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Structural Loading

The document provides information on structural loading and wind loading design based on SANS 10160 standards. It discusses different types of loads on structures including self-weight, imposed loads from live loads, wind, and earthquakes. The document outlines the steps to determine wind loads, which includes: (1) determining basic wind speed, (2) peak wind speed, (3) wind speed pressure, (4) wind pressure coefficients, and (5) resultant forces. It then provides an example problem to calculate wind pressures on a light industrial building located in Bloemfontein, South Africa.

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Masithembe Tera Dumezweni
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
80 views

Structural Loading

The document provides information on structural loading and wind loading design based on SANS 10160 standards. It discusses different types of loads on structures including self-weight, imposed loads from live loads, wind, and earthquakes. The document outlines the steps to determine wind loads, which includes: (1) determining basic wind speed, (2) peak wind speed, (3) wind speed pressure, (4) wind pressure coefficients, and (5) resultant forces. It then provides an example problem to calculate wind pressures on a light industrial building located in Bloemfontein, South Africa.

Uploaded by

Masithembe Tera Dumezweni
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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STR2601

STRUCTURAL STEEL
DESIGN
STRUCTURAL
LOADING
INTRODUCTION

• Engineering structures are required to sustain two types of categories


of loads which are permanent loads and imposed loads. Permanent
load is the self weight from the material used for the structure and
Imposed loads are loads from live objects, wind, overhead cranes,
temperature, rain, snow and earthquakes.
Generation of Loads
Loads arise from various sources. The most important of these are
described below.

• Self weight
• Any structure must be made of some kind of material and all material have
some weight.
• Table 1 lists the densities and specific gravity values of several typical building
materials.
Table 1.
Densities and
specific gravity
values of
selected building
materials
Table 2:
Weight of
roofing and
cladding
materials
Environmental Induced loads
• This are loads due to environment conditions variably changing,
therefore it can be regarded as temporary loads, this loads include
wind, rain, hail and snow.
• When designing structures this loads must be included because they
add to the permanent load. This loads are not factored therefore are
considered as nominal loads and have to be converted to ultimate
limit state (ULS) by factoring both permanent and temporary loads.
• In South Africa most occurring loads are wind loads and rain, so this
section will be focused on wind loads.
Wind Loads
• The provision of wind loading in SANS 10160-3 2010 has been
extensively revised and aligned to EN 1991-1-4. Refer to the SANS
10160 for mor information.

Step 1: Determine basic wind speed (𝑣𝑏 )

The basic wind speed is determined by:


i. Records of measured wind speeds by South African Service Bureau
around the South Africa.
Figure 1: Map of fundamental value of the basic
wind speed, 𝑣𝑏,0
ii. The basic wind speed 𝑣𝑏 is then calculated as:

𝑣𝑏 = 𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 × 𝑣𝑏,0

Where 𝑣𝑏,0 , is determined from Figure X and

1−𝐾× −ln(1−𝑝) 𝑛
𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 = (2.2)
1−𝐾×ln(−𝑙𝑛0.98)
In which;
K – shape parameter = 0.2
n = 0.5
P = probability of annual exceedance.
P = 0,02 for a mean return period of 50 years
• Step 2: Determine the peak wind speed 𝑣𝑝 (𝑧)

• The presence of any local terrain features, such as buildings or trees,


creates a roughness, which reduces the wind speed.
• Four different categories are defined in SANS 10160-3: 2010 in Table 2
• Terrain Category A: is essentially flat, open countryside or sea.
• Terrain Category B: has small scattered buildings , low vegetation or trees,
such as typical farmland.
• Terrain Category C: includes suburban and light industrial areas, with closely
spaced small to medium buildings and large trees.
• Terrain Category D: has a large buildings as in the case of the centre of major
cities, average height of buildings exceeds 15m and at
least 15% of the surface is covered by buildings.
iii. Determine 𝑐𝑟 𝑧
𝛼
𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑐𝑟 𝑧 = 1.36
𝑧𝑔 − 𝑧0
Where;

𝑧= height above ground level


𝑧0 = height of reference plane defined in Table 1 of SANS 10160-3: 2010
𝑧𝑔 = gradient height also defined in Table 1
𝛼= exponent defined in Table 1
iv. Determine 𝑐0 (𝑧)

The topography factor 𝑐0 (𝑧) is taken as 1.0. However the terrain topography
increases wind speeds by more than 5%, Annexure A.3 of SANS 10160-3:
2010gives more details on the calculation of 𝑐0 (𝑧).

v. Determine 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 1.4𝑣𝑏

vi. Determine peak 𝑣𝑝 (𝑧)

𝑣𝑝 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑟 𝑧 × 𝑐0 𝑧 × 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
• Step 3: Determine peak wind speed pressure, 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧)

• The pressure is dependent on the square of the wind speed and the
density of the air. The air density, ρ , depends on the height above
the sea level as given in Table X (adapted from table 4 in SANS 10160-
3: 2010).

• The peak wind speed pressure, 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) is thus given by;

1
𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = × 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑝2 (𝑧)
2
Table 3: Air density
Step 4: Determine pressures on each structural element

• The pressure exerted on part of the structure is a function of the peak


wind speed pressure, the geometry of the structure and its
orientation towards the flow. The relationship between the peak wind
speed pressure and the pressure exerted at a particular point of the
structure is represented by the pressure coefficients.

• The Code introduces two pressure coefficients – the external pressure


coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) and the internal pressure coefficient 𝑐𝑝𝑖 .

Pressures
+ = towards the structure
- = away from the structure
• (𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) coefficients are given in clause 8 of SANS 10160 depending on
the type of the element in consideration.

• However, the code stipulates that where it is possible to estimate the


operating ratio, 𝑐𝑝𝑖 should be taken as the more onerous of +0.2 and
− 0.3.

Step 5: Determine resultant forces

The wind pressures on the internal (𝑤𝑖 ) and external (𝑤𝑒 ) surfaces are
then obtained as:

𝑤𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) × 𝑐𝑝𝑖
𝑤𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) × 𝑐𝑝𝑒

Where;

𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) is the peak wind speed pressure; and


𝑧𝑒 is the reference height

The force on the structural element is the determined as a problem as


a product of the net pressure. Taking the signs into account of the
internal and external pressures.

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑤𝑒
• For the determination of the wind force for the whole structure, force
coefficients must be used as presented in the clause 7.5.3 of SANS
10160-3: 2010.
• Primarily this force is used to determine overturning moments of the
total drag forces on a structure in the wind.

• The wind force is determined as:

• 𝐹𝑤 = 𝑐𝑠 × 𝑐𝑑 × 𝑐𝑓 × 𝑞𝑝 𝑧𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓

• Where 𝑐𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑑 = 1.0
𝑐𝑓 = force coefficient (Clause 8 of the code)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference area of the structure

Wind loading problem for you to solve

NOTE: SANS 10160-3 wind action is required


• A light industrial building, located in an industrial area outside
Bloemfontein, is 10m high to the top of the walls and measure 80 m
to 20m wide. The roof slope is 20⁰, and windows and doors are
equally distributed along both ends of the gable walls. Calculate the
wind pressure on the roof and all sides of the buildings.
• Step 1: Determine 𝑣𝑏

• Step 2: Determine 𝑣𝑝 𝑧

A light industrial area falls into Category C.

• Case (a): Wind across building 𝜽 = 𝟎°


• ℎ = 10 𝑚 < 𝑏 = 80 𝑚

• 𝑐𝑟 𝑧 = ?

• 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = ?

• 𝑣𝑝 𝑧 = ?

• Step 3: Determine 𝑞𝑝 𝑧 for walls.


• Altitude of Bloemfontein is approximately 1400 m (Google, Google Earth or use
Topographical maps)

• 𝜌 =?
• 𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = ?
• Step 4: Determine wind pressure coefficients.

• Windward side (Zone D)


ℎ
• ~ will be calculated.
𝑑

• Loaded area A ~ must be calculated.

• 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ? {will be read on table 6 SANS 10160-3:2011}

• Leeward side (Zone E)


ℎ
• ~ will be calculated.
𝑑
• Loaded area A ~ must be calculated.
• 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 ? {will be read on Table 3 SANS 10160-3:2011}

• Use the reference height 𝑧 = 13.6 𝑚 , the peak wind pressure on the leeward
side is calculated as:

• 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = ?

• 𝑣𝑝 𝑧 = ?

• 𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = ?
• For the sidewalls (Zone A, B and C) – Figure E2.3(b)

• 𝑒 = min 𝑏, 2ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑

• Two zones are applicable (i.e., Zone A and B only)

• Zone A is 𝑒/5 = 27.2/5 = 5.4 𝑚

• Zone B is 𝑑 − 𝑒Τ5 = 20 − 5.4 = 14.6 𝑚


• Zone A: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 = ?

• Zone B: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10 = ?

• Values of the internal coefficient 𝑐𝑝𝑖 is onerous ls taken as -0.3


• For the roof with acting across building 𝜃 = 0°
• 𝑒 = min 𝑏, 2ℎ
0
• Roof pitch 𝛼 = 20

• ∴ 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐𝑝𝑒,10

• Zone F: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ?
• Zone G: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ?

• Zone H: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ?

• Zone I: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ?

• Zone J: 𝑐𝑝𝑒 = ?

• The internal pressure coefficient Zone F: 𝑐𝑝𝑖 can be assumed to be +0.2.

• 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = ?
• REPEAT THE PROCESS FOR
• Case (b): Wind acting along the building 𝜃 = 900
References
Jeffrey Mahachi, P. P. F., 2013. Desind of Structural Steelwork to SANS 10162. 3 ed. s.l.:Xsi-tek.

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