs of the clients we manage," Dove
said. "Research and practicing psychology should address poverty and ensure access to health
quality." The need to address poverty is all the more important because it is so widespread, said
Beth Hudnall Stamm, PhD, a research professor and director of telehealth at Idaho State
University who studies the biopsychosocial effects of rural poverty on aging. Nearly three-fourths
of older adults live below the poverty level, she said. Moreover, nearly 40 percent of people in
rural areas of the United States are living in poverty. "That is a huge correlation," Stamm said.
"Clearly, rural and poverty go together."
Poverty can also affect depression and HIV-risk behavior beyond the rural setting, said
Jose Toro-Alfonso, PhD, a researcher at the University of Puerto Rico, San Juan. In his ongoing
research with Puerto Rican youth living in poverty, Toro-Alfonso has found that 45 percent of 61
participants show high symptoms of depression, whereas 55 percent show low symptoms of
depression. Alfonso emphasized the need for more intervention programs for HIV-positive
adolescents that address poverty and cultural values, especially since past studies show that
such interventions can empower individuals to overcome these factors.

88 | P a g e
Irresponsible Affluence
Children of affluence are generally presumed to be at low risk. However, recent studies
have suggested problems in several domains—notably, substance use, anxiety, and
depression—and 2 sets of potential causes: pressures to achieve and isolation from parents.
In a special issue of the American Psychologist published at the turn of the 21st century,
several scholars argued that high material wealth can be associated with low psychological well-
being. Reviewing cross-national epidemiological data, Buss (2000) noted that rates of depression
are higher in more economically developed countries than in less developed countries.
Considering the United States, historical trends show that Americans have far more luxuries than
they had in the 1950s, with twice as many cars per person, plus microwave ovens, VCRs, air
conditioners, and color TVs. Despite this, they are no more satisfied with their lives (Diener, 2000).
In the words of Myers (2000b, p. 61), “[Americans] are twice as rich and no happier. Meanwhile,
the divorce rate doubled. Teen suicide tripled…. Depression rates have soared, especially among
teens and young adults. … I call this conjunction of material prosperity and social recession the
American paradox. The more people strive for extrinsic goals such as money, the more numerous
their problems and the less robust their wellbeing.”
Strikes and Social Unrest at the Workplace
Like a lot of firms, tech company Buffer has a variety of Slack channels. It's doubtful,
though, that many have one that replicates Buffer's conduit for employees to discuss their mental
health issues. That's where founder and chief executive Joel Gascoigne posts about his therapy
appointments. Another employee shared that he was asking his doctor for an anti-anxiety
medication, while a third broadcast his intent to start counseling sessions. Buffer, a maker of
social media management products whose workforce is entirely remote, prides itself on a culture
of transparency, and that includes employees talking about all facets of their lives.
"It's hard to be the first to talk about mental health," says Courtney Seiter, director of
people at Buffer. "To have someone like Joel say he's going to a therapist and what he's working
on paves the way for someone else to say something about what they're going through."
Many companies are striving for at least some of that candor as they seek to increase
awareness about mental illness and encourage more employees to seek treatment. Suicide rates
nationally are climbing, workers' stress and depression levels are rising, and addiction—
especially to opioids—continues to bedevil employers. Such conditions are driving up health care
costs at double the rate of illnesses overall, according to Aetna Behavioral Health. Starting
workplace conversations about behavioral health is challenging. Such conditions are often seen
as a personal failing rather than a medical condition. A firm such as Buffer likely has an easier
time addressing mental health issues than other companies given its employee demographics.
Its founder is 32, which is also the average age of its 87 employees. As a Millennial, he's part of
a generation whose members, along with those of Generation Z, are accustomed to broadcasting
their lives on social media. Both generations also grew up in an era when children and teens were
regularly diagnosed and medicated for conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
and therefore don't have the same negative associations with mental illness as their older
counterparts. In fact, 62 percent of Millennials say they're comfortable discussing their mental
health issues, almost twice as many as the 32 percent of Baby Boomers who expressed such
ease, according to the American Psychiatric Association (APA).

89 | P a g e
 "[Younger people] just lay things out on the line," says Selvi Springer, assistant director of
medical accommodations at EY, a London-based professional services firm, which started a
campaign to raise awareness of mental illness last year. EY is not alone. Johnson & Johnson
(J&J), the New Brunswick, N.J.-based pharmaceutical giant; Cigna, the Bloomfield, Conn.-based
health insurer; and Garmin International, an Olathe, Kan.-based tech company, are among those
with specific mental health programs for their employees. Approaches differ, though tactics
include bulking up mental health services and teaching managers how to spot signs of behavioral
illness. Providing access to therapists through nontraditional means such as texting is also a
popular and pragmatic strategy, since the current psychiatrist shortage can make finding a
professional for in-person counseling difficult.
Health Related Problems: Psychosocial Implications
Malnutrition
Malnutrition in all forms is a leading source of disability and disease which affects a
considerable proportion of the world's population: 1 in 9 people is hungry and undernourished
and 1 in 3 people is overweight or obese. Unhealthy diets are among the top three underlying
causes of mortality worldwide. Moreover, the coexistence of undernutrition and obesity is
increasing in several low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), compounding associated health
risks. Food security, or everyone at all times having access to affordable, safe, sufficient, and
nutritious foods, is a key determinant of nutritional outcomes such as diet quality, nutrient
adequacy, and nutritional status, and thus are considered together here forth.
Both malnutrition and poor mental health are leading sources of global mortality, disease,
and disability. The fields of global food security and nutrition (FSN) and mental health have
historically been seen as separate fields of research. Each have undergone substantial
transformation, especially from clinical, primary care orientations to wider, sociopolitical
approaches to achieve Sustainable Development Goals. In recent years, the trajectories of
research on mental health and FSN are further evolving into an intersection of evidence. FSN
impacts mental health through various pathways such as food insecurity and nutrients important
for neurotransmission. Mental health drives FSN outcomes, for example through loss of
motivation and caregiving capacities. They are also linked through a complex and interrelated set
of determinants. However, the heterogeneity of the evidence base limits inferences about these
important dynamics.
Common Medical Disorders and Mental Illness
Although the mind and body are often viewed as being separate, mental and physical
health are actually closely related. Good mental health can positively affect your physical health.
In return, poor mental health can negatively affect your physical health. Your mental health plays
a huge role in your general well-being. Being in a good mental state can keep you healthy and
help prevent serious health conditions. A study found that positive psychological well-being can
reduce the risks of heart attacks and strokes. On the other hand, poor mental health can lead to
poor physical health or harmful behaviors.
Chronic diseases. Depression has been linked to many chronic illnesses. These illnesses
include diabetes, asthma, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and arthritis. Schizophrenia has also
been linked to a higher risk of heart and respiratory diseases. Mental health conditions can also

90 | P a g e
make dealing with a chronic illness more difficult. The mortality rate from cancer and heart disease
is higher among people with depression or other mental health conditions.
Sleep problems. People with mental health conditions are more likely to suffer from sleep
disorders, like insomnia or sleep apnea. Insomnia can make it hard to fall asleep or stay asleep.
Sleep apnea leads to breathing problems, which can cause you to wake up frequently. Around
50% to 80% of people with mental health conditions will also have sleeping problems. Only 10%
to 18% of the general population experience sleeping problems. While conditions like depression,
anxiety, or bipolar disorder may lead to sleep problems, sleep problems can also make existing
mental health conditions worse.
Smoking. People with mental health conditions are more likely to smoke than those who do not
have mental health conditions. Among smokers, people with mental health conditions are more
likely to smoke a greater number of cigarettes. People with depression have lower levels of the
chemical dopamine. Dopamine influences positive feelings in your brain. The nicotine in cigarettes
triggers the production of the chemical dopamine, so smoking may be used as a way to relieve
symptoms of depression. However, since nicotine only offers temporary relief, you may feel a
recurring need to smoke, which may lead to possible addiction.
Access to health care. People with mental health conditions are less likely to have access to
adequate health care. It may also be more difficult for people with mental health conditions to take
care of their physical health When you have a mental health condition, it can be hard to seek
care, take prescriptions regularly, or get enough exercise.
Physical Health Conditions That May Affect Mental Health. Your physical well-being also has
an impact on your mental health. People with physical health conditions may also develop mental
health conditions. Psoriasis is a dermatological condition characterized by painful red sores on
the skin. It is associated with acute stress and depression. Individuals with psoriasis experience
emotional and psychological distress that negatively impacts their overall health and quality of
life. Stress and depression mainly come from anxiety, stigma, and rejection. Being diagnosed with
cancer or having a heart attack can also lead to feelings of depression or anxiety. Around one-
third of people with serious medical conditions will have symptoms of depression, such as low
mood, sleep problems, and a loss of interest in activities.
Alcoholism
Heavy alcohol use directly affects brain function and alters various brain chemical (i.e.,
neurotransmitter) and hormonal systems known to be involved in the development of many
common mental disorders (e.g., mood and anxiety disorders) (Koob 2000). Thus, it is not
surprising that alcoholism can manifest itself in a broad range of psychiatric symptoms and signs.
(The term "symptoms" refers to the subjective complaints a patient describes, such as sadness
or difficulty concentrating, whereas the term "signs" refers to objective phenomena the clinician
directly observes, such as fidgeting or crying.) In fact, such psychiatric complaints often are the
first problems for which an alcoholic patient seeks help (Anthenelli and Schuckit 1993; Helzer and
Przybeck 1988). The patient's symptoms and signs may vary in severity depending upon the
amounts of alcohol used, how long it was used, and how recently it was used, as well as on the
patient's individual vulnerability to experiencing psychiatric symptoms in the setting of excessive
alcohol consumption (Anthenelli and Schuckit 1993; Anthenelli 1997). For example, during acute
intoxication, smaller amounts of alcohol may produce euphoria, whereas larger amounts may be
associated with more dramatic changes in mood, such as sadness, irritability, and nervousness.

91 | P a g e
Alcohol's disinhibiting properties may also impair judgment and unleash aggressive, antisocial
behaviors that may mimic certain externalizing disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder
(ASPD) (Moeller et al. 1998). (Externalizing disorders are discussed in the section "ASPD and
Other Externalizing Disorders.") Psychiatric symptoms and signs also may vary depending on
when the patient last used alcohol (i.e., whether he or she is experiencing acute intoxication,
acute withdrawal, or protracted withdrawal) and when the assessment of the psychiatric
complaints occurs. For instance, an alcohol–dependent patient who appears morbidly depressed
when acutely intoxicated may appear anxious and panicky when acutely withdrawing from the
drug (Anthenelli and Schuckit 1993; Anthenelli 1997).
In addition to the direct pharmacological effects of alcohol on brain function, psychosocial
stressors that commonly occur in heavy–drinking alcoholic patients (e.g., legal, financial, or
interpersonal problems) may indirectly contribute to ongoing alcohol–related symptoms, such as
sadness, despair, and anxiety (Anthenelli 1997; Anthenelli and Schuckit 1993).
Drug Abuse
Mental health problems and substance use disorders sometimes occur together. This is
because:

• Certain illegal drugs can cause people with an addiction to experience one or more
symptoms of a mental health problem
• Mental health problems can sometimes lead to alcohol or drug use, as some people with
a mental health problem may misuse these substances as a form of self-medication
• Mental and substance use disorders share some underlying causes, including changes in
brain composition, genetic vulnerabilities, and early exposure to stress or trauma
More than one in four adults living with serious mental health problems also has a
substance use problem. Substance use problems occur more frequently with certain mental
health problems, including: Depression, Anxiety Disorders, Schizophrenia and Personality
Disorders.
Life Threatening Diseases
It is common to feel sad or discouraged after having a heart attack, receiving a cancer
diagnosis, or when trying to manage a chronic condition such as pain. You may be facing new
limits on what you can do and may feel stressed or concerned about treatment outcomes and the
future. It may be hard to adapt to a new reality and to cope with the changes and ongoing
treatment that come with the diagnosis. Favorite activities, such as hiking or gardening, may be
harder to do. Temporary feelings of sadness are expected, but if these and other symptoms last
longer than a couple of weeks, you may have depression. Depression affects your ability to carry
on with daily life and to enjoy family, friends, work, and leisure. The health effects of depression
go beyond mood: Depression is a serious medical illness with many symptoms, including physical
ones. The same factors that increase the risk of depression in otherwise healthy people also raise
the risk in people with other medical illnesses, particularly if those illnesses are chronic (long-
lasting or persistent). These risk factors include a personal or family history of depression or family
members who have died by suicide. However, some risk factors for depression are directly related
to having another illness. For example, conditions such as Parkinson's disease and stroke cause
changes in the brain. In some cases, these changes may have a direct role in depression. Illness-
related anxiety and stress also can trigger symptoms of depression.

92 | P a g e
Physical Disabilities and Accidents
Adults with disabilities report experiencing frequent mental distress almost 5 times as often
as adults without disabilities. A recent study found that adults with disabilities report experiencing
more mental distress than those without disabilities. In 2018, an estimated 17.4 million (32.9%)
adults with disabilities experienced frequent mental distress, defined as 14 or more reported
mentally unhealthy days in the past 30 days. Frequent mental distress is associated with poor
health behaviors, increased use of health services, mental disorders, chronic disease, and
limitations in daily life. During the COVID-19 pandemic, isolation, disconnect, disrupted routines,
and diminished health services have greatly impacted the lives and mental well-being of people
with disabilities.
On the other hand, automobile crashes take a heavy toll on the nation’s citizens, with
millions of vehicular accidents and more than 2 million injuries suffered each year. Along with
those injuries, many victims endure months of treatment, time away from work, and the
frustrations and stress that come from dealing with medical providers, insurance adjusters, and
repair shops. Far too often, these ongoing stress situations can mask mental health issues
created by the trauma of the crash.
According to information highlighted by the American Psychological Association (APA),
research from one study of 161 motor vehicle accident victims revealed that 110 of them were
diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or PTSD. Another 33 of the study participants
were found to have subclinical PTSD – while only 18 were free from the condition entirely.
Moreover, six out of every ten of those injury victims suffering from PTSD were also found to be
suffering from major depression. Given that and other studies, it is only reasonable to conclude
that mental health problems like PTSD are relatively common for other crash injury victims as
well.
In addition to PTSD, other studies have revealed that crash victims often suffer other
mental health consequences after an injury. According to one British study, more than one-third
of crash victims end up experiencing either Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or some variety of
depression, anxiety, or phobia, and that these problems can linger of more than a year after the
accident. Moreover, the research suggests that these psychological effects can occur even when
the actual physical injuries are minor. Anxiety and phobias can take a variety of forms, ranging
from discomfort and nervousness about driving or being a passenger in a motor vehicle to being
near the site where the accident took place.
Family Breakdown
Violence Against Women (Wife Battering)
As defined by the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993),
VAW is “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual
or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary
deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public and private life. Gender-based violence is any
violence inflicted on women because of their sex.”
According to Republic Act 9262 or the Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children
Act of 2004, VAW is “any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a woman who
is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the person has or had a sexual or dating

93 | P a g e
relationship, or with whom he has a common child, or against her child whether legitimate or
illegitimate, with or without the family abode, which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual,
psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery,
assault, coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.” VAW includes, but not limited to,
the following acts:

• Physical violence or the act that includes bodily or physical harm

• Sexual violence or the act that is sexual in nature, committed against a woman or her child
• Psychological violence or the act or omission that causes or likely to cause mental or
emotional suffering of the victim
• Economic abuse or the act that makes or attempts to make a woman financially dependent
Violence against women (VAW) appears as one of the country’s pervasive social
problems. According to the 2017 National Demographic and Health Survey conducted by the
Philippine Statistics Authority, one in four Filipino women age 15-49 has experienced physical,
emotional or sexual violence by their husband or partner. It is indeed alarming that despite efforts
to address the concern, VAW persists.
VAW is deemed to be closely linked with the unequal power relation between women and
men otherwise known as “gender-based violence.” Societal norms and traditions dictate people
to think that men are the leaders, pursuers, and providers, and take on the dominant roles in
society while women are the nurturers, men’s companions and supporters, and take on the
subordinate roles in society. This perception leads men to gain more power over women. Hence,
VAW becomes a form of men’s expression of control over women to retain power.
In the Philippines, some realities that contribute to the vulnerability of Filipino women to
VAW are being accused as “naggers” or neglectful of their duties as wife that is why they are
being beaten by their spouses, or being raped due to her “flirtatious” ways; in some instances,
filing for a sexual harassment is interpreted by her employer as being malicious on the
appreciation of her good looks. Moreover, an even greater problem is the lack of concrete
information to show the extent of VAW in the country as many cases of violence against women
often go unreported due to women victims’ “culture of silence.” Many of the victims are ashamed
to relate their experiences while others tend to dismiss their ordeal as a result of their lack of faith
in the country’s justice system caused by frustrations over the lack of results in filing complaints.
Several government mechanisms have already been put in place to address VAW. Non-
government organizations also take part in this crusade. It is uncertain when this trend will totally
diminish in the Philippine setting, but as long as current efforts to fight VAW are sustained, hope
could be set high.
Child Abuse and Neglect
Certain life situations, such as single parenting, domestic violence, and other stressful
events, can contribute to the likelihood of maltreatment, particularly when parents are isolated
socially or lack sufficient emotional or financial support. Stress resulting from job changes, loss of
income, health problems, or other aspects of the family environment can increase the level of
conflict in the home and affect the ability of parents to cope or find support. Protective factors that
can help promote healthy families include positive relationships within the family, supportive
relationships with peers, the ability to communicate effectively, strong parent-child relationships,
and more.

94 | P a g e
Abuse and Neglect of the Elderly
Citing definition from the World Health Organization, elder abuse is “a single or repeated
act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation
of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person.” This type of violence constitutes a
violation of the human rights of older people and includes physical, sexual, psychological, and
emotional abuse, financial and material abuse, abandonment, neglect, and serious loss of dignity
and respect. Elder abuse, despite its seriousness, is an invisible issue in the Philippines. Data on
this subject is hardly available due to underreporting and limited research focused on it.
Elder abuse has increased during the coronavirus pandemic as the community quarantine
forced older individuals to be isolated with potential abusers at home for a longer period of time,
an official of the Commission on Human Rights noted on Monday.
“Around the world, there is emerging evidence that violence, abuse, and neglect of older
persons increased due to the COVID-19 outbreak. In the country, we are still unaware of their
actual situation within homes, institutions, and communities,” Karen Gomez-Dumpit, Focal
Commissioner on Aging and the Human Rights of Older Persons, said in a statement.
Gomez-Dumpit cited a 2004 research conducted among urban poor communities where
around 40 percent of older people who were respondents of the study said they have experienced
abuse ranging from physical and verbal, ridicule and discrimination, and negligence. She added
that perpetrators are most often children and other family members. Of those who experienced
abuse, only two percent reported it to authorities, while 11 percent turned to their families for
support and 21 percent sought no support or refuge.
According to the CHR official, the stress, anxiety, and financial problems caused by the
health crisis also added to the risk of abuse among elderly people. She noted that police
intervention, health and psychosocial services, and justice institutions that victims of abuse may
avail of or resort to are either reduced or non-operational in some parts of the country. Older
persons may also be isolated from social contacts, and may have difficulty accessing services
which have migrated to digital platforms in adjustment to quarantine measures.
Solo Parenting and Step-Parenting
According to Republic Act 8972, a solo parent is any individual who falls under any of the
following categories:
1. A woman who gives birth as a result of rape and other crimes against chastity even without
a final conviction of the offender: Provided, That the mother keeps and raises the child;
2. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to death of spouse;
3. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood while the spouse is detained
or is serving sentence for a criminal conviction for at least one (1) year;
4. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to physical and/or mental
incapacity of spouse as certified by a public medical practitioner;
5. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to legal separation or de
facto separation from spouse for at least one (1) year, as long as he/she is entrusted with
the custody of the children;

95 | P a g e
 6. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to declaration of ‘ity or
annulment of marriage as decreed by a court or by a church as long as he/she is entrusted
with the custody of the children;
7. Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to abandonment of
spouse for at least one (1) year;
8. Unmarried mother/father who has preferred to keep and rear her/his child/children instead
of having others care for them or give them up to a welfare institution;
9. Any other person who solely provides parental care and support to a child or children;
10. Any family member who assumes the responsibility of head of family as a result of the
death, abandonment, disappearance or prolonged absence of the parents or solo parent.
Based on the study conducted by the University of the Philippines, the common problems
confronted by solo parents are as follows: Absence of A Partner, Conflicting Responsibilities,
Child Care, Social Support, Willing Endurance, Spiritual Guidance, and Self-Care. Solo mothers
used both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies, but the nature of the problem
dictates the strategy to be employed. Solo mothers make sure to look after themselves to be able
to take care of their children in the future.
On the other hand, stepfamily members encounter many positive experiences, but they
are also faced with many challenges. These challenges include relationships between family
members, unrealistic expectations, and cultural myths. The following are the challenges
encountered by step-families:

• Stepparent role. Stepfamilies often have a difficult time defining the role of the stepparent.
It is challenging to figure out how the stepparent should interact with the stepchildren. This
relationship is different for every stepfamily, but children usually respond better when the
stepparent refrains from disciplining the child at the beginning of the relationship. Building
a friendship between stepparents and stepchildren seems to work well for most
stepfamilies.
• Competing for attention. Sometimes children see the new stepparent as a source of
competition for their biological parent’s attention. They may feel as though the stepparent
is threatening the closeness of their relationship with their parent. Building in quality one-
on-one time with children reassures them that they are loved and supported.
• Loyalty Conflicts. Sometimes children struggle with their feelings about both of their
parents and their stepparent. Children worry about choosing sides and feel disloyal to their
parents if they show feelings of affection toward a stepparent. Parents should support new
relationships between children and their stepparent. Children adjust better to stepfamily
life when parents do not criticize the new stepparents.
Marital Conflicts
Marital distress is one of the most frequently encountered and disturbing human problems.
Everyone who is married experiences difficulties. For some, these troubles reach the point of
profound disappointment and doubts about staying married. Even marriages that are seemingly
going well can suffer distress if a single shattering event, such as an extramarital affair, takes
place. Marital distress has powerful effects on the partners, often leading to great sadness, worry,
a high level of tension, anxiety, and depression. And, if prolonged, it can negatively impact one's
physical health.

96 | P a g e
 The effect on families is also profound, especially when conflict is high. Children raised in
high-conflict homes tend to have more emotional difficulties. And once marriages are distressed,
a progressive dyadic decline begins that easily cascades downward, ultimately leading to the
demise of the relationship. However, in most situations, this negative direction can be corrected
and most marriages can return to a state of satisfaction. Some can make these changes on their
own, but most often the successful repair of a relationship in distress is best facilitated by a trained
marriage and family therapist.
The causes of marital distress vary from couple to couple and often present as difficulties
with communication. Over time, the breakdown in communication evolves into increased arguing,
stonewalling, defensiveness, and contempt. Distressed couples tend to engage in these negative
patterns of of communication often and are unable to successfully repair the relationship after an
argument. Eventually, this will spill over into intimacy, and sex. And the couple gets locked into a
negative pattern that builds walls instead of connection. In some instances, couples do well for a
period of time and then find themselves overwhelmed by the longer-term tasks in marriage.
Research shows that the risks of marital distress and divorce are highest early in marriage and
these risks increase when the couple first has children, when their children are adolescents and
again, when they leave home. Additional causes of marital distress include substance abuse,
gambling, the loss of a child, children with special needs, lack of financial resources, infidelity,
infertility, loss of employment, and untreated mental illness.
Armed Conflict/Natural Disasters
Trauma
Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural
disaster. Immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include
unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like
headaches or nausea. While these feelings are normal, some people have difficulty moving on
with their lives. Psychologists can help these individuals find constructive ways of managing their
emotions. Its forms include the following:

• Acute trauma reflects intense distress in the immediate aftermath of a one-time event
and the reaction is of short duration. Common examples include a car crash, physical or
sexual assault, or the sudden death of a loved one.
• Chronic trauma can arise from harmful events that are repeated or prolonged. It can
develop in response to persistent bullying, neglect, abuse (emotional, physical, or sexual),
and domestic violence.
• Complex trauma can arise from experiencing repeated or multiple traumatic events from
which there is no possibility of escape. The sense of being trapped is a feature of the
experience. Like other types of trauma, it can undermine a sense of safety in the world
and beget hypervigilance, constant (and exhausting!) monitoring of the environment for
the possibility of threat.
• Secondary or vicarious trauma arises from exposure to other people’s suffering and can
strike those in professions that are called on to respond to injury and mayhem, notably
physicians, first responders, and law enforcement. Over time, such individuals are at risk
for compassion fatigue, whereby they avoid investing emotionally in other people in an
attempt to protect themselves from experiencing distress.

97 | P a g e
 • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) cover a wide range of difficult situations that
children either directly face or witness while growing up, before they have developed
effective coping skills. ACEs can disrupt the normal course of development and the
emotional injury can last long into adulthood. The loss of a parent; neglect; emotional,
physical, or sexual abuse; and divorce are among the most common types of Adverse
Childhood Experiences.
Natural disasters have the potential to produce high levels of stress, anxiety, and anger in
those who are affected. They are considered to be traumatic events and can potentially trigger
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in survivors. Unlike other traumatic events, natural
disasters can result in tremendous destruction of property and financial loss, which further
contributes to stress levels and disrupts coping efforts. For example, a tornado or hurricane can
destroy and disperse an entire community, thwarting their attempts to connect with social support.
War and violence create a vicious dysfunctional cycle, a deadly trap that primarily impacts
the children. The trauma of war, especially one of a protracted nature, deprives children of a
much-needed time for cognitive-emotional processing and self-healing. Children living in war
zones and areas of armed conflicts do not live normal lives. They watch their homes being
demolished and see their family members, neighbors, and friends getting injured or killed. They
might not have the words to express what has happened to them; instead, they share their stories
through behaviors like lashing out or shutting down. They may regress in age-appropriate
behaviors, have difficulty sleeping, become unable to perform activities of daily living, and/or
struggle behaviorally, academically, and relationally.
Evacuation/Refugee Phenomenon
A refugee is a person who has fled their country of origin in order to escape persecution,
other violations of human rights, or the effects of conflict. In international law, the fact of having
crossed or not crossed an international frontier is critical, and treaties such as the 1951
Convention and 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees define a refugee as a person
who not only has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political opinion, but is also outside their country of
nationality (or former habitual residence if stateless), and without the protection of any other State.
By contrast, an internally displaced person is someone who has moved within the bounds of his
or her own country, either for the same sorts of ‘refugee-type’ reasons, or because of natural or
‘man-made’ events, for example, earthquake, famine, drought, conflicts, disorder, or development
projects, such as high-dam building. Increasingly also, displacement resulting from climate-
change, remote as it may be, is attracting attention in all its dimensions, including that of
international law.
In the contemporary world, the idea and ideal of asylum for the persecuted have become
muted in a multi-stranded debate linking and questioning, among others, not only the ethical basis
for asylum policies, but also issues of sovereignty, border control, security, migration, irregular
migration, the internally displaced, globalization, intervention, and the ‘responsibility to protect’. In
all this, international human rights law plays a significant role, even if the ‘right’ to asylum remains
contested. The prohibition of torture, inhuman and degrading treatment and of return to the risk
of such treatment has contributed to a broadening of the concept of the refugee; he or she today
is seen as a person at risk of serious human rights violations in their own country, rather than of
persecution for a limited range of reasons. Equally, and notwithstanding the principle of

98 | P a g e
sovereignty and non-intervention, human rights law has enabled a focus on the situation of those
displaced within their own country, allowing pertinent questions to be asked about protecting
IDPs, when their own State is either unable or unwilling to do so. States generally, out of self-
interest if nothing else, have begun to appreciate the advantages of dealing with forced
displacement issues ‘at source’, and of avoiding or preventing the necessity for external flight. At
the same time, contradictions inherent in an increasingly globalized economy remain unresolved,
for example, the fact that the cheap labour necessary to give a State the competitive edge often
has to be supplied by irregular migration. Many governments, especially in the developed world,
are actively looking for more effective ways to ‘manage’ the flows of people, often thereby also
placing obstacles in the way of the refugee in search of protection and asylum. It is a moot point,
therefore, to what extent refugees and asylum will retain a secure place in international law and
the future practice of States.
At the end of 2020, some 53.2 million people were internally displaced due to armed
conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations, according to Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre (IDMC).
The UNHCR’s Refugee Population Statistics Database contains information about forcibly
displaced populations spanning more than 70 years of statistical activities. It covers displaced
populations such as refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced people, including their
demographics. Stateless people are also included, most of who have never been displaced. The
database also reflects the different types of solutions for displaced populations such as
repatriation or resettlement.

99 | P a g e
Violations of Human Rights and Child Rights
Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation
In areas affected by conflict, natural disasters and other emergencies, people trust aid
workers to assist and protect them. The vast majority do so with professionalism and integrity.
But some aid workers abuse their position of power through the sexual exploitation and abuse of
those who depend on them, including children. These acts are unacceptable and violate criminal
laws.
Sexual exploitation refers to any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability,
differential power, or trust, for sexual purposes, perpetrated by aid workers against the children
and families they serve. Sexual abuse is the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual
nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions, perpetrated by aid workers
against the children and families they serve. When a child is subjected to related misconduct at
the hands of someone other than an aid worker, this is defined as sexual violence. Sexual violence
against children occurs in every country, across all segments of society.

100 | P a g e
 Women and children in emergency settings face the greatest risk of sexual exploitation
and abuse. High levels of need resulting from scarce resources, food shortages or economic
insecurity can intensify the power imbalance in emergency settings, raising the possibility of
sexual exploitation and abuse by humanitarian aid workers on whom communities depend, or by
peacekeepers providing protection.
Discrimination Against Ethnic or Cultural Minorities and Women
Discrimination strikes at the very heart of being human. It is harming someone’s rights
simply because of who they are or what they believe. Discrimination is harmful and perpetuates
inequality. We all have the right to be treated equally, regardless of our race, ethnicity, nationality,
class, caste, religion, belief, sex, gender, language, sexual orientation, gender identity, sex
characteristics, age, health or other status. Yet all too often we hear heartbreaking stories of
people who suffer cruelty simply for belonging to a “different” group from those in positions of
privilege or power.
Discrimination occurs when a person is unable to enjoy his or her human rights or other
legal rights on an equal basis with others because of an unjustified distinction made in policy, law
or treatment. Amnesty International’s work is rooted in the principle of non-discrimination. Working
with communities across the world, we challenge discriminatory laws and practices to ensure all
people can enjoy their rights on an equal basis. At the heart of all forms of discrimination is
prejudice based on concepts of identity, and the need to identify with a certain group. This can
lead to division, hatred and even the dehumanization of other people because they have a
different identity.
In many parts of the world, the politics of blame and fear is on the rise. Intolerance, hatred
and discrimination is causing an ever-widening rift in societies. The politics of fear is driving people
apart as leaders peddle toxic rhetoric, blaming certain groups of people for social or economic
problems. Some governments try to reinforce their power and the status quo by openly justifying
discrimination in the name of morality, religion or ideology. Discrimination can be cemented in
national law, even when it breaks international law – for example, the criminalization of abortion
which denies women, girls and pregnant people the health services only they need. Certain
groups can even be viewed by the authorities as more likely to be criminal simply for who they
are, such as being poor, indigenous or black.
Racial and ethnic discrimination. Racism affects virtually every country in the world. It
systematically denies people their full human rights just because of their colour, race, ethnicity,
descent (including caste) or national origin. Racism unchecked can fuel large-scale atrocities such
as the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and more recently, apartheid and ethnic cleansing of the
Rohingya people in Myanmar. In India, members of the Dalit community are targeted, by members
of dominant castes, for a range of human rights abuses. These crimes, which include gang rapes,
killings and the destruction of their homes, often go uninvestigated by the police because of
discriminatory attitudes which do not take crimes against Dalits seriously. Amnesty International
has also documented widespread discrimination faced by millions of Roma in Europe, including
the threat of forced evictions, police harassment and the segregation of Romani children in school.
Gender Discrimination. In many countries, in all regions of the world, laws, policies, customs
and beliefs exist that deny women and girls their rights. By law, women cannot dress as they like
(Saudi Arabia, Iran) or work at night (Madagascar) or take out a loan without their husband’s
signature (Equatorial Guinea). In many countries, discriminatory laws place limits on a woman’s

101 | P a g e
right to divorce, own property, exercise control over her own body and enjoy protection from
harassment. In the ongoing battle for justice, hundreds of thousands of women and girls take to
the streets to claim their human rights and demand gender equality. In the USA, Europe and
Japan, women protested against misogyny and abuse as part of the #MeToo marches. In
Argentina, Ireland and Poland, women demonstrated to demand a stop to oppressive abortion
laws. In Saudi Arabia, they called for an end to the driving ban, and in Iran, they demanded an
end to forced hijab (veiling). All over the world, women and girls have been at the forefront of
demands for change. Yet despite the stratospheric rise of women’s activism, the stark reality
remains that many governments around the world openly support policies, laws and customs that
subjugate and suppress women. Globally, 40% of women of childbearing age live in countries
where abortion remains highly restricted or inaccessible in practice even when allowed by law,
and some 225 million do not have access to modern contraception. Research by Amnesty
International confirmed that while social media platforms allow people to express themselves by
debating, networking and sharing, companies and governments have failed to protect users from
online abuse, prompting many women in particular to self-censor or leave platforms altogether.
However, social media has given more prominence in some parts of the world to women’s calls
for equality in the workplace, an issue highlighted in the calls to narrow the gender pay gap,
currently standing at 23% globally. Women worldwide are not only paid less, on average, than
men, but are more likely to do unpaid work and to work in informal, insecure and unskilled jobs.
Much of this is due to social norms that consider women and their work to be of lower status.
Gender-based violence disproportionately affects women, yet it remains a human rights crisis that
politicians continue to ignore.
Performance-Related Problems
Inadequate Job Performance
Poor performance is an issue that worries managers and employees alike. It is of concern
to senior managers because it is a measure of how effectively the organization is led. But people
in organizations do not always feel their organization tackles poor performance appropriately – a
hard nut to crack. Dealing with poor performance is an emotive issue. It is perhaps not surprising,
therefore, that many organizations fail to address it. In our research, seven large employers
shared their perspectives on the issue.

When is poor performance real anyway? Our diagram shows the aspects that can be
associated with performance. What could be construed as true poor performance may be small
indeed, when we take account of other ways poor performance might be defined. However, the

102 | P a g e
picture is quite confused when we consider that poor performance can result from role overload
or unclear objectives or unrealistic targets. Changes to the work environment would probably
raise the level of performance.
On the other hand, absence (which can again be seen as a sign of poor performance) or
a personal or a domestic problem, may be better handled by Occupational Health. Perhaps the
clearest boundary in the picture is the overlap between behaviour and attitude, with misconduct.
If the employee is dishonest and unethical, there are strong reasons for invoking the disciplinary
process and ultimately exit. Poor performance is legally defined as ‘when an employee’s
behaviour or performance might fall below the required standard’. Dealing with poor performance
is, however, a legal minefield. This might explain why some employers tend to confuse poor
performance with negligence, incapacity or misconduct.
All employers participating would review their selection process to avoid recruiting poor
performers in the first place. But organisations need to put in place an overall approach and
procedure to deal with poor performance. Approaches we encountered take on two important, but
diametrically opposed, dimensions: (1) whether the organisation's ultimate aim was to improve
performance or remove the employee; and (2) the degree of formality of the procedure used to
achieve this aim. Some organisations adopted a developmental approach, believing that
employees’ performance could be improved. Their intervention therefore included a sharper focus
on training and development. In this case, a varying degree of formality of the process used was
also in evidence. Towards the more formal end of the procedure, but still with an improvement
emphasis, we found the approach that a manufacturing organisation had developed, ending in a
performance improvement plan. At the other end of the spectrum lies the approach adopted by
an electronics company that believed in informally matching people to roles according to their
strengths.
Inadequate School Performance
Education is one of the most important aspects of human resource development. Poor
school performance not only results in the child having a low self-esteem, but also causes
significant stress to the parents. There are many reasons for children to underperform at school,
such as, medical problems, below average intelligence, specific learning disability, attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder, emotional problems, poor socio-cultural home environment,
psychiatric disorders and even environmental causes.
The following are the signs of poor school performance:

• Not wanting to go to school, or not going to certain classes during the day
• Trouble finishing homework, or not turning in finished assignments
• Low grades in one or more class
• Not wanting to talk about school or show a report card
• Saying he or she is bored in class or cannot keep up with the teacher
Crime and Juvenile Delinquency
The Philippines has a moderately high rate of crime, violence, and terrorism. In 2020, the
country was on the bottom five of the order and security index ranking across the Asia Pacific
region. Equally, the Philippines was among those with the highest incarceration rate in every

103 | P a g e
hundred thousand inhabitants. Crime rates were particularly high in poorer neighborhoods and
areas with larger populations and higher unemployment.
The Philippines, like any other country, suffers from a plethora of social issues perpetuated
by poverty and the inability to bridge the gap between social ranks. From the lack of access to
good education to widespread unemployment, there are numerous reasons why crime rates
continue to fluctuate year after year. One of the most pressing issues in the Philippines, however,
is the issue of juvenile delinquency. The number of juvenile delinquents documented each year
has been attributed to poverty, but advocates and pundits claim that the problem lies largely in
the failure of the State to properly deal with the so-called “children in conflict with the law” (CICL).
Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal acts performed by children under the age of 18.
According to statistics released by the Philippine National Police from 2012 to 2015, about 60
percent of juvenile crimes fall under crimes against property. These include theft, robbery,
malicious mischief and estafa, statistics by the PNP from 2012 to 2015 revealed. On the other
hand, crimes against persons, which include rape, attempted rape, acts of lasciviousness,
physical injuries, murder, attempted murder, seduction, grave threats, abduction, and homicide,
constitute 36 percent of the crimes committed by children covering the same period. The last 4
percent of crimes committed by children in the Philippines from 2012 to 2015 involved violations
of special laws, such as Republic Act (RA) 9165 (prohibited drugs), Presidential Decree 1866
(illegal possession of firearms) and Presidential Decree 1602 (illegal gambling).
While children and teenagers primarily figured in petty crimes, youth offenders are
allegedly getting younger and bolder. Some children are now figuring in heinous crimes that would
send them to jail for life. In 2015, theft, physical injury and rape were the top 3 crimes committed
by children. Theft cases recorded in 2015 reached 3,715, while physical-injury cases totaled
1,859. Rape cases involving child perpetrators reached 642.
While the number of juvenile delinquents in the Philippines is astounding, laws protect
them from being put on trial as adults. The State and laws put in place prioritize their welfare,
rehabilitation, and reintegration into society, allowing CICLs to improve their lives after the crimes
they’ve committed in the past. However, while the laws of the land aim to protect these children,
the rehabilitation programs remain wanting, with some reformative aspects of the Philippine
Juvenile Justice Law not being implemented well due to a lack of financial support from the
government or the absence of housing programs that should be designed for their welfare during
their supposed trials. Unfortunately, these not only affect the success of rehabilitation, but also
exposes children to the risk of abuses within the system.

104 | P a g e