ARTICLES

Mediterranean Botany
ISSNe 2603-9109

http://dx.doi.org/10.5209/MBOT.63045

Landscapes and forest flora of al-Andalus: a reconstruction from textual

historical documentation
J. Esteban Hernández Bermejo1,4, Julia Mª Carabaza Bravo2, Expiración García Sánchez3 & Francisca
Herrera Molina4

Received: 13 February 2017 / Accepted: 23 November 2018 /Published online: 20 February 2019

Abstract. The translation and interpretation of works by Andalusi botanists and agronomists provide an increasingly sharp
image of the species and forest landscapes in al-Andalus (Iberian area under Muslim rule in the Middle Ages). Regarding
agriculture, it is known that domestication processes and the introduction of new species and singular forms of use were
carried out, thus changing agricultural landscapes. Consequently, new life styles and consumption habits developed. A lot
less is known about forestry management, especially when referring to forest landscapes and tree species in the Iberian
Peninsula.
The authors of this work have been studying agricultural and forest flora in al-Andalus for many years. In addition to
numerous miscellaneous contributions, their first approximation on the trees and shrubs cultivated there was published in
2004, and the first volume of Flora Agrícola y Forestal de Al-Andalus covering 80 species of monocotyledons appeared in
2012. In anticipation of the volume devoted to woody dicotyledons to be published in 2019 (including over 150 species,
100 genera and 50 families), a synthesis of the forest landscapes and the most unique species in the Arabic texts is presented
in this work. Among the taxa identified are Iberian endemics such as Flueggea tinctoria and Corema album, rare taxa or
highly localized ones like Rhododendron ponticum subsp. baeticum, Tetraclinis articulata and Zizyphus lotus with species
of peculiar forestry interest such as Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Taxus baccata, Buxus sempervirens, Ilex aquifolium, Laurus
nobilis and Vitex agnus-castus, and archaeophytes like Celtis australis or Anagyris foetida.
Keywords: Agronomy; domestication processes; forestry interesting species; trees; shrubs.

Paisajes y flora forestal de al-Andalus: una reconstrucción a partir de documentación histórica textual
Resumen. La traducción e interpretación de las obras de botánicos y geóponos andalusíes permite vislumbrar, de forma cada
vez más nítida, las especies y paisajes forestales de al-Andalus (área ibérica bajo dominación musulmana en la Edad Media).
En el ámbito agrícola es conocido que se desarrollaron procesos de domesticación e introducción de nuevas especies y
formas singulares de uso que cambiaron los paisajes agrícolas y, en consecuencia, también las formas de vida y alimentación,
pero es mucho menos conocido lo concerniente al ámbito forestal, especialmente si nos referimos a los paisajes y especies
forestales ibéricas.
Los autores estudian la Flora Agrícola y Forestal en al-Andalus. Además de numerosas contribuciones misceláneas, una
primera aproximación sobre los árboles y arbustos cultivados fue publicada en 2004, y un primer volumen de la citada Flora
en 2012, abarcando 80 especies de monocotiledóneas. Como adelanto al volumen dedicado a las dicotiledóneas leñosas, que
será publicado en 2019 (con más de 150 especies de 100 géneros y 50 familias), se presenta ahora una síntesis de los paisajes
forestales y de las especies más singulares identificadas en los textos estudiados. Entre ellas hay endemismos ibéricos
como Fluggea tinctoria y Corema album, taxones raros o muy localizados como Rhododendron ponticum subsp. baeticum,
Tetraclinis articulata o Zizyphus lotus, junto a especies de singular interés forestal como Arctostaphilos uva-ursi, Taxus
baccata, Buxus sempervirens, Ilex aquifolium, Laurus nobilis o Vitex agnus-castus, y arqueófitos como Celtis australis o
Anagyris foetida.
Palabras clave: Agronomía; procesos de domesticación; especies con interés forestal; árboles; arbustos.

Introduction coal, dendrochronology); biogeographical and climato-

logical variations; floristic (traces of the past in today’s
A variety of information sources can be used in an eth- landscapes and wildlife); artistic and graphic (engrav-
nohistorical study: archaeological (bas-reliefs, ceram- ings, drawings, photography) and textual (treaties on
ics); archaeobotanical (palynological records, seeds, natural history, botany, pharmacology, medicine, agron-

1
Departamento de Ciencias y Recursos Agrícolas y Forestales, Universidad de Córdoba, Edificio Celestino Mutis. Campus de Rabanales. 14071
Córdoba. Spain. Email: cr1hebee@uco.es
2
Departamento de Estudios Semíticos, Universidad de Granada. Campus de Cartuja. 18071 Granada. Spain. Email: carabaza@ugr.es
3
Escuela de Estudios Árabes, CSIC. Cuesta del Chapiz, 22. 18010 Granada. Spain. Email: egarcia@eea.csic.es
4
Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz. Junta de Andalucía. Avda. Linneo s/n. Córdoba. Spain. Email: cr2hemof@uco.es
1,3,4
Members of CultIVA – CYTED (www.cyted.org/es/cultiva).
Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80 71
72 Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80

omy, travellers’ descriptions, etc.) The exclusive use • Pharmacological treaties like those by Ibn Ŷulŷul
of any of these sources by itself often limits the results (Xth century), Ibn Wāfid (XIth century), Maimonides
and, dispensing with the perspective and information of (XIIth century) and Ibn al-Bayṭār (XIIIth century).
other approaches, entails the risk of making misinter- • There is a brilliant and notable botanical work
pretations and low-level assessments of the data. The attributed to Abū l-Jayr, entitled ʻUmdat al- ṭabīb
work presented in this paper has been done by a multi- fī maʻrifat al- nabāt (the key book for a physician’s
disciplinary team in which philological and historical knowledge of botany), that contains about 5000
backgrounds have joined up with agricultural, forestry records of plants, often accompanied by lengthy
and botany knowledge, resorting occasionally to anthro- descriptions, references to uses and qualities, and
pology, archaeology and pharmacobotany contributions. interesting place names.
Part of the results already obtained in the general project
for the identification and valuation of Andalusi species Difficulties when studying textual sources
and agricultural and forest landscapes can be found in
Carabaza (2004), Carabaza et al. (2001, 2004, 2014), Apart from the usual work of managing editions and
García-Sánchez (1997, 2001), García-Sánchez et al. translations of texts, other difficulties arising when
(1998, 2008), García-Sánchez & Ramón-Laca (2001), identifying species were derived from the constant
García-Sánchez & Hernández-Bermejo (2007), Hernán- cases of polysemy, synonymy and local names given
dez-Bermejo (1987, 1990, 1991, 1999), Hernández-Ber- in medieval times (Hernández Bermejo, 1990). To
mejo et al. (2012), and Hernández-Bermejo & García- establish a biunivocal correspondence between a
Sánchez (1998, 2008, 2009, 2015). scientific name and the taxon that a particular text
is referring to becomes a complex work of research.
This can only be solved by a diagnosis that, in
Methodology and material many cases, does not have a minimal description
of the morphological characters. These, hopefully,
Arabic textual sources may appear in other botanical texts, as is the case
of the ‘Umdat al-ṭabīb but, more often than not,
Landscapes have been reconstructed by means of the the diagnosis derives from the interpretation of
following texts: uses, virtues, shapes, growing cycles, ecological
• The Andalusi agronomists: Ibn Ḥaŷŷāŷ (XIth requirements and locations where the plant was
century), Ibn Wāfid (XIth century), Ibn Baṣṣāl present. For this diagnosis work, it is very important
(XIth century), Abū l-Jayr (XIth -XIIth centuries), for researchers to be able to consult the appropriate
al-Ṭignarī (XIth -XIIth centuries), Ibn al-ʻAwwām documentation and have as wide a knowledge as
(XIIth-XIIIth centuries) and Ibn Luyūn (XIVth possible to enable them to set up the spatio-temporal
century). probabilistic framework that allows confirmation of
• Agricultural calendars such as ʻArīb b. Saʻīd (Xth the presence of the taxon. It is necessary to handle
century) and Ibn ʻĀṣim’s (Xth -XIth centuries). the indigenous nature of plants, but also the process
• The descriptions from travellers and geographers of their geographical dispersion throughout the
including al-Rāzī (Xth century), al-Bakrī (XIIth history of mankind. (Figure 1).
century), al-Idrīsī (XIIth century), al-Ḥimyarī For space reasons and consistency with the title, we
(XIIIth-XIVth centuries) and al-Maqqarī (XVIIth shall not address the Andalusi agricultural landscapes,
century). this work having been done elsewhere.

Figure1.  Working methodology.

Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80 73

Forest landscapes esparto grass (Stipa tenacissima) and its historical and
geographical locations in Cádiz, Jerez and Medina
Mediterranean oak forests and dehesas (open oak Sidonia. Myrtus communis (rayḥān) is recognized as
forests) being a tree, with some authors making a persistent
reference to its use as an ornamental plant, and its
Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) describes the diversity of the Ibe- plantation in pools is suggested. A “very rich food and
rian Quercus taxa in Mediterranean environments grouped bread” was said to be made with its fruit, but no author
under the term ballūṭ; he distinguishes between long and mentions fresh consumption or the possibility of its being
short, sweet and sour acorns; Ballūṭ ḥulw (sweet oak) prepared in the form of jams or syrups. The cosmetic
which could be identified with Q. ilex subsp. ballota (= Q. properties of leaves and seeds are also described: for
rotundifolia) in contrast with ballūṭ amāruh (sour oak, most hair treatments and deodorants, and antiseptics, healing,
likely the species type). Its wide ecological range is well cleansing, antihistamine, phytosanitary products,
explained by Ibn al-ʽAwwām (1988): “the oak is a wild tree etc. There is unanimity among the geoponists on the
born per se in mountainous places, on hard and not hard existence of wild varieties along with the cultivated one.
grounds... and does not require much watering... it lives on A surprisingly hairy variety is mentioned by Abū l-Jayr
many types of soils”. The selection and planting of acorns and noted by Ibn al-‘Awwām (Carabaza et al., 2004).
give us indications of the domestication process carried out The presence of wild olive (“acebuche”) in these
by the Iberian populations in order to obtain dehesa land- thermomediterranean formations, and of carob trees, is
scapes, covered by oaks with large, sweet acorns, far from well documented, given that all the Andalusi agronomists
the “montesinas” (mountain ones) variations, much small- cited them. Referring to the carob tree (Ceratonia
er and bitter. Acorns were part of human consumption, em- siliqua), Ibn al-‘Awwām (1988) writes that it grew wild
ployed even as flour for bread making. In addition, vari- in the mountains and makes accurate statements about
ous medicinal virtues are mentioned (astringency, healing its edaphic requirements, varieties, uses as human and
powers, treatment of ulcers, regulating menstruation), and livestock food and medicinal virtues, especially its
their use as a tanning agent for treating leather and crafts- astringent character.
manship of the cordobans (high quality leather work). The Related to these thermophilous formations, the date
quality of its wood was also appreciated, although nothing palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is mentioned as what could
is said of its use as fuel. very well be the cosmic tree of Arabic culture, which
Quercus coccifera, kermes oak, is clearly distinguished illuminated the Andalusi period, from the east of the
as being the species of Quercus producing quermes (small Mediterranean to the North of Africa (Sanz Elorza et
galls caused by insects from the group of Coccidae), from al., 2010). The profound knowledge of its cultivation
which the carmine used in cosmetics is extracted. demands, ecology, propagation forms and reproduction
With regard to the cork oak (Quercus suber), we are system is evident from the wealth of observations made
told that its acorn is thick, black, short, veined, with a by all the authors studied. The palm is conceived as being
blunt tip and a bitter taste; it grows in the mountains and a projection of man himself: its sexuality, affinities with
its leaves and wood resemble that of the oak tree…. it is other trees and diseases or stages of growth (al-Ṭignarī,
the species on which cows and mules graze” (Abū l-Jayr, 2006). From the standpoint of its usefulness, the palm
2004-2010) in reference to grazing pastures. Among the provides not only dates as food, but fibres for crafts and
uses of this tree, cork for beehives is mentioned by Ibn al- construction, and shade and ornamental elements are
ʻAwwām (1988). also obtained. However, its presence in the landscape
Regarding the Quercus faginea grex (Lusitanian oaks, is obviously diverse, highly localized even as a garden
“quejigos”, gall oaks), we turn to Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) species.
to find the ʻafṣ, which, he says, belongs to “the type of Much more information can be found on mastic and
large trees, with leaves oak-like in shape and appearance, terebinth trees (Pistacia lentiscus, P. terebinthus) under
only wider and more whitish, very smooth”. In the same the name ḍarw, mastic producing plants, which are
text, there is a reference to “a larger-sized variety with also referred to by many agronomists (Ibn al-ʻAwwām,
bigger fruit, these being light, soft, and easily astringent 1988; Ibn Baṣṣāl, 1995): the terebinth (“cornicabra”,
and abounding in al-Andalus”. We are probably being Pistacia terebinthus) was called ‘green bean tree’,
presented to the Baetic gall-oak, which could correspond while the ‘small terebinth’ seems to correspond to the
to Q. canariensis or Quercus alpestris. The text includes mastic tree (“lentisco”, Pistacia lentiscus),and a third
information on the polymorphism of “quejigos” pointing species, the ‘black mastic tree’, may relate to the wild
out the existence of varieties with more festooned or pistachio or Atlas mastic tree (“almácigo”, Pistacia
crenulated leaves, recognized by different names. atlantica).

Thermomediterranean formations with palms, Coniferous forests

mastic and terebinth trees, myrtles and other
thermophilous shrubs formations Pine forests

Regarding the thermomediterranean formations with Pine forests are mentioned in various historic-geographical
myrtles and palmettos, we have highlighted Chamerops texts (Romero Funes, 2014), in places like the Serrania
humilis (dawm) a species used as an alternative to of Cuenca, mountains south of Tortosa (probably,
74 Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80

Puertos de Beceite) in the Tagus river fonts, or on some Yew tree forests
Almería mountains. In the texts of Andalusi agronomists
and botanists, pines appear under the term ṣanawbar, There is no doubt about the identification of the yew tree
often referring to Pinus pinea but also to P. pinaster, (Taxus baccata), already a rare species in the southern
P. sylvestris, P. halepensis and P. nigra on some other half of Iberia during the Middle Ages. Nowadays,
occasions. Ibn al-ʻAwwām (1988) refers to P. pinaster and there are only a few hundred individuals confined in
quotes a maritime pine with “large heads”. It is identified the Cazorla, Tejeda and Nevada mountain ranges. Of
even better in Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010), who writes about great interest is the mention of its presence in Tortosa,
the size of the cone and the possibility of obtaining confirmed by the cosmographer al-Qazwīnī (Carabaza,
tar or pitch from the resin. It is said to be abundant in 2004); this could explain the presence of one principal
mountain ranges near Tortosa, where Scots pine (Pinus centre of Iberian relict yews in the mountains around
sylvestris) is also mentioned as the main source of timber Beceite (Teruel province). Geobotanically, even more
for vessel masts, transported to the southern ports of al- relevant is the reference to the yew in the work of Abū
Andalus (Vallvé, 1986). The same author, Abū l-Jayr, l-Jayr (2004-2010) in Constantina (Sierra Norte, Seville
also mentions agrūy, a species with a stiff, consistent province) given the current absence of this species in
leaf, typical of northern areas and cold climates in al- a wild form throughout the south-western quadrant of
Andalus, with small cones resembling those of black the Peninsula. Historic-geographical texts also describe
pine (P. nigra subsp. salzmannii). The diffuse reference yews in Segura de la Sierra (Jaén), as recorded by
to the most abundant and common pine species on Carabaza (2004).
the Andalusi coast and in low mountains, Aleppo pine The same botanical text (2004-2010) warns us of the
(P. halepensis), is surprising. It was well known and poisonous nature of the whole plant, and mentions the
widely used, despite the poor quality of its wood, for the main, most highly valued use of its timber, considered
extraction of resins and oils. as being that most suitable for the construction of arrow
bows since ancient times.
Savin and Spanish junipers
Mixed and broadleaved forests
Mediterranean forests were also exploited for their
As expected, the species of these forests are not among
junipers and savins. Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010), in his
those most cited in the texts of Andalusi geoponists
botanical treatise under ʻarʻar, describes various species
and botanists. However, in diverse localities of interest
of Juniperus, savin junipers being differentiated under
mentions of species like Pyrenean oaks (Quercus
the term abhal.
pyrenaica), maples (Acer spp.), whitebeam tree (Sorbus
Carabaza et al. (2004), cited the possibility of
aria) and holly trees (Ilex aquifolium) with yews (Taxus
identifying Tetraclinis articulata under the Arabic term
baccata) can be found. For instance, chestnut groves
‘arʻar. Thanks to Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010), this mention
(Castanea sativa) are mentioned in Tarragona, Toledo,
can be verified by what he considers to be one of the
Granada, Guadix and Salobreña (Carabaza, 2004).
“varieties” of ʻarʻar, including all the juniper species
Maples, Acer monspessulanum, A. granatense and
(Juniperus spp.) and, probably, T. articulata. Abellán
A. pseudoplatanus have been identified, despite their
Pérez (2004) agrees with this identification and locates confusing denomination in Andalusi agronomic and
the araar in some localities of the Iberian Peninsula botanical texts, as this name is often used for more
and North Africa. Indeed, in the Algerian mountains than one species (polysemy). As an example, the term
of Tlemcen, forests of this cupressaceous tree are still qayqab refers to hackberry (Celtis australis) but Abū
preserved, as well as in Morocco and northern Tunisia. l-Jayr (2004-2010) also refers to maples with smaller
The mention of this species south of Arcos de la Frontera leaves (trilobed) A. campestre or A. opalus. Mentions of
(Cádiz), in a place called Montifarti -or Montifarte-, their abundance in the Granada mountain ranges would
makes us think of the foothills of Jerez and gives refer to the A. granatense, a taxon still frequent in these
certainty to those who consider as being indigenous the mountains. The term dulb generally corresponds to the
population of century-old trees still preserved in Coto ʻUmda (2004-2010) entry for alder (Alnus glutinosa),
del Rey in Doñana National Park, Hinojos (Huelva; but, under this term, other agronomists indicated “plane
Baonza, 2010). tree” (Platanus orientalis), and it also identifies A.
Abū l-Jayr’s morphological description in ʻUmdat pseudoplatanus, which is said to be a good bat repellent.
al-ṭabīb (2004-2010) triggers some doubts about it. The longevity of maples, and the quality and hardness of
However, Ibn Ṣāliḥ, a Sevillian author (XIIth-XIIIth c.) their wood are also recognized.
with experience in Africa, in an anonymous comment
on Dioscorides’s Materia Medica (1988), includes a Riparian forests
highly accurate description of the tetravalve cone of T.
articulata. Nevertheless, it can only be inferred that he Poplar forests
knew the species well, as it has never been categorically
affirmed that it grew in the Andalusi territory. As a result, Poplars (Populus spp.) are mentioned on the banks of
we have to admit that the identification of this variety of the Guadalquivir river, with precise references to their
ʻarʻar as T. articulata is still subject to some uncertainty. ecology (suitable trees for waterlogged terrains) and the
Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80 75

use of their timber in carpentry, despite being softwood, eration processes of local varieties. Of great interest is
has been pointed out. The same considerations extend the mention of its abundance as a wild tree, because of
to willows (Salix spp.) ṣafṣāf; mainly Salix alba in Ibn its ecological, historical and phytogeographical values.
al-ʻAwwām (1988), and, more broadly, to other species
according to Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010), who also uses the Thermophilic riparian forests
name garab when writing about more shrub species,
useful for basketry due their small coarse and knobbly Andalusi tamarisk forests are described under the
branches, such as purple willow or wicker (S. purpurea, word ṭarfāʼ, which designates Iberian Tamarix species
S. viminalis) plants. (corresponding mainly to Tamarix africana and T.
canariensis) differentiated from aṯl (Tamarix aphylla)
Elm forests also mentioned in the manuscripts. Oleander (diflà) is
widely recognized by al-Andalus authors and evidencing
Elms are named with the term našam, also used for their broad knowledge of the plant; its toxicity, use as a
different riverbank deciduous trees such as poplars, poison, vermin repellent and its ornamental value. Along
willows and ash trees (Ibn al-ʻAwwām, 1988). The latter with oleander, Iberian bushweeds (“tamujo”) are also
appear in Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) under the term ḥawr, cited. This will be dealt with monographically below.
with which elms are also recognized in al-Andalus and
North Africa. Agronomists like Ibn Baṣṣāl (1995) and Shrubbery and bushes
Ibn al-ʻAwwām (1988) discuss their riparian habitat,
plantations near wells, in ditches and humid places, Strawberry tree and heath groves
their limited edaphic requirements, and their planting
techniques. In the always detailed botanical description Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) is a well-known species
of Abū l-Jayr they seem to correspond to Ulmus minor. among those conforming forests but little has been said
of it as a fruit crop. The Andalusi authors reveal a good
knowledge of its ecological requirements: (acid soils);
Ash tree forests propagation and cultivation systems, including the
slowness of seed germination; the extraction of young
The name dardār has been applied to elm in almost all plants from the mountains, as a way to enhance orchards
eastern countries except Syria, where it was used to and gardens, which demonstrates the efforts made to
designate ash (Maïmonide, 1940). This last name was domesticate and cultivate it as a crop. Its wood was
also adopted in Egypt, the Maghreb and al-Andalus. also used in marquetry, cabinetmaking, turnery and for
We have identified dardār as Fraxinus angustifolia, making arrows. One of its Arabic names, ḥinnāʼ aḥmar,
although Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) also refers to other red henna, is justified not only for the reddish colour
species of Fraxinus as “Galicians” and “franks”, which of the heartwood, but also for its use as a leather dye,
may correspond to F. excelsior. No details are given known since ancient times in countries of North Africa
about its medicinal uses, but it is said that its wood (Rivera & Obón, 1991). However, mention is made of
is dense, tenacious, elastic and solid. The ecological the damaging effects of its excessive consumption as
preferences mentioned are correct, as both species are a fruit. Heather (mainly Erica arborea) is very rarely
said to grow near rivers and streams. mentioned in Antiquity and Middle Ages treatises,
though Abū l-Jayr clearly does so. Based on Dioscorides
Alders and hazel tree forests and the work of the geographer and botanist al-Bakrī
(1968), both Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) and Ibn al-Bayṭār
Identifying dulb as alder (Alnus glutinosa) is due to the (1987) write about the use of heather charcoal by
precise diagnosis in Abū l-Jayr’s, the ʻUmda (2004- blacksmiths, and the use of its flowers to cure vermin or
2010): “ it is that kind of large tree which has leaves snake bites but also indicate the poor quality of honey
like those of the mulberry tree, only smaller and more made from its flowers.
rounded, saw-toothed, smooth, between green and black
in colour... the fruit is like a bean in size, or larger, it is Rockrose, rosemary and thyme fields
elongated, cone-shaped, like a long green pepper, and its
flowers are green, yellow and greyish... this grain is its Several species of rockrose shrubby formations (‘jarales’)
nut and its timber is reddish in colour”. With regard to its can be identified in al-Andalus under different names,
ecology, he is equally right in stating that “it grows along a fact that has given rise to confusion. The botanical
rivers, in humid mountains with abundant water”. He is work of Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) provides a testimony of
also right in warning about its poisonous nature, in spite some Cistaceae employed for laudanum extraction and,
of its many medicinal virtues. The tree bark contains secondarily, the use of its timber as fuel and seeds for
tannins and flavonoid glycosides, so its branches and food (bread and soups) in times of famine. Rosemary,
leaves are not recommended as fodder for livestock. sages and flax-leaved daphne (Daphne gnidium) can be
Regarding the hazel tree (Corylus avellana), once equally recognized although it is surprisingly difficult to
again, we find the expression: ‘transplanted from the find significant mentions of the use of rosemary and its
mountains to the orchards’ of an enormous interpreta- cultivation, which made its identification a difficult task
tive value for understanding the domestication and gen- only possible with the help of Dioscorides (1983) and
76 Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80

Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) in texts where rosemary appears and cultivation techniques, the study of the texts has
under the name of “mount crown” (iklīl al-ŷabal) enabled the identification of several dozens more taxa
associated with thyme (ṣaʻātir) and mugwort (šīḥāt). of a highly singular interest. Many of them were ignored
up to then, so that they represent the first documented
Leguminous shrubs mention of Iberian flora.
We shall leave for another occasion the analysis
Thickets characterized by the dominance or abundance and assessment of the first citations for the western
of brooms, Retama, Ulex, Genista and Citysus Mediterranean of oriental woody species escaping
(‘retamares’), appear under the term ratam (mainly cultivation and integrated into some landscapes (such
Retama sphaerocarpa, ‘white broom’) in the Abū l-Jayr as the case of Rhus coriaria or Elaeagnus angustifolia)
(2004-2010) botanical text. This word has also been and other questionably forest ones, but which are at least
applied to other brooms such as Cytisus scoparius and ornamental, like Melia acederach, Cercis siliquastrum,
some Genista species. The thorny leguminous species Moringa oleifera, Caesalpinia sapan, Ficus sycomorus,
are known in Spanish under names like ‘hiniestas’ Cordia myxa o Acacia spp. However, there are others
or ‘aulagas’, referring to Genista scorpius (due to the which do stand out as being unique elements of al-
golden yellow colour of the flowers cited), G. hirsuta Andalus flora, and we have paid special attention to
or Ulex baeticus. Otherwise such a remarkable text (the them. These are:
‘Umda), leaves us, however, discontented with weaver’s
broom (Spartium junceum), a species that could not be Anagyris foetida
identified confidently in it but would have already been
introduced at that time and used for textiles, perfumes, The foetid bean trefoil has been used since Antiquity
as a dye and an ornamental plant. both for its toxicity (poison) and as a popular medicine,
recognizing its ability to produce vomiting along with
Other thorny thickets (boxthorn, barberries, other properties (anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-
hawthorns bushes) asthmatic) due to the presence of two toxic principles:
cytisine, common in other legumes, and anagyrine (more
Crataegus monogyna has been recognized, among specific, to which its emetic properties are due). Uses and
other species described by Ibn al-ʻAwwām (1988), as properties mentioned by the Andalusi authors followed
being a “montesino” -from the mountains- a tree with the experience of Dioscorides, but also provided new
bright red fruit, the size of a fat, sweet and pleasant applications in obstetrics. We agree with the opinion and
to the palate chickpea, and two other grains, similar observations of authors like Quer (1762-1764), Pau (in
to those of the black nightshade”. Under the term Font Quer, 1961), Font Quer (1961) and Ruiz de la Torre
ṣufayrāʼ a large group of thorny species, belonging (2006) regarding its character as an archaeophyte in the
to the Rhamnus, Lycium and Berberis genera, offers environments of castles and historic fortresses. We have
resistance to any precise identification. The word awsaŷ added our own observations (Hernández Bermejo, 1987)
seems to designate boxthorn (Lycium intricatum) and on the vicinity of Medina Azahara in Córdoba, a unique
buckthorn (Rhamnus spp.). In Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) location on the right-hand margin of the Guadalquivir
this term is assigned to several thorny shrubs with anti- valley, where a large population of foetid trefoil remains,
inflammatory properties, used in the treatment of skin adjacent to the eastern boundary of this archaeological
diseases, yielding food fruits and used for fences, which site.
leads us to think of Lycium intricatum or Zizyphus lotus.
To be more specific, awsaŷ aḥmar must be buckthorn Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
(Rhamnus alaternus), but there are always doubts about
zaʻrūr (Crataegus azarolus) if we consider the diagnosis Although this species has been identified, in some
of Abū l-Jayr’s ʻUmda. Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), instances, under the romance term bayunbuh, we
will be analysed later consider this to be wrong as we would agree with Abū
l-Jayr (2004-2010) on the term gāllaš insofar as it was
believed that the first description of bearberry was
Singular tree and shrub species that of Clusio in the sixteenth century, on the basis of
Iberian material (L’Écluse, 2005). Surprisingly, the
The formations investigated up to this point have precise Abū l-Jayr botanical description was written
permitted the recognition of over a hundred and twenty almost four centuries before, under the romance term
species, which, in view of their wide distribution or already mentioned. There are many diagnosis characters
abundant presence in Iberian plant landscapes, do not offering certainty about that first historical description
signify any particular novelty in the ensemble of the of this bearberry : its manner of growth (creeping all
species habitually identified in the translations and over the soil); the shape of its leaves; the similarities
assessments of Andalusí botanical and agricultural that the author establishes with respect to the strawberry
treatises. However, in addition to them, and to the tree (phylogenetically close); the shape and colour of its
indisputable relevance of the fact that their citation fruit; its habitat and ecology, and even the locations in
was very often accompanied by toponyms, uses and which the author had seen the plant (Uclés, Medinaceli,
properties of ethnobotanical interest, or by utilization Molina, etc.)
Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80 77

Buxus sempervirens Corema album

The agronomists dedicate very little extension to the Of great interest is the identification of the “camarina”
genus Buxus, represented in al-Andalus by only two (white crowberry or Portuguese crowberry) in the
species: the one with a wider distribution but more ʻUmdat al-ṭabīb of Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) under the
northern, Buxus sempervirens (in Arabic baqs), and name of ʻinab al-ḏiʼb (adive grapes), not only because
the Baetic-Balearic endemism Buxus balearica, only of the precise description of its morphology, habitat
present in the mountains round the coast of Malaga, and localities visited, but because it is probably the first
Granada and Almería (Gador). Both have medicinal historical mention of this species. In that text the name
properties and interest as ornamentals, but the former is applied to “a species of heather, with leaves similar in
is widely used in many crafts for its wood and has shape and size to those of heather, dense ones, on hard,
been used as a blond hair dye in cosmetics. Much more woody branches, many of them rising from a single stem,
difficult to explain is the comment on the alleged effects reaching the height of a seated person, with very small
of spikes or boxwood stakes grafted at the foot of the purple flowers, succeeded by grains the size of those of
pomegranate tree. alkekenji (Physallis sp.), hard and transparent, whose
The description in the ʻUmda (Abū l-Jayr, 2004- interior is seen from the outside as being pearl-white
2010) is somewhat confusing: it mentions a northern which, when ripened, turn bright red and are edible at
distribution area, towards the northern limit of al- the end of the spring”. The author adds that “it grows on
Andalus, meaning the Iberian and pre-Pyrenean ranges, the coasts, on the riverbanks and in sandy areas near the
where Buxus sempervirens is much more abundant and sea, abounding everywhere. I have seen this variety in
frequent, and where there are still craftsmen who make Santa Maria del Algarve, and in the Wādī Numūš area”.
household good parts, toys and other items made of This last hydronym possibly corresponds to the Arroyo
boxwood. The historical-geographical sources mention Madre de las Marismas of Doñana (Huelva province).
boxwood forests in the mountains of Tortosa, from
where the wood is exported to the rest of al-Andalus, Flueggea tinctorea
for the manufacture of diverse tools (Carabaza,
2004). However, its medicinal virtues do not coincide We identified ʽawsaŷ ṣagīr, literally “small hawthorn”
with those currently known. For instance, it points to ( Iberian bushweeds, “tamujo” in Spanish) in the
antidiarrhoeal but not antifebrifugal properties, where ʻUmda of Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) as being the Iberian
the buxina alkaloid is said to have similar effects to endemism Flueggea tinctorea (= Securinega tinctorea)
those of quinine. which, due to its area being restricted to the Iberian SW
Unfortunately, we find no evidence of the Andalusi quadrant, could not have been known by Dioscorides.
agronomists or botanists knowing about or distinguishing The translators into Spanish of that botanical text were
the second species of boxwood present in Al-Andalus, mistaken, as so many previous ones were, confusing
Buxus balearica. it with some boxthorns and buckthorns (Rhamnus sp.,
Lycium sp., Osyris alba, Globularia alypum). However,
Celtis australis the Andalusi agronomists knew the plant well because
of its abundance in the streams, ravines and rivers of
Hackberry appears in the Andalusi texts under the south-west Iberia, on acid substrates (Sierra Morena
Arabic term mīs, although some problems arise with and Extremadura shales) and because of its traditional
its identification because certain agronomists confuse it use for making brooms, the demarcation of properties
with several varieties of našam (elms) and with qayqab and some diffuse medicinal and dyeing properties.
(maples). The translator of Ibn al-ʻAwwām, Banqueri It is not surprising that our agronomists associated
also misidentified the species by making it coincide with this Phyllantaceae (previously Euphorbiaceae) with
nabq (Zizyphus lotus) and sidr (Zizyphus spina-christi, some species of Rhamnaceae: Linnaeus himself made
Z. paliurus) (Ibn al-ʻAwwām, 1988). this mistake 500 years later. But all the facts that the
The agronomists are not concerned with giving ʻUmda mentions agree on this plant, the well-known
morphological data of the species, but they do refer to tamujo: thorny, reddish, with greenish-yellow leaves
its frequent use for the demarcation of properties. For and resembling myrtle, fruits that redden first and
example, Ibn Baṣṣāl (1995) talks about its thick bark then go brown when ripe - and, above all, for being a
and “its round black fruit, quite sweet, with a small freatophyte that forms, together with the oleanders,
stone inside”, data endorsed by the botanical treatise of riparian communities in a large part of Sierra Morena.
Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010). In this latter text, acceptable
diagnostic figures are found: “a tree of an enormous size, Ilex aquifolium
a smooth, grey bark, leaves similar to those of peach
and chestnut trees [leaflets] although larger, wider and The aforementioned holly tree has not been found in the
curved at the tip, round fruit, smooth and green, black Andalusi agronomic texts, which is somewhat logical
when ripe -in autumn-, with a stone inside [drupa] which given its rarity and scarcity in al-Andalus territories, but
is edible”. Also, on its ecology: “its habitat is constituted we think that it can be identified among the species cited
by highlands covered by trees, humid and mountainous by Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) ʻUmda, when referring to
places, as well as ravines, near areas where water flows”. different chewable and aromatic gums, extracted from
78 Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80

the plants and usable as a source of birdlime or glue. Vitex agnus-castus

Abū l-Jayr cites the mistletoe (Viscum spp.), the sapistan
plant (sebestén, Cordia myxa), the prickly cistus or gum The wild, abundant chasteberry appears on the banks
rockrose (Cistus ladanifer), the root of the sorrel thistle of the al-Andalus rivers along with oleanders and other
(Carlina acaulis) and asphodels (Asphodelus spp.). riparian species. Nowadays it is very often cultivated in
The same author writes about a “ chewable gum tree”, gardens but it was probably exclusively used taking wild
which he compares (probably due to its size and general plants in Andalusi times. Among the agronomists, only
physiognomy) to castor beans and carob trees, and Ibn al-ʻAwwām mentions it (1988). He talks about its
describes how a substance is extracted from its thick, veterinary and insecticidal applications, and the use of its
green bark, and after crushing, macerating and cooking seeds as food in times of hunger, something that Galen
it, a birdlime or gum is obtained, with which animals had mentioned many centuries before. The ʻUmda of
are hunted. The localities where the author has seen the Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010) helps us, once again, to identify
species are very consistent and place us in the Cazorla the species both from its morphological characters and
and Segura Mountains, where today there are holly from its well-known anaphrodisiac properties, which
populations (“acebedas”). do not seem to be of interest to the agronomist. In his
The confusion between Viscum and Ilex, plants that work, data are found of its intraspecific variability, due
have nothing to do with each other in their appearance to the presence of individuals with blue flowers and
and taxonomic nature, is currently maintained since both others of pinkish-white ones, something that Laguna
are still known as “mistletoe” and are used both in the (16th century) in his translation of Dioscorides, obviated
extraction of gum and in winter as ornamental plants.. (Dioscorides, 1983). The description of the ʻUmda
alludes to its arborescent-shrubby appearance, the
Laurus nobilis tenacity of its branches and the sort of silvery colour of
its pentalobulate- shaped leaves.
It is very significant -and coherent with the phytogeography Regarding the well-known anaphrodisiac virtues of
of the species- that the Sevillian authors (Ibn al-ʻAwwām, its fruit (its antiestrogenic action has been proven), the
1988 and Abū l-Jayr, 1991) consider the laurel as a ‘Umda makes reference to them, quoting Dioscorides
“montesina” species and transmit a sense of its proximity and Galen. For that reason, it is no surprise that its more
with the expression: “From being a a wild plant it arrives at popular Arabic name, also extensible to the seed, is ḥabb
the orchards”. However, al-Ṭignarī (2006) the author from al-faqd (seed loss). The same can be said of its Latin
Granada refers to it as a foreign species in his territory. epithet, agnus-castus, translatable as “chaste lamb”,
Among the uses mentioned by Ibn al-ʻAwwām can be which the man who made a continuous use of the plant
emphasized, in addition to being a condiment, its veterinary would become.
and medicinal uses for digestive and pulmonary diseases,
which seem to be healed by the ingestion or aspiration of Zizhyphus lotus
laurel leaf oils. In this sense, also notable is the mention of
the main unguent of the Middle Ages: that of laurel buds If the works of the Andalusi agronomists are considered,
cooked with mint that, according to Font Quer (1961), was the mention of this species is not ensured. It is defined
used for various purposes such as ear or kidney pains and with the help of Abū l-Jayr’s ʻUmda (2004-2010), in
antiparasitics. which it is described as a “montesina” species of the
jujube or ʻunnāb: a plant with a round, thin-skinned fruit
Rhododendron ponticum subsp baeticum the size of a bean, with large and very astringent stones,
which grows in the mountains and is very abundant
It is a pleasant surprise to be able to identify, in the in the whole country. The evidence of the use of this
botanical text of Abū l-Jayr (2004-2010), among the species as a living hedge has been preserved even in
plants called diflà (oleanders), a “variety” that the author the Medina Azahara settlement up to now (Hernández
calls “riverine” (Nerium oleander), together with two Bermejo, 1987), which leads us to think that Ziziphus
other varieties called “montesina”. Between the latter, lotus must have been well known by Andalusi authors.
there is a smaller one, with flowers in clusters and fruit
that we have interpreted as being capsular, much more Other species
localized and present in one of the classic loci of Iberian
rhododendron (“ojaranzo” Rhododendron ponticum): After many years of work, experience and publications,
the Sierra de Monchique (southern Portugal). It can we cannot consider the identification and diagnosis of
be argued, in addition, that the association between the species and forest formations of al-Andalus as having
oleanders and ojaranzos has been maintained throughout come to an end. We have no certainty, for example, and
the centuries, with the oleander -Nerium oleander- despite opinions to the contrary, on the mention of such
receiving the name of “rhododendron” in Greek and important and unique species as Abies pinsapo. Nor is
keeping for “ojaranzo” the name of “adelfeiro” in there any assurance of others of a more northern ecology
Portuguese. However, it seems evident that Abū l-Jayr and distribution and, therefore, more reasonably absent,
would only have known this species slightly, because he like Fagus sylvatica or Betula spp., and there is not
described the already withered flowers as being white enough evidence either to confirm the cultivation of some
much paler than their usual pink hue. North African or Asian species mentioned and known in
Hernández Bermejo, J. E. et al. Mediterranean Botany 40(1) 2019: 71-80 79

the texts of the agronomists, as in the cases of Argania In addition to the uniqueness of the species cited,
spinosa, Mimusops laurifolia or Cinnamomum spp. many of them mentioned and described for the first
time in the Iberian territory, we should underline the
identification of certain processes, elements of change
Conclusions and transformations in the forest landscapes as well as
in woody and ornamental crops. Also noteworthy are the
We find ourselves facing a dynamic, reticulated domestication processes, evidenced by affirmations and
landscape, in which conservation and tradition are comments on transfers from the mountains to the crop
compatible with various processes of innovation and fields, and on tentative cultivation and use experiences.
changes in that landscape, due to the domestication and We have demonstrated the importance of species such
introduction of new species together with a “meticulous” as holm oaks, pines and poplars in forest landscapes,
occupation of the territory. The encyclopaedic experience and their exploitation for wood, fruits and seeds in the
of some Andalusi authors stands out, for instance, in case of yews, pines, box trees, ash trees, hackberry
the case of Ibn al-ʻAwwām. The mention - and in some trees, strawberry trees and junipers. Finally, we have
cases, also the introduction by direct action - of new mentioned, without this being a decisive component of
oriental species in farming, gardens and landscapes as this work, part of the traditional knowledge associated
we see in Ibn Baṣṣāl. Direct cultivation practices can with woody and forest species; an ethnobotanical
also be appreciated in Ibn-Baṣṣāl or al-Ṭignarī and, heritage that was enriched at that time by the synthesis
above all, the excellent knowledge of Iberian, mainly of local knowledge, together with the reading of texts
Mediterranean, wild flora, in Abū l-Jayr’s botany text, and lessons received through travel and trade with
a work whose identification and valuation can never be cultures, countries and territories located east or south
deemed to be concluded. of al-Andalus.

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