Structure of Nuclei: Particle and Nuclear Physics

14.
Structure of Nuclei
Particle and Nuclear Physics
Prof. Tina Potter
Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 1

In this section...
Magic Numbers
The Nuclear Shell Model
Excited States

Magic Numbers
Magic Numbers = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126...
Nuclei with a magic number of Z and/or N are particularly stable,
e.g. Binding energy per nucleon is large for magic numbers
Doubly magic nuclei are especially stable.

Magic Numbers
Other notable behaviour includes

Greater abundance of isotopes and isotones for magic numbers
e.g. Z = 20 has 6 stable isotopes (average = 2)
Z = 50 has 10 stable isotopes (average = 4)
Odd A nuclei have small quadrupole moments when magic
First excited states for magic nuclei higher than neighbours
Large energy release in α, β decay when the daughter nucleus is magic
Spontaneous neutron emitters have N = magic + 1
Nuclear radius shows only small change with Z , N at magic numbers.
etc... etc...

Magic Numbers
Analogy with atomic behaviour as electron shells fill.
Atomic case - reminder
Electrons move independently in central potential V (r ) ∼ 1/r (Coulomb
field of nucleus).
Shells filled progressively according to Pauli exclusion principle.
Chemical properties of an atom defined by valence (unpaired) electrons.
Energy levels can be obtained (to first order) by solving Schrödinger
equation for central potential.
1
En = n = principle quantum number
n2
Shell closure gives noble gas atoms.

Are magic nuclei analogous to the noble gas atoms?

Magic Numbers
Nuclear case (Fermi gas model)
Nucleons move in a net nuclear potential that represents the average effect of
interactions with the other nucleons in the nucleus.
Nuclear Potential
−V0
V (r ) ∼
1 + e(r −R)/s
“Saxon-Woods potential”,
i.e. a Fermi function, like the
nuclear charge distribution
Nuclear force short range + saturated ⇒ near centre V (r ) ∼constant.

Near surface: density and no. of neighbours decreases ⇒ V (r ) decreases
For protons, V (r ) is modified by the Coulomb interaction
Magic Numbers
In the ground state, nucleons occupy energy levels of the nuclear potential so
as to minimise the total energy without violating the Pauli principle.
The exclusion principle operates

independently for protons and neutrons.
Tendency for Z=N
to give the minimum E
Postulate: nucleons move in well-defined orbits with discrete energies.

Objection: nucleons are of similar size to nucleus ∴ expect many collisions.
How can there be well-defined orbits?
Pauli principle: if energy is transferred in a collision then nucleons must
move up/down to new states. However, all nearby states are occupied ∴ no
collision. i.e. almost all nucleons in a nucleus move freely within nucleus if it is
in its ground state.
Treat each nucleon independently and solve Schrödingers equation for
nuclear potential to obtain nucleon energy levels.
Consider spherically symmetric central potential e.g. Saxon-Woods
potential −V0
V (r ) ∼ (r −R)/s

1+e
Solution of the form ψ(⃗r ) = Rnℓ(r )Yℓm (θ, ϕ)
Obtain 2 equations separately for radial and angular coordinates.

1 ∂ 2 ∂ ℓ(ℓ + 1)
Radial Equation: 2
r − 2
+ 2M(E − V (r )) Rnℓ(r ) = 0
r ∂r ∂r r
Allowed states specified by n, ℓ, m:

n radial quantum number (n.b. different to atomic notation)
ℓ orbital a.m. quantum no. n.b. any ℓ for given n (c.f. Atomic ℓ < n)
m magnetic quantum number m = −ℓ... + ℓ
Energy levels increase with n and ℓ (similar to atomic case)
Fix ℓ, increase n Fix n, increase ℓ
As n increases: As ℓ increases:
rRnℓ has more nodes, greater rRnℓ has greater curvature and
curvature and E increases. E increases.
Fill shells for both p and n:
Degeneracy = (2s + 1)(2ℓ + 1) = 2(2ℓ + 1) (s = 1/2)
But, this central potential alone cannot reproduce the observed magic
numbers. Need to include spin-orbit interaction.
Spin-orbit interaction
Mayer and Jensen (1949) included (strong) spin-orbit potential to explain
magic numbers. ⃗⃗
V (r ) = Vcentral(r ) + Vso(r )L̂.Ŝ n.b. Vso is negative
Spin-orbit interaction splits ℓ levels into their different j values
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗2 ⃗2 ⃗ 2 ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1 ⃗2 ⃗2 ⃗ 2
h i
Ĵ = L̂ + Ŝ; Ĵ = L̂ + Ŝ + 2L̂.Ŝ; L̂.Ŝ = Ĵ − L̂ − Ŝ
2
⃗⃗ 1
L̂.Ŝ|ψ⟩ = [j(j + 1) − ℓ(ℓ + 1) − s(s + 1)] |ψ⟩
2
For a single 1 ⃗⃗ 1 1
j =ℓ− : L̂.Ŝ|ψ⟩ = − (ℓ + 1)|ψ⟩ V = Vcentral − (ℓ + 1)Vso
nucleon 2 2 2
with s = 12 , 1
j =ℓ+ :
⃗⃗ 1
L̂.Ŝ|ψ⟩ = ℓ|ψ⟩
1
V = Vcentral + ℓVso
2 2 2
1
∆E = (2ℓ + 1)Vso
2
⃗⃗
Vcentral with L̂.Ŝ n.b. larger j lies lower
Nuclear Shell Model Energy Levels
4s Notation Multiplicity
6
3d nℓj of states
4s1/2 2 Splitting increases
4s 3d3/2
2g 4 with increasing ℓ
3d 2g7/2 8 (same for all nuclei)
2g 3d5/2 6
5 3p 1i11/2 12
2g9/2
1i
2f
1i
2f5/2
10
6 126
Nuclear Shell Model
3p1/2
3s
3p
2f
1i13/2
3p3/2
2
14
4
Predictions
4 2f7/2 8
1h
2d 1h
1h9/2 10 1 Magic Numbers.
3s1/2 82
1g 3s 2
2d
1h11/2
2d3/2
12
4
The Shell Model successfully
2d5/2 6
3
2p 1g
1g7/2 8
predicts the origin of the
1g9/2 10 50 Closed shells
1f 2p 2p1/2 2 indicated by magic numbers. It was
2p3/2 4 magic numbers
1f5/2 of nucleons
2 2s
1f 6
28
constructed to achieve this.
1f7/2 8
1d 2s
2s1/2 2 20 2 Spin & Parity.
1d 1d3/2 4
1 1p
1d5/2 6 ∑ (2 j+1) 3 Magnetic Dipole
1p1/2 8
1p
1p3/2
2
4
Degeneracy in
each level (2j+1)
Moments.
1s 1s 2
0 1s1/2 2
Harmonic Infinite Finite Square Plus
oscillator square square well with spin-orbit
well well rounded coupling
edges

Nuclear Shell Model Spin and Parity
The Nuclear Shell Model predicts the spin & parity of ground state nuclei.
Case 1: Near closed shells
Even-Even Nuclei : J P = 0+
Even-Odd Nuclei : J P given by unpaired nucleon or hole; P = (−1)ℓ
Odd-Odd Nuclei : Find J values of unpaired p and n, then apply jj coupling
i.e. |jp − jn | ≤ J ≤ jp + jn , Parity = (−1)ℓp (−1)ℓn
1d5/2 Degeneracy,
e.g.
(2j+1)
1p1/2 2
1p3/2 4
1s1/2 2
18 15 10
8O 7N 5B
J P =0+ (obs) J P =1/2− (obs) jp =3/2−, jn =3/2−
J P =0+,1+,2+,3+ (J P = 3+ observed)

Case 1: Near closed shells
Even-Even Nuclei : J P = 0+
Even-Odd Nuclei : J P given by unpaired nucleon or hole; P = (−1)ℓ
Odd-Odd Nuclei : Find J values of unpaired p and n, then apply jj coupling
i.e. |jp − jn | ≤ J ≤ jp + jn , Parity = (−1)ℓp (−1)ℓn
There are however cases where this simple prescription fails.
The pairing interaction between identical nucleons is not described by a spherically symmetric
potential nor by the spin-orbit interaction.
Lowest energy spin state of pair: ↑↓ with (j, m) and (j, −m). Total J = 0.
Need antisymmetric ψtotal = ψspinψspatial: ψspin antisymmetric, thus ψspatial is symmetric.
This maximises the overlap of their wavefunctions, increasing the binding energy (attractive
force). The pairing energy increases with increasing ℓ of nucleons.
Example: 207 82 Pb naively expect odd neutron in 2f5/2 subshell.
But, pairing interaction means it is energetically favourable for the 2f5/2 neutron and a neutron
from nearby 3p1/2 to pair and leave hole in 3p1/2. ⇒ J P = 1/2− (observed)
Case 2: Away from closed shells
More than one nucleon can contribute and electric quadrupole moment Q is often large
⇒ V (r ) no longer spherically symmetric.
Example: 2311 Na Q is observed to be large, i.e. non-spherical.

Three protons in 1d5/2; if two were paired up, we expect J P = 5/2+.
1d5/2
In fact, all three protons
1p1/2 must contribute
1p3/2 ⇒ can get J P = 3/2+
(observed)
1s1/2

Nuclear Shell Model Magnetic Dipole Moments
The Nuclear Shell Model predicts the magnetic dipole moments of ground state nuclei.
Even-even nuclei : J = 0 ⇒ µ = 0
Odd A nuclei: µ corresponds to the unpaired nucleon or hole
For a single nucleon µ

⃗= µN ⃗
ℏ (gℓ ℓ + gs ⃗
s) with p : gℓ = 1, gs = +5.586,
n : gℓ = 0, gs = −3.826,
eℏ
where µN = 2m p
is the Nuclear Magneton.
⃗ is not parallel to ⃗j (since ⃗j = ⃗ℓ + ⃗s ).
µ
However, the angle between µ ⃗ and ⃗j is constant, because
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

cos θ ∼ µ ⃗ .j ∼ gℓℓ.j + gs ⃗s .j = gℓ(ℓ + j − s ) + gs (s + j − ℓ )
2
and j 2, ℓ2 and s 2 are all constants of motion.
Hence, we can calculate the nuclear magnetic moment (projection of µ ⃗ along the z-axis)
⃗ .J⃗ Jz
µ
µz = × c.f. derivation of Landé g-factor
⃗
|J| ⃗
|J|
in Quantum course
⃗ onto J⃗ then J⃗ onto ⃗z
project µ
mJ
∴ µz = µN ( gℓ [ℓ(ℓ + 1) + j(j + 1) − s(s + 1)] + gs [s(s + 1) + j(j + 1) − ℓ(ℓ + 1)] )
2j(j + 1)
Thus µ = gJ µN J for mJ = J and

1
gJ = (gℓ [ℓ(ℓ + 1) + j(j + 1) − s(s + 1)] + gs [s(s + 1) + j(j + 1) − ℓ(ℓ + 1)])
2j(j + 1)
For a single nucleon (s = 1/2), there are two possibilities (j = ℓ + 1/2 or ℓ − 1/2)
gs − gℓ
gJ = gℓ ± j = ℓ ± 1/2
2ℓ + 1
Odd p: gℓ = 1 gs = +5.586
Odd n: gℓ = 0 gs = −3.826
called the “Schmidt Limits”.

Schmidt Limits compared to data: The Nuclear Shell Model predicts the broad trend of
the magnetic moments. But not good in detail, except for closed shell ±1 nucleon or so.
⇒ wavefunctions must be more complicated than our simple model.

Excited States of Nuclei
In nuclear spectra, we can identify three kinds of excitations:
Single nucleon excited states
Vibrational excited states
Rotational excited states
Single nucleon excited states may, to some extent, be predicted from the
simple Shell Model. Most likely to be successful for lowest-lying excitations of
odd A nuclei near closed shells.
5.08 3/2+
e.g. 4.55 3/2–
3.84 5/2– 3.12 3/2–
2.83 5/2–
3.06 1/2–
2.61 3–
1.61 13/2+
0.90 7/2–
0.87 1/2+
0 5/2+ 0 0+ 0 9/2–
MeV JP
17 208 209
8 O 82 Pb 83 Bi
Excited States of Nuclei
Vibrational and rotational motion of nuclei involve the collective motion of
the nucleons in the nucleus.
Collective motion can be incorporated into the shell model by replacing the
static symmetrical potential with a potential that undergoes deformations in
shape.
⇒ Collective vibrational and rotational models.
Here we will only consider even Z , even N nuclei
Ground state : J P = 0+
Lowest excited state (nearly always): J P = 2+
Tend to divide into two categories:
A E (2+) Type
30–150 ∼ 1 MeV Vibrational
150–190 (rare earth)
∼ 0.1 MeV Rotational
>220 (actinides)
Nuclear Vibrations
Vibrational excited states occur when a nucleus oscillates about a spherical
equilibrium shape (low energy surface vibrations, near closed shells). Form of
the excitations can be represented by a multipole expansion (just like
underlying nuclear shapes).
Monopole Dipole Quadrupole Octupole

Incorporated into the Involves a net displacement of
average radius centre of mass ⇒ cannot result Quadrupole oscillations are the
from action of nuclear forces lowest order nuclear vibrational
(can be induced by applied e/m mode.
field i.e. a photon)
Similar to SHM – the quanta of vibrational energy are called phonons.
Nuclear Vibrations
A quadrupole phonon An octupole phonon
carries 2 units of angular carries 3 units of angular
momentum and has even momentum and has odd
parity ⇒ J P = 2+ parity ⇒ J P = 3−
Phonons are bosons and must satisfy Bose-Einstein statistics (overall

symmetric wavefunction under the interchange of two phonons).
e.g. for quadrupole phonons:
Even-even ground state 0+ 1 phonon 2+
−−−−−→
2 phonons 0+, 2+, 4+
−−−−−−→
(in practice not degenerate)
Energies of vibrational excitations are not predicted, but we can predict the
ratios Second excited (2 phonons; 0+, 2+, 4+)
+
∼2
First excited (1 phonon; 2 )
Nuclear Vibrations
Example of vibrational excitations:
1.286 4+
1.270 2+ Two phonons
1.165 0+
2nd excited
Predict ∼2
1st excited
0.488 2+ One phonon
2nd excited
Observe ∼ 2.4
0 0+
1st excited
MeV JP
118
Cd
Octupole states (J P = 3−) are often seen near the triplet of two-phonon
quadrupole states.
Vibrational states decay rapidly by γ emission (see later).
Nuclear Rotations
Collective rotational motion can only be observed in
nuclei with non-spherical equilibrium shapes (i.e. far
from closed shells, large Q).
Rotating deformed nucleus: nucleons in rapid internal motion in the nuclear

potential + entire nucleus rotating slowly. Slow to maintain a stable
equilibrium shape and not to affect the nuclear structure.
Nuclear mirror symmetry restricts the sequence of rotational states to even
values of angular momentum.
Even-even ground state 0+ → 2+, 4+, 6+
... (total angular momentum = nuclear a.m. + rotational a.m.)
Energy of a rotating nucleus ℏ2
E= J(J + 1)
2Ieff
where Ieff is the effective moment of inertia.
Nuclear Rotations
Energies of rotational excitations are not predicted, but we can predict the
ratios 614.4 6 +
e.g.
E (4+) 4(4 + 1)
Predict = = 3.33
299.5 4+ E (2+) 2(2 + 1)
91.4 2+
0 0+ E (4+) 299.5
Observe = = 3.28
keV JP E (2+) 91.4
164
Er
Deduce Ieff from the absolute energies; it is found that Irigid > Ieff > Ifluid
→ the nucleus does not rotate like a rigid body. Only some of its nucleons
are in collective motion (presumably the outer ones).
Rotational behaviour is intermediate between the nucleus being tightly bonded
and weakly bonded i.e. the strong force is not long range.
Nuclear Vibrations and Rotations
E (4+)
For even-even ground state nuclei, the ratio of excitation energies E (2+) is a
diagnostic of the type of excitation.
Vibration A < 150 Rotation 150 < A < 190, A > 230
E(4+)
E(2+)
3.33
Rare Actinides
Earth
Closed
shells

Summary
The Nuclear Shell Model is successful in predicting
Origin of magic numbers
Spins and parities of ground states
Trend in magnetic moments
Some excited states near closed shells, small excitations in odd A nuclei
In general, it is not good far from closed shells and for non-spherically symmetric potentials.
The collective properties of nuclei can be incorporated into the Nuclear Shell Model by
replacing the spherically symmetric potential by a deformed potential.
Improved description for
Even A excited states
Electric quadrupole and magnetic dipole moments.
Many more sophisticated models exist (see Cont. Physics 1994 vol. 35 No. 5 329
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00107519408222099)
Problem Sheet: q.34-36
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14.

Prof. Tina Potter

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 1

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 2

Doubly magic nuclei are especially stable.

Other notable behaviour includes

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 4

Shell closure gives noble gas atoms.

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 5

Nuclear force short range + saturated ⇒ near centre V (r ) ∼constant.

The exclusion principle operates

Postulate: nucleons move in well-defined orbits with discrete energies.

Obtain 2 equations separately for radial and angular coordinates.

Allowed states specified by n, ℓ, m:

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 11

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 12

Example: 2311 Na Q is observed to be large, i.e. non-spherical.

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 14

For a single nucleon µ

Thus µ = gJ µN J for mJ = J and

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 16

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 17

Monopole Dipole Quadrupole Octupole

Phonons are bosons and must satisfy Bose-Einstein statistics (overall

0.488 2+ One phonon

Rotating deformed nucleus: nucleons in rapid internal motion in the nuclear

Prof. Tina Potter 14. Structure of Nuclei 25

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