Internal Wiring Systems and Lamp Circuits: After The Main

..
-Th
7
Internal Wiring Systems and
Lamp Circuits
I. Introduction. 2. Wiring Systems. 3. Looping in System. 4. Wiring ofa building. 5.

Tree System 7. Lamp Circuits. S. Simple Circuits. 9. Series parallel Circuits. 10.
Master switch circuit. 11. Pilot circuits 12. Circuits using special types olswitchcs.
13. Use of Marval switch. 14. Lamp Control circuit from more than two points or
alternative method of corridor lighting. 15. Use of paralici or series sch 16. Use
Of reversing switch. 17. Fluorescent tube lighting IS. Tube circuit with a therrnl
switch. 19. Tube circuit with glow starting switch. 20. The instant starkngcrcuit of
fi)rcscct tube. 21. Flasher for moving light.
i. Introduction. During these days aitenin urent i

usuaiy supplied by the Electric Companies. The eierc energy
(AC.) received by the consumer has to pass through various stein
after its generation in the power house. These sy;te1 are 55
fol:ovs:
(i) Transmission. It consists of:
(a) Step up substations
(b) H.T. overhead lines and underground cable;
(ii) Distribution. It consists of:
(a) Step-down Substations

(b) L.T. Overhead lines and underground cables
(iii) Service Connections. From the distributor the consumers
main switches are concted through service connections and
electric energymeters. One end of the service connection is con-
nected to the distributor and the other end to the meter which is
connected to the main switch. No electric company in India permits
the installation of the energy meter after the main switch to prevent
theft of electric energy.
After the main switch, there are wires which convey the electric
current to each lamp and appliance. In this chapter the various
152
\V[RNG
EST IMATING AND COST
svseni.s b y
appliances iswhich
done, the
havewing
beento feed electricity to the lamps and
e xplained The tran
and srvice Connections hate been dealt w j smitting distri.
t in chapter 8.
In accordance
companies and und with the Indian Electricity Rules ; the supply
ertakings are Supposed to
voltage at the consumer p remise m aintain (a) the
g
and ± I2.5 of the declared H.T. Vo+ 5% of the declared L.T. voltage
ltage(b) 0 supply fre q
50 cycles and variation allowed is ± 1%. uency at
The lamps and other appliances are
Co nnected in parallel as
otherwise these will not receive the full voltage. Therefore the leads
or wires must he capable of c a r
rying the current equal to the sum
of current required by all lamps or appliances after making due
allowance for demand factor*
2. Wiring System. The fun
damentals of wiring systems are:
(a) The sw
itchgears and switches should be placed on the Jive
wire or the phase. The second terminal of the switch shoul
connected to the lamp or applianc d be
e The neutral should be dirftç
connected to the lamp. This is to be strictly observed as
even if the switch is n O -pn sjtjon oth.rwjp
t he current will flow to the lamps
through the wires even if there is fault (assuming the fuse does n ot
m
elt) and thus causing damages. The advantage of placing
switch in phase or live wire is that the workman can safely the
the defects by switching off the supply. rectify
(b)
The fuses should be placed on the live wire or the phase
otherwise the whole p
urpose of safety will be defeated The lamp
Will get the electric Current even after the fuse has blown
(c)
All the lamps and appliances Should be connected in parallel
to enable all of them to get nearly equal volte and to avoid
excessive voltage drops.
Keeping into consi
deration the above fun
can be done by any of the following systems damentals the wiring
(i) Looping-in system.
(ii) Tree system
(iii) Ring system
These systems have been dealt with in details in

paras. subsequent
consumer may
not be working at a time, o his dema 0 em m-1y
lamps, plugs and fans, d may not the mini or current
but only a fraction of it. So the requ ired by all
the ratio of the actual maximum demand (i demand factor is defined as
(in amper3) na mperes) divided by the
connected load
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND TAMP [RCUITS 183
3. Looping in System. The looping at the wires can be done

in either of the following ways:
(a) Looping out from switch and ceiling Rose. Fig. 7.1
shows a simple looping in method which is commonly employed. It
will be seen that one terminal of the ceiling roses and switches is
connected to the wires coming from the main switch and other
terminals of both are connected to each other. The system is similar
even if the light point is to be provided with a batten or bracket
holder intend of pendant holder. In that case one terminal of the
holders is commonly connected to the neutral and other terminal of
each is connected to the live wire or phase through a switch as shown
in Fig. 7.2.
FIEX/5L5
FOR
CIF)LIA'(9
PENDANT
LAMP/ROSE
NEUTRAL \
TOt/EXT
HALF OR CEILING
/ OFF WIRE ROSE AND
FL/SE ON SWITCH
PHASE
PHASE OR
WIRE
Looping in system with switches and ceiling roses

Fig. 7.1
8RAckEr
- OR
/ BATTEN\
NEUTRAL ,.4 HOLDERS
FuSE ,
L2) HALF OR
W/R
PHASE 1T0 NEXT
BA TTEN I
I 1/CL DER
K
1III
SWITCHES AND
TFJ
WIREW/TCN
P1/ASEO
L15
Looping in system with switch and holder

Fig. 7.2
(b) Looping out from Switch. In this system special two
terminals and one connector switches are used as shown in Fig. 7.3.
As seen from the diagram both phase or live wire and natural wire
are taken to the switch. The live wire is connected to one of the
actual terminal and neutral to extra terminal or Connector. The
184
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
lamp oe the appliance is connected to the sec
o nd terjna1 and
con rector oft switch. 8..'A c•rp

cOSEON PHASE ROSE 5AT7 . v ,''Oç
I
A'EIITR.4L_1
I
FL X/8L. E -
CiI.CTOR
L / MP
;.•E'TnAL
:7.
70 ,vCX 7.
--
PHASE OR
LIVE WIRE
Virj wir tw'j -rra n-d one coflflcto'

Fig. 7.3
cc Looping out from Ceiling Rose. In this sst,em specin

ft ree :crminals and ccnnctor ceibng roses as shown in Fig. 7.4 arc
..-\.s can oe. soon v.irn s similar to (b) above.
,V..f Li TR40
TO ;'Lx r
CEO IN G
ROSE
FUSE ON
PHA SE
O TER..'y..'
-; O•'s CDIINEOTOP OR P&4 '17
TEIL,'cV5 P(YSE
.c Wi rcg
\Vn-ing with two terminals and one connector ceiling rose
Fig. 74
(d)
Looping out with Junction box. In this system pair of
conductor from the s.vitches and ceiliig roses will terminate in
box krxon asjunctioo box. The junction box is
kept in the centro
of all light PomtE fcr the economy in
wire icagth. This system is
only economical in small houses having few lighting
p oints because
the looping is only done in the joint box as shown in Fig. 7.5.
4. Wiring of a Building. Fig. 7.6 shows the wiring of a hou'
.vith srige phase A.C.
or two wire D.C. supply. From the main
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 185
)ToNExr
Pt?/NT
CEILING
J ROcE
-F EX/&E
9R PENDANT
A LAMP
OR
Wh'5
BOX WI 7W
THREE
TERMINALS
Swirai
i
Ir -
Fig. 7.5 Looping out with Junct on Box
THIRD FLOOR
SUB-BOARD
AND
5113-CIRCUITS i
_
7T L
r - --
SECOND FLOOR
5I8-8a4RO
AND
H
FR5TF1OQR C— 't '! 1
5/88OARO I
AND
Sa-CIRCLII IS ____ T TEl1
GROUND FLOOR
S5-8OARO L RCU1T5
SUB-C/RCL/i 15
FOR G'QUNO
FLOOR
MAINS
4JN D/STRJ&/T/0I?
FL'5 BOARD
MAIN SW/7.CN&+qEUTRAL LJA/(
single phase supply
Fig. 7.6
186
WIRING, ESTThIAT]NG AND COSTING
switch the leads known as rrins are taer
to main distribution
board. From the main distributu beard wras ae taken to various
distribution boards whicn are known 3s sib-L..ards The
connec-
tions between the main distribution hoard and sub-boards are
known as circuits. Various su5 -circu its as shown are drawn from
the sub-boards for connection to various ei:L-i: load p c int
The
uiringofthe points is dofle by an y of the me:h..d explained in article
3. For the purpose of reliability and safety, the fusing current
capacity of the fuse wire inserted at the mar sv : itch should be 1.5
times the numerical sum of the afl loads. Sirnflar principle is to be
adopted while inserting fuse in circuits and sub-circuits. The wire
size of the mains circuits and sub-circuits shauld be in accordance
with the electric toads on them. For econo:ny, the bigger size of the
wire is used for sub-circuits in the beginning and later on small size
of wire matching the load is used.
Fig. 7.7 showthe wiring of
a building with three-phase four-
wire A.C. source without any main board.
co
AiO 5c'd-cu'y
SECONO FL .;o.
CIRC,! 7
fIRST
L..JAND 5418-CIRCJ,71;
PHA 1 TO 6RJNt P.CQR

J W8 -e4R.&5
AND SLf C/cc-s
TWEEPHA5E
FOUR WIRE
MAIN SW,TC
RJIJk
Wiring of a building with three-phase four-wire supply.

Fig. 7.1

INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND TAMP CIRCUITS 187
5. Trce System. !n this system from the main switch rising

mains are run to every floor. Rising mains are of copper or
aluminium strips which go up from the main switch to all floors.
iTO 5ECCP0FLZR
NfRTW St's-BOARD
]
5EOONO FLOOR
CENTRAL
TO SECC SUE -8CARO
FL O(,' VIES T
st3 144/PI BOARD

FIRST Fi.00R
I F/Psi. FLOOR
,.ORTII 5V3-BCAR
ro FIRST FLOOR
CE/I TP2 L 4/ID
WEST- SUB 80,4R)
RI5/N—.
MAINS
6RUU1/O FL cUR
AZPR7,W
S tJI-8OA".) J8-8CARO
5L'81,4ISCAR0
CROt VU FOCR
TO NO
MAIN 5iTC F/CUR W TS T
TRIPPLE r St9-BG.4R0
POLE WITH
NEUTRAL
L/N ___
1WRCE PHASE
FOUR WIRE
SUFVLY
Wiring of building by 'Free system

Fig. 7.8
las WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
The rising mains are usually provided in the centre of the 1od for
the purpose of economy. At each floor rising mains are connectcd
to sub-main boards as shown in Fig. 7.8. Various circuits are taken
from the nb-main board to sub-board. Sub-circuits are taken from
the sub-boards. The sub circuits are used for wiring the portion of
the load in accordance with the method explained in articles 3 and
.4.
6
Ring System. In this systems a pair of conductors are run
through all the rooms. The ceiling roses, plugs and appliances are
fitted after decision on the layout of furniture is taken. The ring
circuits is brought back to the main board. With this system, wiring
is required to be done with suitable fuse in each plug and ceihr.g
roses if the both ends of the conductors are ending on the same main
sub-hoard. There may be saving of Copper because the current can
be fed from both sides, but the method is not used because of higher
cost of the special plugs and ceiling roses. -.
Sometimes the main boards are connected to two diflèren
switches of suitable capacity. The both ends of the ring circits
terminate ma separate switch. One of the switches is always he;t
in off-position. This reduces the cost of the special type of plug a.d
ceilin g, roses and also increases the reliability.
7. Lamp Circuits. The lamp circuits used for house ring
are quite simple and they are generally controlled from one
_Iclias roorr(lighting, bathroom lighting, lavatory lighting etc ;but.
in staircase wiring it is necessary to control the lamp circuit fron
two points, .e. at the top and bottom of the staircase. Similarly in
halls or corridors or bedrooms, it may be necessary to contro jh'
lamp from more than two points. But still there are other circuits
which are not frequently used for particular house wiring, but still
they ha'e utility in other spheres of life. In general the lamp circuits
can be d:vided into the following heads
(1) Simple Circuits.
(2 Series Parallel Circuits.
(3) Master Switch Circuits.
(4) Pilot Circuits.
(5) Miscellaneous Circuits.
8. Simple Circuits. In addition to the lamp circuits
explained in article 3,.the following are commonly used
(a) Bed-rooii Lighting. In bed-rooms a light is required at the
dressirg table which may be a single switch circuit, and another
light provided near, the bed must be controlled by two 2-way
swtchs. One of the two-way switches used should be a tumbler

switch and the other should be a pendant type, suspended from a

3-plate ceiling rose. The circuit for such type of lighting is as shown
in Fig. 7.9.
C
£cp Tc
3('C ';Pc
Spv
7) pe v C/.
Circuit for bed-room lighting
Fg79
b) Staircase wirngorlamp circuit controlled by tuo i
For the lamps to he controlled by two switches, it is necessars. to, ue
two-way switches. Fig. 7.10 (a) shows that the lamp is dark. Tc
WjrtS used between the switches are called as strap wires.
In Fig. 7.10 (b) the lamp is switched on with the switch No. 1,
while Fig. 7.10 (c) represents that the lighted lamp is switched off
with switch No. 2 and in Fig. 7.10(d) the lamp is again lighted with
switch No. 1. Thus when the lamp is lighted either off the strap
wires carries current.
SL'. pf
2Wcy'fchN.. 2 2ylc7,v S., fch Ac I
(a)
Lamp made off with switch No. 2
Fig. 7.10.
V,flNC EST1MATG AND COSTThG
2 -
..,'
(b)
Lamp made on with
No. 1
—7—_'/
No
2w
Aci
(c)
S howing lamp dark
L.
2w07 —"ck?
Re presenting the lighted lamp

With Switch No, 1.
Fig. 7.10(d)
(c) Staircase Wiring with T.R.S. For
ith T.R.S. wire, a Ilavinga s tairce wiring
four-way terminal box is reu j
is shn in Fig. 7.11. For red T. eircuj
ter co mpleting the t y
minal box and mains, also for terminal pe of wing between
box
and lamp 2-core cable
is used; but for wiring between terminal box and either of the 2-way
switches 3-core cable is used.
Starcase wiring with the help of T.R.S. Wire

Fig. 7.11
(d) Conversion of Single-way Switch Circuit to two 2-u.av
Switch Circuit. Sometimes it is necessary to convert single-way
switch circuit to two 2-way switch circuit. Fig. 7.12(a) shows a lamp
frffTc
Way
L
L mp circuit controlled by single-way switch
(ci)
Fig. 7.12.
circuit being controlled by a single-way switch. For conversion the
single-way switch is removed and is replaced by a two-way switch.
Now if the connections to the two 2-way switches are made in a
similar manner as in the previous cases, then it is necessary to have
a joint at the point shown in Fig. 7.12 (b). A revised method of
connecting two switches is as shown in which case no jointing of
wires is required. -
-14

192 WflUNG, ESTP.ATiNG ANL) COSTThC.
2y
Switch
2 Wy
Switch
Conversion to 2-way sw: circuit w-, t to icp of a

joint provided at point sho'.
(b.
5W14v,
^tD6
r.
There is an a1ternatvc i'conv ia which case one
of the two-way switch*" , De har 4 terminals, two of
which are shorted toget in Fig. 13.
E)
Alternative ner-.-. cf c' a of injie-way switch

circj cr't.
F-?

(e) Corridor Lighting Circuits. Let the corridor have a number

of lamps and let each lamp be controlled by two switches. For such
a scheme the circuit is as shown in Fig. 7.14. In this case
i,L.2 L, and L 4 are different lamps having controls at
S1 S, S2 S21 S3 S3 and S4 S. respectively.
Corridor lighting
Fig. 7.14
9. Series Parallel Circuits. Series parallel circuits are
to either provide dim lights or full bright lights. Such lights are
required in hospitals, bedrooms, hotels, railway carriages etc. The
dim lights are usually obtained by con nec tin gthc parallel lamps of
the circuit in Feries. The following are the methods of obt.ziwng
such lights
(j" With "Two-way ON and OFF' Switch.
n the circuit shown the lamp L

No. L 1 is lighted to full brightness (
when the switch position is on the
terminal No. 1. When the switch
position is on terminal No. 2, the
whole of the circuit is off. When
the switch is on position No.3 the
lamps No. L 1 and L are connected
in series so as to give dim light.
Thus with such an arrangement
either 'amp No. L 1 can be lighted Two-way ON and OFF C.
to full brightness or lamp No. L1 F'ig.7.15 -
and L2 are connected in series for dim lighting.

(ii). Circuit for either lamp full bright or two lamps is
194
IV
.\ >-...S,,_---
Nf \_-
First assume that the
single-way switch of circuit
•
011 shown in Fig. 7.16 is in the 'ON'
• position. When the two-way
switch is on terminal 1, the lamp
No. L 1 is shoit-circujted and
lamp No. L2 is full bright.
Alternatively when the two-way
2 Wcy
Off Svi 3t./ switch is on terminal 3 the lamp
No.L2 is short circuited while the
S.79/e K'cy -.'ich
lamp No. L 1 is full bright. When
Circuit for one of the lamp bright the two-way switch is on the
or two in series 'OFF position both the lamp are
Fig. 7.16 made in series for dim lighting.
The purpose of single-way swit&
is to control both the lamps.
(iii) Circuit for only one particular la7r.p bright or two lamps in
series. Foj-such circuit one single-way switch and one ordinary 2-way
switch is used. Assume the siagle.va y swjtcho in the on position
and the 2-way switch is on the position No. 1, then the lamp No. L1
is fully bright and lamp No. L2 is out of circuit. When the 2-way
switch is on position No. 2 ; at that instant both the lamps are made
in series to give dim light.
4cy S.v.c/, S.i Woy 5*-7

Fig. 7.17 Circuit for one particular lamp bright or two lamps in series
(w) Circuit for operation either both lamps in series or both in
parallel across mains. Such a circuit is most useful practically for
having a lamp load to be connected across 230 V supply mains as
well as for 400 V mains. Since each lamp is for 230 V mains, so
when they are to be operated at 400 V, they are connected in eries,
and for operation at 230 V they must be in parallel. Such a circuit
can be obtained with the help of a 2 . tPr miraltwo-way f;\',it.ch. When
the switch is at top making contact with termia1s1 and 2, the lamps
are connected in series as shown in Fig. 7.18. When the switch is

moved down making contact with terminals 3 and ' 4 the lamps are
connected in parallel across 220 V mains.
.
7_f3
400V -
720 /
(a) Circuit for lamps in senes
(b) Circuit for 'amps in parallel
Fig. 7.18
Such a circuit can also be obtained with the help of either two
ordinary 2-way switches and a single-way switch orby a single 2-way
switches and single-way switch or by a single 2-way ON and OFF
switch and a single-way switch.
Fig. 7.19 (a) represents the circuit in which the position of 2-way
switches is so shown that the lamps become in series while Fig. 7.19
(b) represents the position of 2-way switches for the lamps to be
connected in parallel across the main.
Circuit for lamps in series.

Fig. 7.19 (a)
WIRING, ES TIMATING AND COSTING
Alternative position of 2-way switches for operation of lamps in parallel.

Fig. 7.19 (b)
2 W.y8 011
--------------------- p175
Fig. 7.20
The terr.tive .ircuit for achievement of above-mentioned
aims is as shv.' u h g. 7.20 in which one of the switches is
single- wa arid he other is 2-way with off-position. When the 2-way
switch is conneced to terminal 3 and the single-way switch is off,
the two lamps are connected in series across the mains. When the
2-way switch is connected to terminal 1 and the single-way switch
is switched on, then both the lamps are connected in parallel across
the mains.
10. Master Switch Circuit. The master switch is just an
ordinary standard s"itch either single-way or two-way, btt it has
attained its name due to its function. Following are the main objects
of the master with
(1) toput o f the lamps irrespective of the position of the
individual switches and to prevent anybody switchingon the lamps,
such a control i z also --a] led as "Master off';
(2) to switch on t h e lamps and to prevent anybody switching
thorn off with i rdividli.a1 switches ; such a control is also called as
Master on";
(3) to control eithrr switching on or off of the circuit,
i.e. its
(unction is as in (1) or in (2), so it is called as variable master control.
INTERNAL W[JUNG SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 197
(a) "Master on" Switch Circuits. (1) Fig. 7.21 represents the
two-way control of the 3 lamps in the corridor, but when a single-way
switch is connected across terminals 1 and 2 of the two-way and is
switched on, then the independent control of the 3 lamps by the
two-way switches goes away. Whatever be the positions of the
two-way switches, the lamps will remain lighted.
re
Sy/e Woy S'z /ch
Master on circuit - with two 2-way switches and one single-way switch
Fig. 7.21
Fig. 7.22 represents a circuit for 3 lamps being independently

controlled by the two switches. The three two-way switches used
are worked assingle-way switches. In addition to these independent
Master control on circuit with three two-way switches and

one single-way switch
Fig. 7.22
98
WIRING, EST IMATING AND COSTING
controls is connected a sin gle-way switch in s.
which acts as a master control and it is so
i
C6 W -1 the iive wire
Conne cted that when the
switch is made on, the lamps rrnain lighted
Position of 2-way switches. in dependent of the
Fig. 7.23 represents a circuit for two corridor lamps being

controlled by 3 switches (2 two-way sw
itches, and one in termediate
switch), in addition to these switches a .naster switch is connected
in the circuit as shown. When the rrastcr switch is switched on, the
lamps remain lighted in dependent of
position ofall the switches
2$v5f4 Pis/er ,q,/ch J me'wjfr Svj/c4
A/e,,70t, s/f/0
- Of
SbI'itCh
Master control on circuit with two way Switches
and one intermediate switch.
Fig. 7.23
(b)"Master off'
Circuit. Fig. 7.24 Shows
three lamps being
controlled by three single-way switches in
dependently. Across the
main supply is connected a double-pole switch and when this switch
Hasler Off
I I I Swi
Fig. 7.24 Master off circuj

INTERNAL W[IUNC SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
is made off, then the complete circuit is isolated from the mains and
the lamps cannot be lighted until and unless the main switch is
made on.
In Fig. 7.25 the lamp is being controlled by 3 switches, if the
first 2-way switch used is of the special type, i.e. two-way on and off
switch. The special two-way switch acts as a master off switch, i.e.
when it is put on the off-position the lamps cannot be lighted.
Znkr,nedoie5p -,:,C, i 2y
S q/kb Q S'ci 'PP1Y
Alternate Posiin Off

Mater 5..-'tc/'
Master off circuit

Fig. 7.25
(c) Variable ',faster Control. The variable master controls are
those master switches which act both as "Master on and "Master
off. in Fig. 7.26 the five lamps are being controlled independently
Cs
Variable master control

Fig. 7.26
204J WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
by their switches while the two single-way switches, M 1 and ''2 ac

as variable master controls. When both switches M and Al, are in
the oft-position, no lamp will light thus acting as Master off Contral.
If either of the switches M 1 or M2 switched on, then all lamps 'an be
individually controlled, i.e. can be lighted or extinguished at will,
but when both the switches M and M2 are switched on,then lamps
will remain always lighted independent of the position of their
individual switches, thus acting as Master On Control.
Fig. 7.27 (a) represents the corridor lights being controlled by
two-way and the intermediate switch. The single-way switches
iJ and M 2 connected in the circuit act as variable master control.
When both the switches are off, lamps will not light, and when one
of sin g le-way switches is switched on, then the lamps can be con-
trolled by the two switches, but when both the switches M ?nd'4
are switched on the lamps will remain lighted. The two single-vay
switches M 1 and M2 can, be replaced by a twin knob single sfth a
shown in Fig. 7.27 (b).
Twiiob
5Tth
t
Variable master control circuit for corridor lights
(a)
Replacing two single-way switches in

Fig. 7.27 (a) with twin knob switches
Fig. 7.27 (b)
ii. Pilot Circuits. The pilot circuits are used only to indicate
whether at the remote point, the load is on or off. The simplest pilot
indicator is a lamp which is automaticany switched on when the
remote load is switched on. Fig. 7.28 represents circuits for 2
lamp-loads at different remote places. Fig. 7.28 also shows the two
pilot lamps in the circuit.
1o.iips-,/Q\4_LLonoi1
I jCirrwfI.l
ç P tLompç I
.4
piv 4omp
''CvOrc"ItNo.?
5.7 0C, re.- /71

N. 2
5w' k* /i
Grw t No./
Pilot circuit
hg. 7.28
12. Circuits Using Special Types of Switches. The
following are the different types of switches
(1) Marvel Switch, Ordinary Type. Such a switch has six ter-
minals and three positions of the operating lever. The terminals L
and L' are for lamp connections. When the level is up, the lamp
terminals L L' make contact with the terminals land S respectively.
For one central position of the level, the lamp terminal L makes
contact with terminal 1 while L' makes contact with terminal 2.
Again, if the level is in the down position Land L' make contact with
terminals 2 and 3 respectively. Fig. 7.29 represents an equivalent
circuit of the marvel switch, which represents the two movable links
L and L' making contact with terminals 1 and 2 and the switch is
so arranged thatboth ofthese movable contacts move together. Thus
when L makes contact with 2, L' will make contact with 3.
yfl\ V\
—L
toLo
Ordinary Marvel Switch

Fig. 7.29.
202
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND
COST'L\G
(2) Mart;el Switch
Inter mediate Type
terminals and 3 movable l Such a switch has 6
terminals i, 2 and 3 while inks links
these hangmake
peanent connection with
Contact
three ter minals 1',
2' and 3' in a cyclic with the other
three P o s i tions of order. Fig. 7.30 represents the
equi the intermediate switch The Fig. represents an
valent circuft of the switch The three links make
the ter
c ontact with
unison.minals
Wh ]',2',3' and these three movable contacts move in
contact withen the switch is
2',2 with 3'and 3 in the central Position the link 1 makes
with 1' and so on.
.-
- ^3^
110
lip Cer,/rc) 0^,^
Marvei switch, inter
mediate type
Fig. 7.30 -
(3) Whole or Pa
terminals, Switch
T h1 5 type of switch has four
ter minals 3for such a switch the live wire comes to terminal 1, while
and 4 are Con nected to the lamps
.
Whole of the circuit comes into the circuit in In one posi tion, the
only thpar circuit remains in the circuit, th e second Position ,
the whole of and in the third position
the circuit is made of
P;:.
o. j.
Position No. 2
Fig. 7.31 position No. 3
(4) Parallel or Series Switch
Positions. In one positiorl, the lampsSuch
are a switch again has three
co nnected in p arallel in
Ist Positjo
2nd Pos i tio n
Parallel or Series Stch 3rd Position
Fig. 7.32
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND
LM1P CIRCUITS 203
the second position the lamps are connected in series while in the
third position, all the lamps are switched off.
(.S) Reversing Switch.
The reversing switch is generally used
to reverse the direction of current in the load.
It is a six-terminal
switch. The terminal 1 a;d 4 also 2 and 3
are short circuited. The
terminals 5 and 6 are con nected to two links which move in unison
and can either be connected to terminals 3, 4 or to terminals 1 and
2 as shown in Fig. 7.33.
To load
S
R—e versing Switch

F'g. 7.33
6. Use of Marvel Switch. Fig. 7.34 (a) represents a 2-1amp

circuit controlled by two Marvel switches. There are nine different
P osi tions of the switch with which a lamp can be lighted. In Fig.
7.34 (a) it will be obserd that either of the lamp can be lighted in
turn or whole of the circuit i switched off, i.e. itis arestrictjvecircuit
in which the numb. of larnp lighted at a time is restricted. The
use of restrictive circuit s that it reduces the maximum demand by
reducing the number of lamps lighted at a time without sacrificing
the conveniences gained from multi-control lighting system. Such
circuits are useful in hotels where the usual demand of the load is
veryhig'i. Fig. 7.33 (c)to Fig. 7.34(i)
represent 9 alternative circuits
Position No. 1
Fig. 7.34(a)
204
wmrNG, ESTI
MATiNG AND COSTThJG
In Fig. 7.34 (a) the m oveable
c ontacts of both the switches are
up. In each of the switches the termjnalsL
ter and 3 are connected and
theminals
lamp L2land U are shorted In this case the lamp L2
is off. lights while
M. Cfnfrv/
Position N. 2
Fig. 7.34(b)
In Fig. 7.34 (b) the
thus terminal L zm r, d L' Marvel switch S 1 is in the central position
up and the and 2 are shorted, while the switch MS 2 is
T the circuit oiL slinks make contacts with te rminals 1 and 3.
completed
and Lamp L2 is off.
Posit No. 3
Fig. 7.34 (c)
In Fig. 734 (c) switch M.s1
is in the down P o sition and so the
moveable links make contact with t
2 is up. It is clear fron Fig. 7.34 erminals 2 and 3, while switch
(c) that the circuit of either lamp
is not completed , thus both of them remain off.
205
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEM S AND LkMP CIRCUITS
(d)i M. S 1 is down, while M. S 2 is in

In this circuit [Fig. 7.34
cent! al position. The lamp L, lights.
M5 Cenfrol !i Dow"
Position No. 4 Fig. 7.34(d)
For the circuit shovn in Fig. 7.34 (c) the moveable contacts of
the two Marvel switches are down. Thus lamp L, lights.
Down H. 5 Dow'?
Position No. 5—Fig. 7.34 (e)

For the circuit shown in Fig. 7.34 the psitn of hoh the
y , lamp L2light.
switches is central and again onl
1-01 W111,
I,
J'1.S 2 Cenfrc/ (5 Centro'

Position No. 6—Fig. 7.34 (fi

206
WIRING, EST CATING AND COSTING
MS
Cow
Position No. 7
M.S ....... Central
MS2 ...... Down
No. Lamp lights
Pig. 7.34 (g)
In this circuit [Fig. 7.34 (g)] MS 1 is in the central-position while
MS2 is in the down position and the circuit. of neither lamp is
completed, thus the lamps remain in the off-pojtjon
In Fig. 7.31 (h)M.S 2 5 down position andM5 1 isin up position
A4.5
.iton No. 8
ig. 7.34 (/)
1TERNAL WIR?NG SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 207
and again lamp L 2 is lighted vheres when the switches are on the
position as shown in Fig. 731 (;), lamp I is lighted.
H. 5
Oo
Position No. 9
Lamp L 1 lights; M.S 1 --Up ; M.S2--Down
Fig. 7.34(i)
Circuits of either one lamp or both of them light in
parallel. With the revised connçctions in between the two Marvel
switches, a circuit for either lamp L 1 or lamps L 1 and L 2 in parallel
can be lighted. When the switch po5itions ofM.S, and M.S 2 are in
the Down and "Up directions respectively, no lamp will light as
shoo in Fig- 7.35 (h). The position of the two Marvel switches are
similarl y to the other positions as shown in Fig. 7.34.
MS2 (en/rot 15; Cei/rc/
15 Fig. 7.35 (a) Two lamps in parallel

208
MS2 UP Fig. 7.35 (h) M.S2 DOWN

Circuit for one lamp or two lamps or three lamps. Fig.
7.36 represents the circuit for the three lamps being li ghted at a
time when both of the Marvel switches M.S and MS 2 are in the
central positions.
Circuit for one lamp or two lamp or three lamps without off posinon
Fig. 7.36
For other positions of these switches, it will be observed that
either lamp L 1 alone lights, or L 1 and "2 light in parallel and there
is no off position.
Lamp controls at 3 places with the help of Marvel
Switches. Fig. 7.37 represents a two-lamp circuit similar to that of
shown in Fig. 734 in which case the two Marvel switches M.S and
INTERNAL VIR1NC. SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 209
MS 2 are in the up-position ; but in between these two switches is

connected the Intermediate Marvel switch which is again in the
up-position. The different positions of the Intermediate switches
are shown in Fig. 7.38.
M..)? up M51 Up
C:rcjit for controlling the li.rnps at three places
Fig. 7.37
The alternative method of controlling the lamps is as shown in

Fig. 7.S n which case the connections between MS 1 and M.S 2 are
so made ns to a "Master On Circuit, i.e. at no position of M S 1 or
M.S.,,the lamps will go off.
5w,fh
Three lamps being controlled at three places
Fig. 7.38

210 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Whole circuit is lighted

Fig. 7.39
Use of whole or part circuit switch. The switch is connected
in series with the live wire as shown in Fig. 7.39. In this position,
all the four lamps are lighted, but in the other position of the switch,
onl y two lamps are lighted as shown in Fig. 7.40. In the third position
of the switch, no lamp lights. lithis switch,. in steai of being put in
series with the live wire is put in series with the negative wire and
this circuit is used in series with two 2-way switches and one
Intermediate switch, the whole or part circuit switch will acL as
Master Off switcn.
Part of the circuit is lighted

Fig. 7.40
14. Lamp Control circuit from more than two points
alternative method of or
corridor lighting. The other system of
corridor lighting is to connect all-the lamps in parallel and all such
lamps may be controlled either from three or four points. The cir-
cuits for such controls are usually achieved with the help of Inter-
mediate switches and the ordinary2way switches. Fundamentally,
211
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
the Intermediate switch is a combination of two 2-way switches
coupled together. Fig. 7.41 represents the circuit of the lamp being
controlled at three points. The Intermediate switch used has four
terminals, the two positions of this switch are shown in Fig. 7.41.
The alternative type of Intermediate switch which can be used io
the lamp to be operated from three positions is as shown in Fig. 7.42
J
1ferm&'/e Stch
$
2y
Switch 24ty $wiftf
Afternale 4°csitai.
Y I,,ter,ik Si,q*jè
-Q
Controlling a lamp from more than one point
Fig. 7.41
Controlling of a lamp from more than two points

Fi g, 7.42
For the lamps to be controlled at four different points, two
intermediate switches are used in addition to two ordinary two'-way
switches. Figs. 7.43 and 7.44 represent the two circuits for the lamps
to be controlled from 4 alternate positions in each diagram the
different types of Intermediate switches are used.
gpl
/
7
h't- /7cC c' 5w'(c/ er,yerJ
Hoins
Lcir *',r.
2Wy 5w•c,
Controlling of a lamp from four poin

Fig. 7.43
. L
\
5w.
Controlling of a lamp from four points

Fig. 7.44
15. Use of Parallel or Series Switch.

/.
(es.'? Wp
Se r i es c o nnections of switch Parallel co nnection of switch

Fig. 7.45(a) I
Fig. 7.45 (b

INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP C1RCUTS 213
As exc' laned earlier, the parallel or series switch has three

Positions and has four terminals. In one position the twa lamps
operate in parallel as shown in Fig. 7.45 (b) so that they give full
light. In the other position shown in Fig. 7.45 (a) the two rnps are
connected in series so that they give dim light. In the third pasition
the lamp circuit remains off as represents in Fig. 7.45 (c).
The circuit remains 'OFF'

(c
Fig. 745
16.Use of Reversing Switch.

To terminals 5 and 6 is connected the lamp. In Fig. 7.46 (a) the
circuit is off while in Fig. 7.46 (h) the two links are connected to
terminals land 2 ,thus the direction ofcurient in the lamp load is
Off position of the circuit with Position of the reversing switch

reversing switch when the current is in clockwise
(1)
direction
()
Fig. 7.46
clockwise while in Fig. 7.46 (c) the links re connected to terminals
3 and 4 which changes the circut in the lam p to the anti-clockwise
direction.
214
WIRING, ESTINIATTNG AND
COSTING
6 p—..
Position of the reversing switch when the current

is in anti-clockwise direction
(c)
Fig. 7.46
17. fl
usuafl y uorescent Tube Lighting. The fluorescent tubes are
available in lengths ofO.61 metre and 1.22 metres. The tubes
are generally coated from inside with fluorescent materials and the
colour of light given out by these tubes depend upon the fluorescent
material used. The powder used as a f
vated by the ultraviolet rays g luorescent material is acti-
enerated in the tube. The Popularity
of this tubes in the daily life is due to the reason that total
illumin ation given o
ut by them is much higher than filament lamps
they operate at low temp
eratures and the glare IS eliminated
illumination of 80W. Tube (4 ft. length) is same as that of 200W The
filament lamp. The following are the wing diagrams for stating
the tube circuit
Themo/$t'op,.,
Srr;os
II
Circuit of a fluor
escent tube with thermal starter
Fig. 7.47
INTERNAL WIRINMSY STFMISAND LAMP CIRCUITS 215
18. Circuit with a Thermal Starter. Fig. 7.47 represents the

tube circuit which consists of choke L, condenser C and a thermal
starter. The thermal starter consists of two bimetallic strips and a
heater toll Fl. When no current passes through the heater the
bimetallic strips make contact with each other. When the tube is
switched on to the mains, the current passes through the choke L,
heater H, left electrode of the tube and back to the mains through
the right electrode as shown in Fig. 7.48.
8,rnetc I/' Strip c
4' C
Circuit with a thermal starter immediately after switch i ng on

Fig. 7.48
As the current passes through the electrode of the tube, they
are heated and produce electrons into the tube path, at the same
time the heaterHheats thebimetalije strips and this heating causes
them to spring apart, thus the current into the circuitis interrupted.
The sudden interruption of the current in an inductive circuit causes
a high voltage surge across the electrodes of the tube, which is
sufficient to start the tube in operation. Note that the function of
the choke is to produce a blast (high vcit.age at stn r.ing) for starting
the tube. As the choke is in series with the circuit, it makes the
tube to work at a very low power factor, approximately 0.5 lagging.
So in 9rder to improve the power factor, a condenser C is connected
across the main supply. The value of the capacitor should be 7.5 )IF
for an 80-watt tube, and 3.25 i.tF for a 40 watt-tube.
19. Tube Circuit witic Glow Starting Swich. In Fig. 7.49
when the switch S is closed, the full voltage is app lied across the
starter bimetallic strips and the normal supply voltage is sufficient
to start a glow across the starter terminals, i.e., foi that period for
which the glow persists, the tube cathodes are short circuited and
are heated up. At the same time, the glow across the bimetallic
strips heat them up and so they are bent and the glow disappears,
216
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
itch
Tube circuit with a glow starter

Fig. 7.49
i.e. the circuit breaks This sudden
in terruption of the current in
the inductive circuits causes high voltage to appear across the tube
electrodes which is sufficient to start the discharge in the fluorescent
tube. A small condenser
C. across the two bim etallic strips suppress
the radio interference g
across the Supply enerated by the lamp. The condenser
C
mains is for improving the power factor. Fig.
7.50
represents the internal view of the starter, while Fig. 7.51 repre-
sents a circuit with the tube in position.
V/(' rst—,
71ff?Lq7
(Jer7s'rAcrcss
Star Coll tacts -Gkw
T E/4muc.', Hrne/j, Sec/ed
In Gloss Casdy
/n/et-fer',.
Eaye..f.L0* Cv'c/..
Internal view of starter
Fig. 7.50
c1
Internal view of starter with tube in

Fig. 7.51
pOSj ion
21
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
20. The Instant Start Circuit of Fluorescent Tube. The

for the tube is felt where the tubes are fixed to
use 0f instant sta g
inaccessible position and where maintance for the starterrCqUiTCd,
and the
9U to.tn 0rer is
,.Ube is difficult. For such a circuit an
ho primary of which is in parallel with the main supply and the
secondary is connected to the electrodes of the tube. When the tuhe
t to the
is switched on, the auto transformer supplies heating curren
electrodes and when the electrodes are sufficiently heated, the high
voltage of the transformer strikes the tube at that instant. Ju:t
after starting the voltage across the electrodes is brought to normal
by the choke. The starting ishelped by the capacitance betwcet thE
Lamp and earthed conductor as shown in Fig. 7.52.
Fig. 7.52 Instant start circuit of a fluorescent tube

21. Flasher for Moving Lights. For decoration purposas in
marriages etc., moving lights are used. The movingefTectis usuliY
obtained by means ofaflasher, which consists of wooden cyuer
which rotates into the two hall bearingsa t the two ends. The
v;000fl
cylinder is connected to the motor through a belt or a couplii.he

speed of the motor and the selection of pulley should be so ma-de
wGOClefl
that the wooden cylinder rotates at about 100 r.p.m. On the
cylinder is provided, a copper ring (to which thelive wireis connected
through a brush) and 3 copper segments 120° apart from each other
and each end of these segments is permanently connected to the
copper ring : As this cylinder rotates, these three segments make
contact alternately with the brushes 1, 2 and 3 in turn. The biush
3 are connected
No. 1 is connected to lampsL i ,the brushes No.2 and
to lamps L2 and L3 respectively. Fig. 7.53 shows the instant when
the copper segment No. I makes contact with the brush No. 1, it
ights all the lamps L 1 . As the cylinder rotates through lJ3rd of the
revolution the circuit No. I goes off and just at the same andinstant
after
circuit No. 2 becomes alive and lights all the lamp L 2 ,
further 1/3rd ofthe revolution the circuit No. 3 becomes alive and
lights all the lamps L3 and in such a system of ligbting, th amo
cIrcuit is repeated and it so appears that the lights move from right
to left.

Such moving effects of ights can be used to show Waving Flag,

Flickering light or Lighting etc.
22.. Suggested Position of Electrical Fittings. For the
purpose of obtaining proper illumination, air circulation, ease of
operation, normal comforts, safety etc., it is necessary the various
Crcujt for moving lights with a flasher

Fig. 7.53
electrical fittings shall be placed in a room at appropriate places
Fig. 7.54 represents section view for showing heights of different
electrical fittings. The suggestion given is this sketch will also
facilitate the students and readers to plan ind design for internal
using scheme.
I INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LU CIRCUITS
Li
-
U,.

-
U
219
LO
I
00
wD 9E
OO1 O IH5F4
-i
j
Ii
r-.
----.--
C E
•__
0
H
ir$
0
H
CD
XQ-
cc
-4
w
<0
04
U
o
-- -I
UI -,
Q -
4

220
WIRING, ESTIMATlNG .INI) COSTING
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the looping in system of wiring.
2. Explain the looping in system of wiring with junction box.
3. What are the different types of house wiring?
4. State the precautions to be observed in various types of wiring.
5. What are the various types of lamp circuits?
6. Explain with diagram the application of series parallel circuit.
7. Explain with diagram the working principle of fluorescent tube
8. What doyou understand by Master switch circuits? Explain wit}
diagram the Master-on Circuit.
9. How many types of marvel switches are there? Write short note
on any two of them.
Transmission and Distribution
of Electrical Energy and House
Service Connections
Introduction. 2. Various-definitions. 3. D.C. and AC. Svsuni n Supply. 4. Dig.

of electrical ene'. 5. Overhead lines. 6. Types o1 Cc 7. Line
Supports. 8. Arrangement of Conductors. 9. Insulators. 10. Material of insulatc..
11. Pin-type Insulator. 12. Suspension type insulators. 13. Strain nsuiae:. 14. S:ay
kulntor. 15. Shackle Insulator. 16. Stay set and Stay wire or Gu y wirc. Y:. Pole
PHng. IR. Lightning Arrestors. 19. I)iffcrent t y pes of ltrr ArretnN 20.
\l. elaneous Fittings. 21. Earthing of over-head System.
Lumparison between overhead and underground Systems. -
1, Introduction. It is well known that the eit.rcal energ

is generated in powerhouses or generating station. For thi., purpose
big darns have been constructed throughout the country. Until and
unless this energy is conveyed to the users, no useful purpose is
going to be served by merely generating the same. The electrical
energy is converted to the users through transmisoion and distri-
bution networks.
Typical power scheme by which the electrical energy is obtained
from water has been shown in Fig. 8.1. The generator coupled to
the turbine g2nerators 11 K y A.C. supply which is stepped up tA)
220 NV at the sending end and is transmitted to the receiving
station. At the receiving station the voltage is reduced to 33 KV
with the help of stepdown transformers. From these substrr
again will radiate out a number of feeder to various distribution
substations where the ecr is further stepped down to 11 YV or
6.6 NV. Various distributors for feeding the bulk consumers or the
transforming stations will radiate from these suhst.nticns. The
voltage at the transforming station is further reduced to 400 vcits.
Fig. 8.2 represents the lin'e diagram of the power scierne.
222 WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
.J . 5r(p IP TR4NcFopfl(j
"/220kv
220kv TgA,IcM1ccW,
Prc'ddctj Q n of Electrical Energy from Water

Fig. 8.1
2. Various definitions.
(i) Power transmission. It includes all augmentation
equipments viz, step up transformers, switchgears etc. at the power
TIIANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAj
223
house, overhead lines, underground cables and switchgears between

power house and bulk consumers, a distribution sub-station.
9 L ..................
1;Qj
,e(.;(c-5
Ar
4t"04 fl0-,'3kV'' Th4.\V(..,,_C

•c.' .flt
Line diagram of the Power Scheme from Water

Pig. 8.2
(ii) Transmission lines. These are the overhead lines which
convey the electrical energy from the generating station at high or
extra high voltage to the distribution sub-stations. These are alsc
known as feeders. The current loading of these feeders usually
remains the same as these are not usually tapped for feedi rig the
consumers. However at certain places, the bulk consumers are fed
by tapping the feeders, but such tappings are ver y few and therefore,
current loading of feeders will vary from the tapping point to hulk
consumers and will remain same upto distribution sub-station.
(iii) Distribution System. All the equipment in the distribu-
tion sub-station, overhead lines U/G cable radiating from the dis-
tribution sub-station combine together is known as distribution
system.
(iv) Distributors, As clear from the name, these are the
overhead lines from which number of consumers are fed by el-ectrica
enerL,v at low voltage.
(c) Servk Connections. The aluminium conductors or the

Weatherproof connecting the—distributors with the consumers mains
is known as service connections
16
224 V''G, FSTVAT": ) COSTING
3, D.C. & A-C. Syscm ui . a, Possib l e to

increase the voltage in d.c. system, with the resilts, the pleer:a
energy in case of d.c. system is to be transmitted and distributed at
the generated voltage. It is nrt possible to generate the d.c. ener'
beyond 440V potential. Whereas from article 1, it will be seen that
in case of A.C., voltage can be increased to 120 K y . Thus, for the
same amount of power the currents is tremendously reduced. The
copper losses which are directly proportional to the square of the
current are therefore negligible in A.0 .sy stem. flue to this reason
the ac. system is preferred to d.c. system. Comparison between a.c.
and d.c. Lrinn. ...................... s g.;
(A) Comparison between A.C. & D.C. transmission sys-
tem. The advantages and disadvantages of ac. transmission and
d.c. transmission are given below.
(i) Disadvantage of a.c. system.
(a) For the same working vtege. the po.:ntial stress a:rs
the insulators terminals for the same working voltage is in
case of ac. system ,2 times tnin the d.c. -ystem. To avoid
this, more spacing is requi..d between the insulators to
avoid corona bss atd. o i•vdc insulation. This will
increase the cost of the rrOs: arm.
(b) In ac. system, one has to take into consideration the efTct
of inductance and capacitaice while designing the a.c.
transmission line, wheror there is no such problem in d.c.
system. Due to capacitance, there is continuous loss due to
charging current and even if there is no load on the line,
the loss will take place cnti:iuousiy.
(c) Due to the skin effect, the resistance of the same line is
more in a-c. system than d.c. system. This vill cause more
copper losses in a.c. system for the same amount of power
transmitted at constant volLage.
(d) If the load and sending end votages are same, the voltage
regulation for d.c. tr2nsnmisiori line is better.
(e) If underground cables ae used, dielectric losses due to
potential stress will be more in a.c. transmission system.
(I') A.C. transmission is ver muh compUcated in cornpam son
to d.c. system. ?.lore staff i' therefore quired to erect and
maintain the n.e. transrosscn system.
(ii) Advantage of a.c. transmission system. The main
advantage is that the transrnison voltage in ca.e ofa.c. system is
TJA NSMTSS!ON AND DIS
TR[BUTION OF E LERICAL
225
very high th the results, the tr
a wide ansmission of electrical energy at
distance after generation is possible with much less copper
losses. This phenomena in a.c. supply is such an important that
a lm ost all the countries have adopted the alternating current sys-
tem of supply.
4. Distribution of Electrical Energy. As the transmission

is usually done with a.c. supply, the a.c. energy is distributed after
stepping down the voltage due to the following reasons
(a) The cost of conversion plant is high in comparison to
stepdown transformer.
(b) By running three phase four wire distributor it is possible
to obtain 400V for motors and other industrial machine and
230V for residential lighting and domestic appliances.
(c) Maintenance cost of ac. distributor is low.
Ilowever the main disadvantage of ax, distributor is that the

initial cost of distributor is more in comparison to d.c. dstdbutür
where only three conductors are seen. The copper efficiencies of
various terms for t r
ansmission and distribution havebeen tabulated
in Table 8.1.
5. Overhead Lines. An overhead line mainly compnses o

the following:
(i) Conductor
(ii) Supports or poles and cross-arm brackets
(iii) Insulators
(iv) Pole fittings
(u) Stays or Guy wire
(Li) Miscellaneous items such as lightning arrestors, guard
wire, danger plate, an ticlimbing devices, jurnoers. earthing
etc.
While erecting an overhead line, the following points are to be

taken into consideration.
(i) The voltage at the tail end of the lines should he within the
prescribed limits which are (a) ± 5% of the declared LT
voltage and (b) ± 12.5% of the declared H.T voltage.
(ii) It should he in a position to conduct the desired load effi-
ciently.
(iii) The lines should be strong enough to stand during adverse
climatic conditions. Wherever required the guvire should

be provided at a proper angle.
(iv) Continuous earth wire of proper size which is solidly

earthed at sub-station is to run all along the route of
overhead line. For reason of safety after every fifth span,
the pole is to be provided with the earth from the ground.
This earth wire is to be connected solidly with the contin-
uous earth.
(v) All metallic portion viz supports and bolts are to be con
nected with the earth.
Table 8.1
Copper efficiencies
Systems
Maximum voltage Maximum voltage
between one conductor between two outgoing
and earth conductors
(z) D. C. System
(i) two-wire systeni 1 1
(ii) tNo-wiro systeml
vth mid-point 0.25 1
earthed
(iii)three-wire system 1 0.3125 1.25
(b) Single phase A.C.
System
(i) two-wire system
cs2 0 c0s 2 0

(ii) two-wire with 0.5 2
mid-point c0s2 0 C0s 2 0
earthed
(iii)three-wi ' e system 0.625 25
c0s 2 0 0
C0s 2
(c) Three-phase Sys-

tem
(i) three-phase 0.5 1-5
three wire CO52 0 cos e
system
(ii) three-phase four 0.583 1-75
wire system Cos' 0 c052 6
22
frRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL
C.)
U
C
C)i C
C)
C)
W.
C.)
C
C.)
> Cu,
tz o I-.
CL
C) t,
C
to to 10
C C
C.)
+C) jC1 C.) C)

- c$ -
U,
C.) + a> C
U,
V
• - -
C.) C)
C._•- C
C. bE
I-
C) EE 2
-z
C _z, •
C >
C) C
1.-
C.
C
C
-
.- ,, •::
C..
C
LLr,-' E
I- Cl)
C
C
—a C
C) -
I-'-'-
.a C
—
-
C
0•
C
Cr— C)
C) 0 2
Cl)
.0>>
C - C)
,.c
C. C cC
5-. C)
.-'
z
th
Table 8.3
Specng btwen coaductor

S. No. Working for Spacing between
voltage conductors and
supporting
Structure
ertical Horizontal
formation formation
I. Lw Tension38 cm. 46 cm- 15 cm.
2. 6.6KVorll K\' 76 rm. 114 metres 30,5
3. 33RV
4. 1 66 K
5. 110KV
1.22 metres 1.53 metres
1.98 metres 3.23 metres
61 cm.
76 cm.
3.13 rretreg 4.96 metres 1.07 metres
6. 1 132 KV 6metres 4.87 metres 1.30 metres
(i.x) Anticlirnbirw devices and danger boards should be provided
on each pole for Overhead lines 6.6 NV and above.
(x) The ards as indicated below should be provided
a) In a soon, the c,uards near each supporting pole should he
o';ded if the line is passing along the roads or in open
l:
(h) If.', -- overhead i:e crosses sonic building or road, numbers
O cLoards sh.l be provided.
(c) Nunber of g'..ard should bc provided if two different lines
cross each otFr.
(xi) The jointing of conductors should be done with sleeves of
proper size.
(--ii) Ac each support, the conductors should be bound properly
With help of binding wires.
(xiid Shockie of points should be rovjderi afer about 10 spans
or as required for the p urpose of isolating the faulty area.
(xiv) Jumpers of proper size should be used.
(xv) In .now bound area, wooden poles aie roofed before
iitSnlllatiOn to avoid snow or ice standing on the top of
pole.
This is done by providing
45' metallic slanting cap on the
top of the p ok topreent decay from snow.
(xvi) Pole steps are provided for the line man to climb the pole.
(xvii) The cost ci the overhead lines should be low. For this
pv.rpos€- the span of the line should be optimum. This will
reduce the Iumberof poles and other fltthb While
deciding upon the ]enth of the span, public safety and Govt.
reg-ulations must he kept in mind The maximum length of
the span should be as under.
rRANsMlsSroN AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECIRCAL 229
(a) With wooden poles: 40-50tres

(b) With tubular poles: 50-80etres
(c) With R.C.C. Poles: 80-10itetres
(d) With steel towers: 100-3O metres
It should be remembered that the iniJatjon cost at high voltage
can he kept lou by increasing th leogthif the span.
6. Types of Conductors. The metals which are used as
conductors are of copper and aluminium The advantages of each
metal has been explained below.
(A) Copper. The most common coi4luctor used for transmis-
sion and distribution is hard drawn coer, as it is twice as strong
as soft drawn copper. The merits of copper as a conductor are given
below.
(i) It has a best conductivity as impared to other metals.
However the conductivity also ends upon the impurities
present in it and the method bvwhich it is drawn.
(ii) It has a larger current densitvand so far a given current
rating, the cross-sectional arcoof the copper concluct.r is
less in comparison to other rnels
(iii) Copper is quite homogeneous.
(iv) It has a low specific resistance.
w) It is durable and has a high scrip value
Its properties are given in Table 8..
(B) Aluminium. Next to copper thiminiurn is the conductor
used in order of preference for conductirgthe electrical energy.
(i) It is cheaper than copper
ii) It is lighter in weight
(ii) It is seond in conductivity. cmmonly hard drawn alu-
minium wire at standard temWrature has approximately
60.6 per cent conductivity it comparison to standard
annealed copper Conductor.
(iv) For same ohmic resistance, itsüameter is about l.27 times
that of copper.
(v) At higher voltages, there is le--5 corona loss in aluminium
conductor.
(vi) Since the diameter of the cond.ictor is more, it is liable to
be subjected to more wind pressu-e and ice load due to v.hich
the greater is the sag.
(Lii) As the melting point of aluminum is low, therefore, there
is more damage to the alumium conductor when short
circuited.
(viii) 'Jointing of aluminium is muck more difficult than copper.
cc -: , cc c', cc ' ' N- c' o cc c C,

- '-' NC, c' cc C —Cc
L.
I.
. te
N - - cc - cc c) - cc N- O N C) C,
ON L) .-C) N- I) ' coco C'
C') C') C' C' c'fcs -
L
PIZ
C') ('1 C') C •) c C'

) NCCtCcc.
C, cc C- c '- C14 C,4

0,0 c.'
cc
t- .- I) C '- ) - cQ c - C' N- c N- C L -
C'
-4-C) C) N L,C') C')
C4 C"I - - - -,
L') '' C' - C, C) Ct C) I'- (C' cC' L') L')

C C C' a) c '' C) C' cq C c
-4---
C C) "
C) '•'
C C ''
C) ' C') '' (C' C'- a) C) -
C)-- -
I -
I- C' C') •' C) — C'1 C') LI) (0 C'- a) C)

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRI g UTION OF ELECTRICAL 231
Table 8.5
Properties of Soli&Aluminiu.m Conductor Used for
Making A..C.S.R.
(The particularsare based on data from I.S. 398)
bta. StandardStandard Standard Minimum

S.No. mm. sectional weight resistance U.T. stress breaking
area mm1 per at 20'C km/mm' loadkg.
km/kg. ohmsl km . ______
1 2.11 3.497 9.45 8.136 18.14 64
2 2.36 4.374 11.82 6.504 17.65 77
3 2.54 5.067 13.70 5.615 17.37 88
4 2.59 5.269 14.24 5.400 17.30 91
5 2.79 6.114 16.53 4.654 17.11 105

6 3.00 7.069 19.11 4.025 16.80 119
7 3.10 7.548 20.40 3.769 16.66 126
8 3.18 7.942 21.47 3,582 16.59 132
9 3.35 8.814 23.82 3.228 16.52 , 146

10 3.40 9.079 24.54 3.154 16.45 149
11 3.53 9.786 26.45 2.907 16.3S 160
12 3.66 10.521 28.44 2.04 16.31 lU
13 3.71 10.810 29.22 2.632 16.31 176

14 3.78 11.222 30.33 2.535 16.24 182
15 3.86 11.702 31.63 2.431 16.24 189
16 3.91 12.007 33.46 2.369 16.24 194
17 3.99 12.504 33.802.275 16.17 202

18 4.09 13.138 35.51 2.165 16.17 212
19 4.17 13.657 36.92 2.083 16.17 221
20 4.22 13.987 37.81 2.034 16.17 226
21 4.27 14.320 38.71 1.987 16.17 231

4.39 15.136 40.91 1.880 16.17 245
22
4.50 15.904 42.99 1.789 16.17 257
23
4.65 15.982 45.90 1.675 16.17 275
24
4.72 17.497 47.30 1.625 16.17 283

25
5.00 19.635 53.07 1.449 16.17 317
26
27 5.28 21.896 59.18 1.229 16.17 354
28 1 5.36 22.564 60.99 1.261 16.17 365
Because of shortage of copper ores in India, the use of aluminium

conductor in transmission and distribution has been adopted.
Th mechanical properties of aluminium are given in Table 8.5.

232
'Y, IRING ESTI
MATING AND COSTING
(C) Steel. No doubt it has not got the

greatest tensile strength,
but it is least used for tr
ansmission of electrical energy as it hasgot
high istance. Bare steel conductors are not used since,it dete-
riorates rapidly owing to rusting .
are used for telecom munication Generally galvanized steel wires
lines. It has the followin g
properties.
(1) - It is lowest in conductivity.
(2) It has high internal reactance.
(3) It is much subjected to eddy current and hysterisjs loss.
(4) In a damp atmosphere it is rusted.
Hence its use is limited.
(D)
Aluminium Conductor with Steel Reinforced (A.
S. R.). An aluminium conductor hang a central core C.
steel wire , is used for high voltage tr ofgalvanized
ansmission purposes This is
done to increase the tensile strength of aluminium conductor. The
galvanized steel core is covered by one or more strands ofa]umjqjun-
wires. The steel conductors used are galvanized in order to prevent
rusting and electrolytic corrosion (since zinc is near to aluminium
and there is no electrochemical action between the two metals)
The cross-sections of the two metals are in the ratio 1:6, but in case
of high strength conductors their
ratio is 1 : 4. Thus the steel
reinforced aluminium conductor has less sag and longer span then
copper condaetor line since it has high tensile strength
otherThe aitminium steel conductor has a larger diameter than any

t y pe of conductor of same resistance.
For all calculation purposes it is assumed that the current is
passing only in the aluminium section.
Table 8.6 represents various properties of
this type ofconductor
Tables 8.7 and 8.8 represent the mechanical P
types of r operties of various
conductors and comparison of aluminium and copper con-
ductors respectively..
8. Line
require Supports. The line supports are poles and the chief
'
merits for such Supports are
(1) They must be me
2.5 to 3. chanically strong with factor of safety of
(2) They must be light in weight without the loss
of strength
(3) They must have least number of parts.
(4) They must be cheap.
(5) Their maintenance cost Should be minimum.
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL 233
,. E °-ttS
N
C,
&
j
0
-
-
-. .c z,ir- N "t 0 cU,OOZO't tNN'tN
N N ?".-. 4 t L. N t
N SC -r NLt N CC? NtNON -

-,
r_t,LcN.tC_NPtNNOXTZC
I coo0
z
C1 N CI - -
C -rr-- CI 0- C - S C' '77: 7: N

= N 0
C)
_CO_COCOCrC.C000t_N
E
0
z
it t
C OC C C 57CC C'tOOCCC ..CN = 7:
7: 0 7: St 55 = 0 CO C N hO Ct U, N 0 CO N C CI Ct
N CI CI N N N N CD CD CO CD 7:'? '7 Ct
—
CI SI N 7:7:7: 7:
0 CC C,CC55000000000000 CD0
z N CD tO CD CDt, CD CD
7: CD CD 7: 7:
I-
COCCOL000Ct ZQL0000t00005"° QISOj
N
C
234
Table .7
Showing Properties of the Conductor,
Mechenj Copper L1u,.jnjum Steel AJunijo,, S:ecl
properies
13
Specific weight
kgiczn.'
•9x1042.7x10 786xI01 345x 3.7 x l0'
Young's Modulus
kgJmm 13,000 5.600
Ultimate Tensile 20,700 1 7,5000 8,300
Strength 40 18
kgimrn.2 40to320 120 120
Specific resistance p
at 2OC in
Conductivity 1 at 20'C
56 :4 8 56
Resistance tempera.
ore 00038 0-()4 000496 - -
Table 8.8
Comparison of Aluminium and Copper Conductors
- Pci rticulars
Alum *"umCoppe,
A. For equaj. resistance
U) Area ratio
16
(ii) Diameter ratio round conductor i2
(iii) Weight ratio
041
B. For equal current and temp. rise
(1) Area ratio
. 1-39 i
(ii) Diameter ratio for round conduc
tor 1-18 1
(iii) Weight ratio
0 42 1
C. For Equal Diameter
(1) Resistance ratio
(ii) Current carrying capacity 1-61 1
0.78 1
(6) They must be easily accessible for paint and erection of line
conductors.
(7) They must have longer life.
(8) They must be of pleasing shape.
The poles are grouted in the earth with cement concrete in the
ratio oil :2 :4 and one-sixth of the pole is embedded in the earth.
values vary to a Ia rge extent dcpenng upon degree
The different types of poles which can be used as line supports

are
(i) Wooden Poles. The use of such poles as line supports is

limited to low voltages and are generally used for distribution
purposes. Initially these poles are cheap and provide an insulating
property. The poles preferably must be straight, strong with gradual
taper and free from knots. The wooden pole should have 70 to 76
cm. grith ofbutt and 38 cm. to 50 cm. grith of butt. Jts length should
be between 9 m to 11 m.
The main disadvantages of such poles are that they are elastic
and tend to rot, hence their life is short.
The portion of the pole

which is buried in the ground A _.. 8
must be treated with a creosote
oil or with any other repre-
sentative.
(ii) Steel Tubular Poles.

The wooden poles may be sub-
stituted by steel tubular poles.
Since these poles are stronger
than wood, so with the help of
these poles longer spans are
possible. To increase the life of
poles, they must be galvanized
or painted regularly. For safety
purposes, they must be earthed
to increase the longitudinal
strength of the pole, by steel
rope guys.
(iii) Reinforced Concrete

Poles. In the modern days, th
reinforced concrete poles have Sngie-phase single.crcu:.
almost replaced the wooden and Fig. 8.3
steel tubular poles, since they are attractive to look at. Such po1
are quite heavy, so transportation cost increases ; but their maifl.-
tenancecostis quite low and are mechanically very strongandherce
have longer life.
There poles having sectional bottom varying from 23 cm. x 23
cm. to 30 cm. x 30 cm. are usually used.
(iu) Steel Towers. The po l es are used ford istributiofl purpoc,

but the towers are useful for long transmission lines. It is not a
hard and fast rule even wooden poles may also sometimes be used
236
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTrNc.,
for transmission purposes depending upon the need and circum-

stances. Generally broad base l attice-steel towers are used, which
are mechanically very
strong and have longer life. It is said that if
its design is given a proper care, the steel tower is good indefinitely.
Due to robust construction, long spans can be used and much useful
for crossing fields, valleys, railway lines, rivers etc. Fig. 8.7 to 8.10
represent the steel towers.
8. Arrangements of Conductors
A Transmission Lines. The following are the methods of
arrangement of conductors over the line supports:
(i) Single-phase circuits.
The single-phase transmission lines
can either be double-circuit.Fig. 8.3 represents the
most common method of single-phase single-circuit transmission.
Fig. 8.4 represents a double-circuit single-circuit transmission line
with conductors arranged in a horizontal disposition, while Fig. 8.5
represents double . oircujt-wjth vertical disposition of conductors.
.4 8 d F
A
A
T a
1 8
MRTH V/h
Sirige-phase doube.crcujt horizon- S ing

le-phase double-circuit vertical
tal disposition. disposition
Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5
(ii) Three-pha. circuits. Figs. 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9 and 2.10 rep-
reenta method of three-phase transmission. In Fig. 8.6 conductors
have been arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle
In Fig. 8.7 the conductors aic arranged at the corners of

right-angled triangle, so that the distancebetwee. them is unequal.
ARTJ4 WJRF
FOR CA
Three-phase single-circuit over Three-pa so single-circuit with

wooden or see1 tubular poles. urequal distance between the con-
Fig. 86 ductors
Pig. 8.7
Fig. 8.8 represents the methods of transmission of elecricaI
power by two-circuits. It represents a small tower used fcr rndium
voltage transmissions.
In Fig. 8.9 the conductors are arranged in a horizontal plane,
and it will also result into an unequal distance between ccndi:tor.
Fig. 8 10 represents twocircuittransmiSSiOfl lines used for very
high voltages of 132 KV or 220 Ky.
Due to unequal spacing, the three conductors of the trar.srnis
sion line will be having unequal inductance and capacitance and
thus phase will be unbalanced. This effect is overcome by
transposition. Transposition ofline means the position cfafl three
238 WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTING
conductors are mutually changed in such a way that each conductor

is placed in one position for 1/3rd length of the transmission line.
The transposition also avoids disturbance on th parallel running
telephone lines.
Three-phase double-circuit, over steel towers for medium voltage.

Fig. 8.8
Three-phase single-circuit hwizontal disposition of

conductor and steel towers.
Fig. 8.9
B. Distribution lines. The following are the methods of
arrangement of conductors over line supports.
(i) Vertical formation. In this formation the conductors are
placed over the poles one below the other. Natural conductors is
kept at the bottom. Shackle type insulators are used for this pur-
pose
(iii' HorL?o-'tal formation. In this formaton the conductofs are
placed over the poles as shown in Fig. 8.6.
-1'7

Threepiase double -circuit over steel towers for high voltage.

Fig. 8.10
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF EIEC1RICAL 241
(iii) In certain congested area, where it is not possible to have

the minimum clearance from the building as prescribed, projected
brackets of required lengths are used. Horizontal or vertical for-
,nation of conductors are made depending upon the requirement.
Necessary support to projected bracket is provided with braces.
A.C. supply can be distributed by single phase distributor or
three-phase four-wire distributors. The single-phase distributor
has 230 volts between the phase and neutral and in three-phase
four-wire distributor the voltage between two-phases will be 400V
and 230V between a phase and neutral. D.C. supply can be dis-
tributed by two wire or three-wire distributors. The voltage of the
line in two-wire distributor is 220V, and in three wire distributor,
it is 440V.
9. Insulators. In order to prevent the flow of current to the
earth from supports, the transmission lines or distribution lines are
all seLured to the supporting towers or poles with the help of insu-
lators. Thus the insulators play an important part in the successful
operation of the lines. The chief requirements for the insulators
are
(i) They must be mechanically very strong.
(ii) Their dielectric strength must be very high.
(iii) They must provide high insulation resistance to the leakage
currents.
(iv) They must be free from internal impurities or flaws.
(v) They should not be porous.
(vi) They must he impervious to the entrance of gases or liquids
into the materials.
(vii) They must have high ratio of puncture strength to flash
over voltage.
The main cause of failure of insulators is due to flash over cr
puncture. The flash over may occur between the line conductor and
the earth i.e. the pin of the insulator, and due to production of
extreme heat produced by arc, the insulator may puncture.
10. Material of Insulators. Porcelain is the most common
material used for insulators, but in addition to this moulded
toughened glass and steatite are also used.
(a) Porcelain Insulators. The porcelain is manufactured
from china clay which occurs in nature in the form of aluminium
silicate. It is mixed with plastic kaolin, felspar and quartz and the
242
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COST
mixture is heated in akiln at a cc.. rolled temperature The insu-
lator so obtained must be hard, smooth, glazed and iree from
porosity, due to the glaze of the m
aterial its surface will be free from
traces ofwater. The Porosity of the insulator
m a t erial will decrease
its dielectric strength, also any impurity or air bubble left within
the material will result in a lower dielectric strength
ture,Ifits
the insulating material is manufactured at lower tempera.
m ecanica1 properjes
improve, but the material remains
porous and when it is put in service it may deteriorate If the
material is manufactured at higher temperature, the Porosity of t
decreases but the material becomes brittle. So, a
co mpromje is
always made between the mechanical strength and the porooity
of
the material and a suitai-p temperature of the kiln is designed A
m
echanically sound porcelain irultor has a dielectric strength
of
about 60,000 V per cm. of its thickness, and its compressive and
tensile strengths are 70,000 kg/cm, 2
and 500 kg./cm.2.
(b) Class Insulators.
Many times glass is used as an insulating
material. The glass is made tough by annealing and these
have the follow i ng advantages . i nsulators
(i) They have very high dielectric strength of the order of about
140KV per cm. of thickness of the material
(ii)
When properly annealed they have high resistivity.
(iii) They have low coefficient of thermal expansion
(iv)
Due to higher dielectric strength, the glass insulators have
simpler d2sigii
and even one-piece designs can he used.
(u) They have higher comprssj .
insulators. ,.e strength than porcelain
(vi) They are tr ansported, so any flaw, im

cracks, i mpuritiei etc. can be easily detect p urities air bhh1es,
(vii) They are quite homogeneous.

(viii) They are cheaper than porcelain.
The main disadvantages
of such type of insulators are
(i) The moisture easily condenses over the surface due to
which dirt will deposit on its suace and it will help to the
of currents leakage
(ii)
For higher voltages, the glass cannot be casted in irregula -
shapes, since due to irregular cooling, internal strains are caused
(c) Steatite Insuiators The
found in various p stcatje is magnesium sil icate,
roportions of magnesium oxide and silica in many
TRANSMISSION AND D1STRBUT1ON OF ELECTRICAL 243
parts of the world. It has a very high tensile strength as compared

to porcelain insulator, and can advantageously be used in situations
where the insulator is in pure tension i.e. when transmission lines
..akes sharp turns.
11. Pin Type Insulator. It is one of the earliest designs used

for supporting line conductors, since then, many changes have been
made in its design, but its appearance has not changed. For lower
voltages, generally one piece type of insulator is used. Fig. 8.11
represents the two one-piece insulators, and the leakage paths are
shown by the dotted line AR. In order to increase this distance one,
two, three rain sheds or petticoats are made. These rain sheds are
so designed that when these insulators are wet (its outer surface is
almost conducting), even then, a sufficient dry space is provided by
the inner sheds.
95 M M
t 1
T_.r
28 5mrn-f-
¶
B
(a) One-piece Pin insulator for 25,000 V

Fig. 8.11
The pin insulators are screwed on and firmly attached to gal-
vanized steel bolts shown in Fig 8.11(c). There are various methods
of securing insulator to the bolt. They are
(a) The insulator has coarse threads, and the steel bolt also has
coarse threads but is provided with a - sofl washer at the top.
(b) The porcelain insulator has coarse threads hut, they are
lined with a soft material into which the coarse steel pin is screwed.
This method is generally adopted.
(c) Into the coarse threaded pocelain insulator is screwed, the
steel bolt with a lead head.

(h) One-piece Pin insulator (c) Gal vani zed Steel p;n.
Da
:anzm.
CONDUCTOR
Eel
L Two-part 33 KV pin insulator for 33,000 V

Fig. 8.12
Such type of insulators are used only for straight run of the
lines.
For higher voltages, the thickness of the material required for

insulator purposes is more, but from practical point of view a quite
thick single piece insulator cannot be manufactured. Hence for
higher voltages, multipart pin-type insulator can be used, which
consists of a number of shells fixed together by Portland cement.
Figs. 6.12 and 8.13 represent two multi-part insulators which can
be used for 33 KV and 66 KV volts, the flash over distances are also
represented when the insulators are dry and wet in Figs. 8.12 and
8.13 respectively.
/52/TI/Il.
Ii
Three-part 66 V. pin in insulator for 66,000V

Fig. 8.13
12. Suspension Type Insulators. .As the line voltage
increases, the pin insulator to he used becomes heavy and compli-
cated in construction, also its cost increases. Further the replace-
ment of the damaged insulator will cost more. So, pin insulators
are not an economical for higher voltages.
For higher voltages suspension insulators are used, a number
of them are connected in seriesby metallic links to form a chain and
the line conductor is carried by the bottom-most insulator. The
advantages of such a system are
(i) Each suspension insulator is designed for 11 KV, so by
connecting a number of such insulators a string of insulators can be
designed for any required voltage.
246
c.
z
ci)
- -w-1

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRfI3UTJON OF ELECTRICAL 247
(ii) If any one of the insulator in the string fails, it can be

replaced easily and at a lesser cost.
(iii) The mechanical stresses on the string decrease since the
line suspended is flexible and it can oscillate a bit and it will attain
that position where the stress is pure tensile.
(iL) When the string of the insulator is used in conjunction with
the steel towers, line conductors are less effected by lightening, since
the line conductors are lower than the cross arm which is earthed
and acts as a lightning arrestor.
(s') If the load of be su,eJ, by the transmisn lines
increases, it can either be accomplished by running another parallel
line which will no doubt cost more, or the potential of the existing
line can be further increased by simply increasing the number of
insulators in the string. Fig. 8.14 represents such type of insulator.
3. Strain Insulators. When there is a dead end of the line
or there is a corner or a sharp curve or the lines crosses river etc.,
the line is to withstand great strain. For low volta fl ines shackle
cr wpr
IC LI.t
SPENS!C.N hLAO.S
&.so r S'
LWE CONDUCTOR
srR.v-
INSULATOR
GUY WIRE
O(.-(NO POLE
Suspension Insulators used as strain insulators.

Fig. 8.15
insulators can be used, but for high voltage transmission lines,
strain insulator consists ofan asseubly of SupCuision insulators as
shown in Fig. 8.15. If the pull on the string of the suspension
insulators is high such as in case of long spans across the river,
under these circumstances two, three of four strin g s of insulators
are used in series. The top portion of Fig. 8.15 is the plan of the
line.
14. Stay insulators. For lOW voltage line, the stays are to be
insulated from ground at a height not less than 3 metres from the
ground. The insulator used in the stay wire is called as the stay
insulator and is usually of porcelain and are so designed that in case
of breakage of the insulator, the guywire will not fall to the ground.
Fig. 8.16 represents the stay insulator and the method of inserting
the stay into the insulator.
[E1111 M11
St isu]at,cr
- Fig. 8.16
15. Shackle Insulators or Spool Insulators. The shackle
isutor or the spool insulator is mostly used for low voltage
Shackle insulator Shackle insulator mounted in a D

(a)
clamp
(b)
Fig. 8.17

249
'SS1ON AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL
distribution lines. Such insulators can either be used in a horizontal

position or in a vertical position. Fig. 8.17 (a) represents a shackle
insulator, while Fig. 8.17 (h) represents when it is mounted in a
clamp. The conductors in the groove are fixed with the help of soft,
binding wires.
16. Stay Set and Stay Wire or Guy wire. Fig. 8.18 represents
the complete stay assembly. It consists of:
STAY INStIL AT0,

AND CLAMP
POLE
j,-6AL VAN/SED
fT THM5L
iHPE,4 D -D
END W.'T/
NEEL
STAY 80W 15117117. £21A.
AND 37. 5 Cli? LONG
6ALVAN'SED STAY CR.cHR R00

Ciii 10/16 AND 19 r'r'i OR 160717; 0/A
/ CCKRETE
• . . .. 5 TA ( PLATE ,lIL £2 S TEEL. 65 /77177. THCK

225Crn.x275 CM. WITH/6.D/A.RDOR
WITH
3ccrn3oc,n ,clirnzD,A.ROD
—FC6E0 HEAD 4NC,O

STAY OR GUYS 5E7
Anchor stay or guys set

Fig. 8.18
(i) Mild stel stay plate 6.5 mm. thick, 22.5 cmx22.5 cm having
16 mm dia. or 30 cm x 30 cm having mm dia. pole in its centre.
(ii) Galvanised stay rod 60 cm. long and 16 mm or 19 mm dia.

250
WIRING ESTApc AND COSTING
(iii) Stay bow galv
length anised having l5 mm dia. and about 375 cm.
(iv) Galv anised thimble
The stay plate is embeded in the ground with concrete as shown
One end of stay rod or anchor rod is
ground level. p rojected enough above the
Galv
anised iron stay wire having 7 or 10 strands of SWG
8 wire
is connected with the stay assembly. The other end of stay wire is
connected with the stay i
nsulator and further connected to st.2y
clamp fixed on the pole. The stay wire is t
w istedri d1y to provide
a Permanent joints at both ends.
The tension on the pole can be increased or decreased tightening

or loosening the nut on the stay or anchor rod.
The stay assembly is erected in
such a manner that it cancels
the tension on the pole due to conductors which will be found at the
terminal pole, at the angle, or where the
c onductDrsize on spans or
conduct
both sides of the pole differ.
The more is the tersos on the pole, the
more is the angle subtended by the co y
or the sta y s represented in Fig. wire a ith the pole. The guys
stays. 8
.18 are known as anchor iys or
In, certain pieces, there ma y not be

si fici p nt space for the
anchor stay to be inserted in such cases, fil!
are provided : ' wing types of sta ys
(i) Sub pole or PusA brace. A
pole of smafler lenh known as
stub pole or push brace is butted with the pole as sho',.'n in Fig. 8.19.
The stub or the push brace keeps the pole in straight position.
PVLE__J i \\)lEL
I ROAD
IPRIVATE
IOF M425Hy
Stub pole or Push Brace

Fig. 8,19
TRANSMISSION Au ini z1BUTlON OF ELECTRICAL 251
(ii) Foot or Braced angled Stay or Guy. In this case, projected

angle iron and brace is fixed with pole as shown in Fig. 8.20. By this
method, the angle subtended by the guy wireat the pole is increased.
This method is employed only when the tension on the pole due to
conductor is small.
(iii) FlyingorStub Stay or Guy. In this case another pole across
the road is erected either straight or at an angle. The mriimurn
height of this pole above the ground should be 5.791 metres. The
guy wire is fixed as shown in Fig. 8.21. It will be seen that the
anchoring is done in similar way as shown in Fig. 8.18,
ANGLE EYE BOLT
PROJECTED ANGLE
5RACKE T AND BRACE
STAY OR GUY iWRE -
STAY ROD
.-GAL VA N/SEQ
-STAY 80L7
Fort or braced angled stays or guy

Fig. 8.20
Flying stay or stub guy

Fig. 8.21
17. Pole Fittings. It comprises of brackets, clamps, bolts etc.

Each of them has been discussed separately:
(i) Brackets. Cross-arm brackets and projected brackets are
in use.
The conductors are supported on the corss-arm brackets as
shown in Figs. 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6. For wooden poles teak or sheesam
wood cross-arm brackets are used. For steel and R.C.C. poles mild
steel angle iron cross-arm brackets are used. The spacing of the
conductors is done as given in Table 8.1. The cross-arms are sup-
ported with braces as shown in Figs. 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6.
Projected brackets and braces are shown in Fig. 8.20. These are
used to (i) install foot or braced angle stay or guy and (ii) to carry
overhead conductors on the pole at a prescribed distance from the
building to avoid accessibiLty.
(ii) Clamps
(a) D clamps are used to fix shackle insulators on the pole.
These are made of mfld steel fiat 50 mm x 6.5 mm and are shown
in Fig. 8.17 (b). The central hole on the clamp is to accommodate
bolt for fixing it on the pole.
(b) Stay clamps. These are also made of mild steel flat 50mm
x 6.5 mm and used for fixing the stay orguy wire with the pole. Stay
clamp is shown in Fig. 8.18.
(C) Eve clamps. These are used to accommodate L.T pin
insulator specially on t}'c service pole. There is also made of flat
iron. Such a clamp is shown in Fig. 8.25.
(d) Service bracket elamps. These clamps are also of M.S. flat
or 50 mm x 6.5 mm and are used to fix the service bracket or pipe
with the wall. Such type of clamp is shown in Fig. 8.24.
18. Lightning Arrestors. Lighting arrestor is a device which
protect overhead lines and other electrical apparatus viz., trans-
former from overhead voltages and lightning. In Fig. 8.22 it will be
seen that positively charged cloud will produce negative potential
by electrostatic induction on the overhead line. This negative charge
will however be present right under the cloud and portion of the line
away from this point will be charged positively. This charge on the
line will not flow, because it is abound charge. The positive charge
on the far end will however flow to earth slowly throu g h insulators
ond metallic parts etc., thus leaving the negative charge on the line
directly under the cloud. Now assume that due to direct discharge
occurring between this cloud and passing by negative charge cloud
the charge in the cloud in question is neutralised, then the charge
on the iine is no more bound charge and is free to travel on both

directions in the form of waves. These travelling waves will be of
light magnitude (10 to 15 KV) and have steep wave front which can
damage the unprotected equipment connected to the line. These
waves are passed to the earth quickly through lightning arrestors.
The lines are protected from direct strokes of lightning by providing
ground wire of sufficient mechanical strength placed in a manner
62
shown in Figs. 8.7 and 8.8.
7/I/ELY
CH'ARGED CLOUD
TOWER
ZEAKA6 4- 7Z?
E4R7y
Static charging of the line due to a cloud.

Fig. 822
19. DifferentTypes of Lighting Arrestors. Followingtvpes
of lightning arrestors are used to protect the overhead lines from
travelling waves of steep wave front
1. Rod gap arrestor.
2. Sphere gap lightning arrestor.
3. Horn gap lightning arrestor.
4. Expulsion type arrestor
5. Impulse protective gap with electrolyte lightning arrestor.
6. Electrolytic type.
7. Lead oxide type.
8. Pellet type of lead peroxide type.
9. Thyrite type.
10. Valve type.
20. Miscellaneous Fittings. Following miscellaneous flt
tings are installed on the pole.
() Danger plate. On all lines above 6.6 KY, a danger plate
written in the language known to the local public and indicating the
voltage with danger sign is provided at 2.5 metres high above the
ground on each pole.
(ii) Anticliinbing Device, On overhead lines above 6.6 KV,

anticlimbing device made of barbed wire is provided on each pole.
This is done to avoid climbing of unauthorised persons on the pole.
(iii) Bird Guards. On metallic poles, the isulators are fitted on
the cross-arm brackets with wooden pieces of suitable size. These
wooden pieces are provided to avoid short-circuiting of two phases
or one phase and earth due to sitting of the birds on the pole.
21. Earthing of Overhead Lines. It has already been said
that the continues earth wire from the substation is run along the
line. This wire is solidly connected to the earth provided at the
substation and later on every sixth pole is earthed.
All metallic parts other than conductors shall be efficiently
earthed. Galvanised iron wire of 8 SWG or bigger size is used as
earthing conductor. The maximum continuity resistance of the
earth should not be more than 5 ohms.
10. Methods of earthing has been completely explained in chapter
22. Service Lines. As already said that the service lines are
tapped from the distribu t ors with water proof cable olsuitable size
and the oher rends of the water proof cable terminate in meter.
ITho erv line laid in 3ch a way is known as Overhead Service
Line.
Hr-use service brackets as shown in Fig. 8.23 are used. The

ho-se servke bracket are fixed with two clamps as shown in Fig.
8.24. Eye lamp is fixed on the pole on which pin-type insulators
are fixed. From the conductors and neutral are brought on these
trlsulators. Weather proof wire is tapped from these insulators and
caken upto the service pale. Bobins are used to keep the weather
proof span in tight position. From the insulators at the service pole
VIR or lead covered cable is taken upto meter.
Sometimes in building having height more than the distributor,
the service connection is given with angle iron projected bracket
fixed on the wall. B-type clamps are fixed on the bracket for
installing pin insulators on the bracket.
Underground cable ofsuitable size is also used to provide service

con nec' .n, if the consumer is willing to pay the cost.
Meters of suitable size are placed at about 165 cm. above the
floor level. The low tension meter can be single phase three-phase
three wire, three-phase four-wire of varying capacity depending
upon the requirement. In case of very high loads at high voltage,
L.T. meters of smaller rating with C.T. (current transformer) and

P.T. (Potential transformer) of desired ratings are used.
HOLE FOR /V5UL4TO
SQL T 16 mm. oi.
IL1! ___lID
30 M G.LVNISEO
/RC;V T
- 37•5 177177.1NTERN.Q 275 177

D/..
50 MM.
FL AT
50/77,77.26 25177177.

ClaDs fo r fxin 7 House
Service House Service ine Bracket
Bracket Fig. 5.23
Fig. 8.24
23. Comparison between overhead system and under-
ground system. Following are the adL'antages and disadoitages
of oterhead system oucr underground system.
Advantages:
(i) Repair. It is easy to repair the overhead line as compared
to underground cable.
(ii) Fault Iocation.The fa'fltin overhead lines can be detected
easily and quickly as compare(' to underground cable.
(iii) Initial cost. Overhead s ,,-stem has a lower cost t.;z' the
underground system.
(iu) Charng Current. Due to more spacing of the conduc-
tors, the charging current is less in overhead s ystem than the
underground cable.
IQ
256
WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTFNc
(v) Jointing.
Jointing it underground cable is difficult and
precise as compared to overhead conductors
Disadvantages.
(i) Maintenance Cost.
system is more than the undergroThe maintenance cost of overhead
in overhead lines.
und system as there are more faults
(ii) Safety.
Underground cables are buried in the ground and
therefore more safer to the public.
(iii) Appearance.
Overhead system produces a shabby
appearance, whereas underground cables are not visible.
(iv) Effect of lightning and thunderst
orm. Lightning and
thunderstorm produces effect on overhead system whereas these do
not produce any effect or underground cables.
(v) Effect of Surge. The surges are absorbed by the metallic
sheath of underground cable and as such produce no demaging
effect.
(vi) Accidents. There can be accidents by overhead lines,
whereas chances are remote in underground system.
Voltage drop.
The inductance in an overhead line is more
because of larger spacing of conductors, therefore more voltage drop
is there in an overhead line.
(i i) Interference to telephone
lines. The overhead lines will
interfere with the nearby telec
ommunication lines, where under-
ground cables do not have any effect on them.
24.
Tariffs. Consuiners can be classified as 'Good and "poor'.
consumers are those who take regular supplies during 24 Hours or
when the general demand is low. Poor consumers are those who
require supplies only at times of general maximum demand (M.D.)
Hence consumers must be charged according to their type of load,
as well as to the number of units they consume. The following tariffs
are available.
1. Maximum-demand tariffs. (2 part or 3 part M.D. tariffs)
(a) a FIXED charge based on the maximum power required.
(b) a MAXIMUM-DEMAND charge based on the M.D. made
in each month or year.
(c) A Unit charge based on the number of units used
2. Block Tariffs:
(a) First block depending on the consumers' requirernens
(.J Second h1)c- dependjr on the demand and
(c) Third block or the lowest price encouraging long period

usage, giving incentive to improve Load Factor.
3. Special OFF PEAK tariffs:
This encourages the usage of electricity from 7 p.m. to 7 a.m.
4. Flat rate tariffs:
This is applied to domestic services. Here the charges are made
per unit of consumption at a rate determined from time to time.
5. TWO PART or ALL tariffs.
This is also applied to domestic services. Here the charges are
made fac rat—, per KWH plus a fl.ed charge per year related to
requirements.
6. Night and Day tariffs.
This is also applicable to domestic services. This encourages
large unit consumption during OFF - PEAK Hours.
A knowledge of the above is essential before the distribution
system is designed since the type of supply and the tariff to be
ap pfled will affect the metering arrangements, system of distribu-
tier: equipment and circuiting.
Protection for Domestic Installations
ER states that every consumer's instalation should be properly
eonvolled by a switch gear in an easily accessible position. The
switch gear shoild incoiporate.
(a) a Means of separating the supply in the event of excess
current.
(b) a Means of separating the supply in the event of dangerous
earth leakage.
(c) a Means of isolation.
The following is the Table given by lEE Regulations in the 13th
edition with regard to consumer's supply controls.
CONSUMER'S SUPPLY CONTROLS

System of Supply No of poles oftobebro- Position of operating
k.n by circuit breaker of coil of over load circuit
any type, or switch. breaker, or fuse.

2W, permanently and 2 In non-.earthed con-

effectively earthed on ductor.
One pole

2W, not oerriment1v 2 In each Conductor.
and effect i vely earthed
on either oo!e
(Coned-.

CONSUMER'S SUPPLY CONTROLS

2W, neither pole n each Cunductor.
earthed but system
earthed at mid-point
3W, d.c. or single phase or 2 provided one poli In each outer conductor
a.c. )roken in each oute
onductor
3W, 3 phase a.c. In non earthed con-
ductor of at least two
phases for ckt. breaker
or each phase for fuses.
4W, 3 phase a.c or 3 provided one poi In each phase conduc-
s broken ri each phas tor.
:onductr.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages of aluminium as a coflductor?
2. How many types of insulators are there? Of what material these
are made? -
3. Explain where the following are used
(i) Pin-type Insulator
(ii) Suspension type insulator
(iii) Stay insulator
4. What are the advantages of pin-type insulators and why shackle
insulators are not used for high voltage?
5. How the size of conductor is expressed?
6. Explain why lightning arrestor is used on overhead lines.
7. How many types of lightning arrestor are there?
8. Why stay or guy is used ?
9. Explain the various parts of stay guy set?
10. What are the most common types of stays?
11. What should be the vertical clearance of the conductor above the
building and horizontal clearance from the building?
12. Why flying, foot stays and stubs are used?
13. How service connections to the conjmerz are given from the
distributor?
14. Why poles of overhead lines are earthed?
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of overhead system
over urderground system?
16. In how many different ways service connection is given?

17. How the conductors are arranged in an overhead line?
I.S. Compare D.C. endA.C. system ofsupiy.
19. Explain why it is necessary to transmit the electrical power?
20. What are the essential components of an overhead line?
21. Explain about different types of tariffs.
9'
Underground Cables and Installation
I.
Material 4. Characte ristics
ofcables and Their App1jcatj0of some Insulating materials in Cables. 5. Different types
6. U ndergroundcl
Cables. S. 3 7. General Information about
TYPes of 3-phase Cables. 9. Cable lang. 10. Grading of Cables, 11.
Measurement of Insu lation resistanceof Cables. 12. Cable jointing. 13. Filling
rompoind in the sleeve. 14. Jointin g a multicore cable.
I. Introduction. Un
for tr ansmission and dergrou1id cables are being mostly utilised
dis t ribution of electrical energy. In
posh c olonies, the consumers desire service certain
gr ound cables because of the reason that such Connection
ac
by under-
onnection does not
spoil the beauty of their construction In addition, for certain loads
i:iz.
air-field thickly populated areas etc. it is necessary to use
ur. 3orground cable for distribution transmission and service con-
ni s. Aluminium c onductor underpound cables are being
in In used
dia. Thus the underground cable can be specified by
number
of cores, voltage they can withstand or type of insulation
2. Cable Insul
ation. The cables are usually classified
according to the type of insulation used. The type of insulation
be used must have the following properties to
(1)
It should have high specific resistance.
(2) It should be tough and flexible.
(3) It should not be hygroscopic
(4) It
should be capable of standing high temperatures without
much deterioration
(5) It should be non—inflammable
(6) It should not be attacked by acids or alkalies.
(7) It should not be capable of
Voltages. with standing high ru p
turing
261
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS
(8) It should have low viscosity at working temperature (solid

cable only)
(9) It should have low water absorption.
(10) It should have low permittivity.
(11)It should have high viscosity at impregnation temperature.
(12) It should have high mechanical strength.
(13)The insulation provided should be of such thickness that it
may give high degree of safety and reliability at the working
votge for which is designed.
Although it is not possible to have all the above-mentioned
qualities in one particular type of insulation, the selection of a
particular type of insulation to be used is dependent upon the
purpose for which the cable is required and qualities of the insu-
lation to be aimed at. The following are the :hief types of insulation
groups which can be used
(D Rubber.
(ii) Fibrous material, such as papc or jut etc.
( . if) V'lcanized bitumen.
(iv) Gutta percha
(v) Silk, cctton, enamel.
(i) Rubber. Rubber is the most commonly used insulation in
cables. Rubber has a dielectric constant between 2 and 3, dielectric
stress is 350 KV/cm. approximately, and specific resistance of
-tO 7 cilcm cube. It absorbs moisture slightly and the maximum safe
temperature is approximately 100°F. So the pure rubber cannot be
used as an insulation since it cannot withstand high temperatures
and cannot be up to rough usage, being too soft. Thus mostly the
rubber used as an insulation on wires consists of 20 to 40 per cent
of India rubber, the remainder being mineral matter such as zinc
oxide, red lead etc. ; also a little bit of sulphur is added. The method
of applying insulation is as given below.
First the rubber is washed and js then mixed with mineral
matters by means of working through heated rollers, until it is
plastic. Then the compound so formed is rolled out into thin sheets
and cut into strips. On small wires, the rubber compound is applied
by passing it through a die at the centre of which there is a copper
or aluminium conductor. For large wires the insulation is usually
applied parallel to the wire and is pressed hard into the ground
rollers. After the insulation is applied, it is vulcanized at a tem-
perature of 100°F. It is usually done by enclosing it in steel drums

262
WIRING, ESTIMATLNG AND COSTING
and introducing steam into it at a pressure of 25 lb. per square inch.

The process makes the sulphur to combine chemically with the
rubber, which changes the rubber from plastic state to firmness.
If
the rubber used in cables is of good quality and is kept dry
and cool,
longer life can be expected ; but when it is exposed to air itbecornes
brittle.
If vulcanized rubber is used as an insulation it becomes much
stronger, more durable, can withstand high temperatures and
remains more elastic than pure rubber. But the drawback in using
vulcanized rubber insulation is that it attacks copper. So before
using vulcanized rubber as an insulation, the copper conductor must
be tinned well. If the conductor is not tinned well, it will become
black or the vulcanized rubber insulation will change its colour
such cables should be rejected. Sometimes the tinned copper con-
ductor is given coating of pure rubber first as it retards the
blackening of tinned copper conductor or discoloration of rubber
insulation but does not fully prevent it. Sometimes vu]car.j:d
insulation is covered with one or two braids of cotton which are
thoroughly filled with weather proof compound
(ii) Paper. The paper insulation in power cable has oimat
superseded the rubber insulation. The foremostrtla l^ori ofthis is that
it is quite cheap and has a low capacitance and high dielectric
strength. It is hygroscopic and its specific resSt.0 c is of the ord-
of 10 1cin, cube but it much depends upon its dryness, a
small
amount of moisture lowers its insulation resistance So before usin
paper as an insulation, it is impregnated in an insulating oil. The
maximum safe temperatures of paper-insulates cable is 200°F
approx. The paper-insulated cables should never be left unsealed,
or its ends should temporarily be covered with wax or tar.
The compound usually used for the impregnation purposes is a
high grade mineral oil mixed with resin, the actual proportions 01
oil and resin depending upon the particular manufacturer.
Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large blocks of
power in transmission and distribution and particularly for distri-
bution at low voltage in congested areas where the joints are to be
provided only at the terminal apparatus or where thejoints are rare,
owing to cheapness and durability over V.I.R. cables.
(iii) Vulcanized Bitumen. It is much cheaper than rubber. It
resists corrosion due to gases, fumes and water. Its specific
resistance is 1 x 1014 per cm. cube. it is not a f
fected by moisture, The
main drawback ofit is that it cannot withstand temperatures more
than 120°F. And
after this temperature it becomes soft and the cable
conductors sink down and thus there will be every danger of short
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND 1iSTALfX1IONS 263
circuit. Only vulcanized bitumen has got such properties. If natural

bitumen is used, it is quickly softened by alkaline water and coal
gas.
Another important point which is worth mentioning is that it
is not attacked by rats.
(iv) Varnished Cambric (or Empire tape). When a cotton cloth
is impregnated and coated with varnish, it is known as Empira tape.
It has very smooth surface. The cambric is lapped in the form of tape
on to the conductor and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jolly
compound to give easy sliding of the surfaces. Such cables require
protective covering like lead sheath because this insulating material
is hygroscopic. Its dielectric constant is 2.5 to 3.8. Such cables do
not require scaling.
(v) Polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) This is one of the synthetic
compounds. For obtaining this material as a cable dielectric or
sheathing, it is processed with certain materials known as plasti-
cizer and its type will depend upon the use of finished product as
P.V.C. It is inert to oxygen, oils and to many alkalies and acids and
t}erefore its use preferred over V.I.R. in extreme environments,
such as in cement or chemical factory. The mechanical properties
1 LC. elasticity) of P.V.C. are not so good as those of rubber. P.V.C.
nsulated cables are mostly used for low and medium voltage
domestic and industrial lights and power installations in these days.
(ti) Gutta percha. It is much similar to rubber, but it becomes
soft at about 150°F. Its resistance/cm. cube is 6 to 25 x 10 6 ohm. It
becomes brittle in air. It does not absorb moisture. It cannot with-
stand even medium voltages. It is mostly used for submarine cables
for telegraphic or telephone purposes. The jointing of gutta-percha
cables is a special art.
(vii) Silk and Cotton. This insulation is used on conductors
required for low voltage. The conductor may . have a singte layer or
double layer covering according to the type of work for which the
wires are required. Mostly cotton or silk covered wires are used for
instrument and motor winding.
(viii) Enamel insulation. Again the enamelled wires are used for
similar purpose as silk and cotton, but enamel is cheaper than cotton
or silk although it is more liable to crack.
(ix) Asbestos insulation. It is fire-proof and has a specific
resistance of 1.6 x iü 1Vcm. cube but it absorbs moisture. Moreover
it will act as a wick for oil in case of switchboard fires.

264
WIPING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
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UND RGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 265

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o.o E C
V
— O CI.
E-0< 0
C
N
5. Different types of Cables and Their Applications.
SI. Name of cable 1 S I Voltage

No. Applicai ion
—s, d. Rating
1. Rubber insulated 434-1954 upto 600 V Power
solid and fle xi ble and
Ligh ti ng
2. PVC insulated 694-1964 250/440 V -do-
cables and Flexible part. 11 650/1100 V
cords. (sheathed and
unsheathed)
3. Polythene insulated
cables, sheathed 1596 & -do-
with PVC,
-do-
Polythen insuleted, 3035-1964
taped, Braided
4. Wire Armoured 3961-1967 upto 11 KV IMines.

paper Insulated
5 Cable, nnd Flexible 693-1945 upto 4KV Chemical Forti-

cords jsu1ated with user
varnished cambric plants,
cement factories,
and heat res1stig.
fibre glass textile machines,
heating cham-
6. Trailing cables bers Hot plates
11. 4817-198 u to V nes
^
1, 1^
2. 2593-1964
3. 69l—j96
7. Silicone Rubber (S 434-1964 u p to 1000 V Large power

or Ethylene Pr 3961-1697
plene (EP) insulati
cables and flexib
cords
8. Mineral insulati upto 600 V Power

:ables and
Lighting
9. rmoured PV 3961-1967 u p to 1100 Small
nsulated cables power
transmission
10. urn in i urn 3961-1967 upto 22 Ky Medium Power
^
I sheathed cables ran5mjSSofl
(Contd.)
IJNDERGRO!JND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 27
SL Name of cable IS I Voltage Application

No.. sid. Rating
ii. Lead or Lead alloy 3961-1967 u?to33KV -do-
sheathed cable
12. Vulcanised India 3961-1964 1 upto 600 V Small pOwr and

Rubber (VIR) 111ghting.
13. Tough Rubber 434-1964 upto600V upto 2 11P &

Sheathed (TRS) part I & II Lighting upto a
few KW
14. Flame proof com- 3035-1964 upto 6.6 KV Mines, chemical
pound, High speed plants, Refrac-
oil soaked (HSOS) tiry Kilns,
cable. Asbestos Cov- Ovens, carbon
ered Heat ac lamps, Heat-
resistance, Flame ing chambers,
proof cable. etc.
6. Underground cables. The power from the generating sta-

tions can be transmitted either by overhead lines or by cables placed
underground. Although underground system is costlier and
maintenance is dirncult, still the system of transmitting the power
with cables is preferred in thickly populated areas and in cities. The
cables are usually classified according to the voltage for which they
are manufactured. According to the voltage they can be ciassd
(1) L.T. (Low Tension Cables) up to 1000 volts.
(2) lIT. (High Tension Cables) up to 22 kv.
(3) S.T. (Super Tension Cables) from 22,000 volts to 33,00'.i
volts.
(4) E.H.T. cables from 33,000 to 66,000 volts
(5)Oil-fiiledand Pressureand Gas PressureCables for6,000
volts to 132,000 volts.
The general construction of the cables is given below
(a) Core. All cables have one centre core or a number of cores,
of stranded copper conductors having highest conductivity. Gen-
erally there are one, two, three, three and half or four cores.
(b) Insulation. The different insulations used to insulate the
conductors are paper, varnished cambric and vulcanized bitumen
for low voltages. But mostly impregnated paper is used which is an
excellent insulating material. When varnished cambric is used as a
(c) Metallic Sheath. A metallic sheath is provided over the

insulation so as to prevent the entry of the moisture into theinsu-
lating material. The metallic sheath is usuali ) Or ac
(d) Bedding. Over the metallic sheath comes a la y er ofbedding,
which consists of paper tape compounded with a fibrous material.
Also sometimes, jute strands or hessian tape (Strong coarse cloth
p cc jute) is also used for bedding. The purpose of providir.g
the bedding is to protect the metallic sheath from mechanical injury
from the armouring.
(e) Armouring. Armouring is provided to avoid mechanical
injury to the cable and it consists of providing one or two layers of
galvanised steel wires or two layers of steel tape.
(I) Serving. Over and above armouring fibrous materia. =
again provided which is similar to that of bedding but is called as
serving.
7. General Information about Cables
(a) Core Identification:
Cores are identified by colour of PVC insulation
(1) 1 core - Red, Black, Yellow, Blue.
(2) 2 core - Red a n d Black.
(3) 3 core - Red, Yellow, Blue.
(4) 3 core - Reduced neutral core is black.
(5) 4 core - Red, Yellow, Blue and Black.

(6) 5 core - Red, Yellow, Blue, Black & Grey.
(7) 6 core & above - Two adjacent cores (counting direction),
in each layer. Blue & Yellow - remaining cores Grey.
(b) Cables Code:
The following code letters are used for designation of cables
A - Aluminium conductor (if the type does NOT contain
the letter 'A' in thebeginning, then the cable is copper
conductor.
Y - At first or second place in type designation, it stands
for PVC insulation.
W - Steel round wire armour.
WW - Steel double round wire armour.
FF - Steel Double Flat strip armour.
Y -_ When last, in type designation, it stands for PVC
outer sheath.
1fl - Flat cables, sheathed.
UNDERGROUND CABL .ND INSTALLATIONS 29
8. Types of 3-phase cables. The following are the types of

3-phase cables.
(1) Belted Cables. Fig. 9.1 represents the 3-core belted cables
in which case each of the conductor is insulated from the other with
impregnated paper. Surrounding the three conductors is again
provided a belt of paper and the intersticks between them is filled
with fibrous insulating material. In such cables each core may have
conductors of different diameters so arranged as to form a sector
shape in order to avoid the undue wastes space in cable. Over-belt
is provided over a metallic sheath than a layer of braiding,
armouring and finally serving. Such type of cables are used upto
11000 volts. JUTE OR HEM 'AW A r i•wr TØP
PER SkEATN
APE
ARMOURING
JUTE C' H5A Lt SfAJ,d

WE -
Belted tybe c25/e
Pig. 9.1
(2) Super Tension Cables. The belted type constructed cable

is not suitable for the voltages above 22 K because of development
of both the radial and tangential stresses. The tangential stresses
act along the insulation. The dielectric strength of the impregnate
paper is much higher across the layers than along the layers. T}-.e
leakage current on account of tangential stresses along t.e
impregnated paper insulation causes power loss at the centre filling
and local heating resulting in breakdown at any moment. FurtL
owing to non-hornogenity of di e lectric r hlted constr,:tin wh

27
'
cables are loaded t!oaa rcrtion o the dielectric are

stressed less whereas some portions are over stressed resulting in
formation of vacuous spaces and voids. These vacuous spaces are
ionised when voltage is applied and ultimately deteriorate the cable
insulation. The above drawbacks have been overcome in the
screened cables where leakage currents are conducted to earth
through metallic sheaths.
(a) H-Type Cable (Fig. 9.2). The H-Type of cable has of belt
insulation, each of the conductor is insulated with paper to the
desired thickness and over this is provided a layer of metallized
paper, perforated to facilitate the process of impregnation. The
fibrous material in the centre and along the filler spaces gives the
round shape to the cable. Over this comes the copper woven tape so
that the lead sheath, the binder of the metallized foil, are all at earth
potential. Then layers of braiding, armouring and serving are pro-
vided as in the previous case. These cables an used upto 66000 volts.
CONDUCTOR
I /._SEM/CONDU
PAPER
METALL/SE,
V PA PER SCREE/
PA PER
INSULATION
LEAO SHEATH
-. COPRCSON
/ PROTECTION
SPVIN
-, JUTS WAR-l1NG
B ECDING
DOUBLE STEEL
TAPE ARMQUR,NG
Fg 9.2 H-Type Cable.
(h) S. L. p cables (Fig. 9.3). in this type of cables each core
is first i:isulated with an impregnated paper and then each of them,
is sepa'-tely lead sheathed. Now the three cores are just equivalent
to th i c separate caHes, each having its own lead sheath. The three
cables are laid up with fillers, armoured and served overall with
imPregnated hessian tape as usual. The surrounding of all the three
cores are provided with lead sheaths.
The advantages of S.L. type cables over
H-type cables are:
(i) Owing to no overall lead sheath, bending of cable becomes
possible.
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND IITJILL.AT1ONS 271
Fig. 9.3 &L type cable.
(z; owing to el'minationoffider spaces containing co:n1icuii,

there is less tendency for oil drzixge on hilly routes.
The drawback cfS.L. type cable is that the manufacturing i
difficult on account cfthinnerlead sheaths to be used in this cable.
!HPR6NAT(D
PAPER 'NULA.
-
hOW jrEs$.
P'RELYP/.T)IAL
PAP-'R 514EA
IMPEC,NAT LEAD SIJEATU
LJ.VfA, T4p1 O F A41 CORE
5EPARATa
JUTE FILL fM
COMuk
IIE,iS/4N 7l
5£ OOi.ij
57frL WIRE.
ARMOQ
C OMPO/
HESSL4N TA!
OVER ROLL
c-.j' Type
T511
Pig .4.
-19
S.L. type cables can be u.ed upto 66 K V
(c) H.S.L. Cable (Fig. .
4). Such a caes is a combination of
H-type and S.L. type cables in which each conductor is insulated,
sheathed with metallized paper and is then lead sheathed. The
three cores are than laid up and provided with filler, braided,
armoured and finally served.
In addition to the above types of cables there are oil-filled cables.
Advantages of screened types of cables over Belted type
cables
(i) Possibility of core to core faults is reduced to some extent
in the metal sheathed core cable on account of having a greater core
to core thickness for a given overall diameter than a plain cable.
(ii) Electric stresses are uniformly radial in all sections of the
dielectric to be used in the metal sheathed core cable.
(iii) Possibility of formation of voids within the electric field is
not there as there is no warming or packing in the electric field and
dielectric subjected to electric stress is only paper which is quite
home g n us.
(iv) The current carrying capacity of the cables in increased
because the metal sheaths help in dissipation of heat.
Extra High Tension Cables.
To overcome the drawbacks of belted cables and super tension
cables, the manufacturing of extra High Tension Cables in done.
Such cables meet the demand for 132 KV and above. In these cables,
voids have been eliminated by increasing the pressure of the com-
pound and that is why these cables are also known as Pressure
Cables. These are of two types
(a) Oil Filled cables (b) gas pressure or compression cables.
(a) Oil Filled Cables. A single core oil filled cable is shown in
the Fig. In this cable, a channel is formed at thecentre of the core
by stranding the conductor wire around a hollow cylindrical steel
spiral. The channel is filled with thin oil by means of oil reservoirs
and feeding tanks, placed about every 600 metres along its length
and maintained at a pressure, not below atmospheric one at any
point along the cable. The oil used is the light mineral oil of low
viscosity as used for initial impregnation. The system is designed
in such a way that when the oil gets expanded due to increase in

UNDERGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 273
temperature of cable, the extra oil is collected in the external res-

ervoir, the same is sent back during contraction when the temper-
ature falls down during light load conditions. Such cables are known
as single core conductor channel cables.
SERVING
LEAD SHEATH
BRASS TAPE
ARMOUR
PER INSULATION
LCO NOUCTOR
Single core conductor channel oil filled cable.
Fig. 9.5
Disadvantages
• It has complicated system of jointing as to the fact that the
channel is at middle of the cable and is at full voltage with respect
to earth.
Advantage
It is advantageous from the point of view of potential gradient
due to larger diameter of conductor and its hallow construction.
The other type of single core oil filled cable is sheath channel
cable. In this type of cables, the oil channel are produced either by
grooving the sheath or by arranging spaces between the dielectric
and lead sheath. In this cable, since the channels are at earth
potential, so system of joints and installation are simpler.
,-BEDDING
LEAD SHEATH
PAPER
-CONDUCTOR
INSULATION
3ROQVED
SHEATH 20km ....,
- T II
PAPER
INSULATION
DUCTS
"SERVING
Single core sheath channel Three core Filler space channel
oil filled cable oil Filled cable
Fig. 9.6 Fig. 9.7
In 3 core oil filled cables, the oil ducts are accommodated in the
hollow filler spaces. The fillers are made of perforated metal ribbon
tubing and are at earth potential. At the time of jointing the cable,
great care is to be taken.
274
Single core oil filled cables can be used upto 1,32000 volts and
three core oil filled cables can be used upto 66000 volts
Advantages of oil filled cables
(i) Due to reduction in the thickness of dielectric to be used,
the cable can be ma
nufactured smaller in size and in reduced weight.
(ii) There is no oxidation, formation of voids and no ionisation.
(iii) There is possibility of increased
service. temp erature range in
(iv) It has perfect imp regnation than others
(v) Due to reduction in thickness of dielectric to be used, the
cable has smaller thermal resisance
(vi) There is possbiitv uf imp
regnation even after sheathing
(vii) The cable can bear more stresses.
cviii) Fault can be located easily due to leakage o
f oil, ifañywhere
Disadvantages of oil Filled Cables
(1) The cable is more costly than that of others.
(ii) Maintenance of the cables is difficult.
(iii) Laying of cable is complicated
(b) Gas Pressure Cables
These are of two types:
(i) External Pressure cable
(ii) Gas Filled cables
(i) External Pressure Cables.
When the oil filled type cables
are developed for the highest voltages they are known as external
pressure cables. In such a cable the pressure is applied exterijv
and raised to such an tent that no ion i
sation can take place. Due
to increased pressure in the cable, the radial compression tend to
close any voids. The power factor of such a cable is also improver.
The external pressure cables are similar in Construction to that
of ordinary solid type except it is triangular instead of 75% circular.
in section. The triangular secton reduces the weight and gives low
thermal resistance. The lead sheath acts as a pressure membrane.
The cable is armoured with a thin metal tape so that the formation
of any abnormal ties over its surface is avoided. The cable is laid in
a steel pipe of some larger section. The pipe is filled with nitrogen
at a atmospheric pressure from 12 to 15 which continuallycom-
pressed the cable radially from outside and an y
voids etc. if any, are
closed. To avoid corrosion effect on the pipes, they are coated wiLl-i
a special p aint and it is further p
rotected with an i m p regnated felt.
External Pressure Cables

Fig. 9.8
Such cables can carry 1.5 times the load current, double the
operating voltage than that of a normal cable and thus transmit 3
times power. The steel pipes provide mechanical protection to the
cables. The nitrogen in steel pipes help in quenching any flame. The
maximum potential gradient is 10 KVIrnm. and the dielectric power
factor at 15°C is 0.6% The disadvantage of these cables is that they
are costly one.
(ii) Internal Pressure Cables. These are of 3 types.
(a) High pressure gas filled cables
(b) Gas cushion cables
(c) Impregnated pressure cables.
In high pressure cables, spaces are provided in the dielectric
itself for the gas like nitrogen at a atmospheric pressure of about
12 for super voltage cables and about 6 atmospheric pressure for
extra high tension cables. Pressure is retained by means of a lead
sheath in a single core cables, having a diametral clearance of about
0.63 mm.
In case of multi-core cables, this clearance is not essential, the
filler spaces and strands providing a sufficientlylow resistance path
for the flow of gas.
In gas cushion cable, screened space is provided all along the
length of cable, in between the lead sheath and the dielectric. The
inert gas is stored at various points along the run of a cable. This
facilitates the jointing of cable without loosing gas from the entire
cable. No arrangement is required for the transmission of pressure
to the cables from outside. So the cable is a complete unit with its
own armouring, and no external pipe protection is required.
276
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN
Impre gnated pr
essure cable is similar to solid cable except tha-
such a cable consists of a mass.impreated
this is maintained under a atmosphec p a p er dielectijc an
Nitrogen Special p ressure or 14 by means
reinf 0
orcement
tapes to cater for the large hoop is
andprovided in the form of rnetafli
longi tudinal stresses set up.
The a
dvantages of the internal pressure cables
(1) are
The cable can be used for vertical run thout
dimage with suitable design. any fear ot-
(2)
Due to increase pressure, there is an
Power factor of the cable dieleeti-je imp vement in the
(3) There is no need
of wiring any extera! acc essories.
9. Cable L
route Should be su aying. Before laying cable under the giound its
rveyed and the p
etc. Should be ascertained osition of water mains or drains
The cable to be buried underOd must have the follorrg

properties
(1) The moisture of the soil should not enter the core of the
cable.
2) It must have high insulation resistanc
IT
,
,
Method for laying the cable
Fig. 9.9
(3) It should be able to withstand the heat
of current p roduced due to flow
(4)
It Should not be capable of being damaged while handling
or laying
usually in the ground; so due to this reason armoured cables are
used.
(5) It should be sufciently flexible.
(6) It Should not be bulky.
(7) It should not be costly.
271
UNDERGROUN D CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS
The fllowing are the different methods of laying the cable

underground:
(1) Cables buried directly underground. For cable laying a
trench of 112 in. wide and 1 m. deep is made throughout the route
ofthe cable ;the trench must be of uniform depth and the cable must
rest on the evea and solid ground. Abed of sand about 5 cm. thick
is made under the cable to avoid the clay underneath attacking and
soft beddings. Then the cable is covered with more sand to a height
of about 15 cm., care being taken that no sharp stone should come
to protect the cable from mechanical injury when somebody digs
near about the cable route. Whenever the pick-axe of the digger
strikes against the brick, he gets a warning of being careful so as
not to damage anything below.
If two or three cables are to follow the same route, they may be
put in the same trench but they must be separated as far apart as
possible to minimize the mutual heating effect. They should not be
allowed to cross each other and their protection must be ?reserved.
Great care must be taken in stretching the cable to avoid any
injury to it. The cable drum is put on two wheels of axle. The wheel
diameters are usually half metre more than that of drum and the
ax1'iT passed thro':gh 'he drum.The cable is stretched by Wheeling
the drum near the trench. Another way of stretching the cable is by
means of bodily lifting it on men's shoulders loop by loop, and the
drum is so turned that the cable should come out for the top of the
drum.
(ii) Solid system of laying the cable. In this system the trench
all along the route is made as in the direct laying system. Then the
troughs of china clay are placed in a row and the cable is laid out in
these troughs. The troughs are then filled with bitumen compound
and are covered with slabs when the bitumen is still hot and in a
liquid state. When the compound solidifies, it seals the cable
throughout its length.
10. Grading of cables. Ithas been noted that in a single core
cable, the electrostatic stress is maximum at the surface of the
conductor and decreases towards the sheath. The maximum voltage
which ran be safely applied to a cable having homogeneous insu-
lation is limited by the electrostatic stress of the surface of the
condi.ictor. If a dielectric of high strength is used in the cable, there
is no doubt that it will be useful just over the conductor where the
stress is maximum bt as we go away from the surface of the con-
ductor, the value of dielectric stress decreases. In this way, the
excessive dielectric will be used and it will be expensive one. If by

278
WIRING, E
STIMATING AND COSTIN(
ka
I- 0
"•
' Ii NO
C
-
• c Q..
CC
'-A
some means, the stress maybe distributed that its value in the outer
layers of the dielectric is increased without increasing the stress
near the conductor, insulation of less thickness will be required for
any given working voltage and an import economy is effected.
Thus the process of achieving uniformity in dielectric
stress is known as grading of cables.
There are two methods of grading
(i) Capacitance grading.
(ii) Intersheath grading.
(iii) Capacitance grading. By applying this method to the cable
grading, the uniformity in dielectric stress is achieved by using
various layers of different dielectrics in such a way that the per-
mittivity, K, of any layer is inversely proportional to its radius or
distance from the centre i.e.
or Kx = constant
Thus we obseive that if such a condition is achieved, the value
of dielectric stress of any point is constant and is independent of
distance from the centre, and the grading will be ideal one. But it
is not possible to use infinite number of dielectrics for a single cable
and in practice two or three dielectrics are used in such a way that
the permittivity of the dielectric near the core has got highest value
and then it decreases and finally it has got minimum value in the
outer most layer.
The advantage of this t y pe of grading is that if the overall
diameter is same for a non-graded and graded cable, then the per
missible safe potential of the cable is increased i.e. for the same
permissible safe potential, the size of the graded cable wilibe smaller
than that of the non-graded cable.
(ii) Inters heath grading. A homogeneous dielectric is used in
this method of cable grading. The dielectric is divided into various
layers, placing suitably the metallic intersheaths. These metallic
intersheaths are held at certain potential, which are in between
the tore potential and the earth potential. There is thus a definite
potential difference between the inner and outer layer-of earth
sheath, so that each sheath can be treated like a homogeneous single
core cable.
The modern trend is to avoid grading as far possible and ernplo
oil 61led or gas pressure cables because with the capacitance
280
WIRING,
ESTIMAG AND COST!Nc
grading, there are only few high iirade insulating materials of'
reasonable cost and with inter sheath grading, there is possibility
of damaging to the intersheath the time of
transp ortation and'
installation The heat looses are also there due to charging currents.
ll .Measu.rement of I
nsulation Resistance of Cables
1. Gal vanometer method. To
apply this method to measure the
insulation resistance of the cables, a very sensitive
high resistance i.e. galvanometer of
of 1000 ohm or more is connected in series with
the resistance to be measured and to a battery supply. The deflection
on the galv
under me anometer dial reads the insulation resistance of the cable
asurement. This method of measuring the insulation
resistance of the cable is not precise. This method is only sufficient
to indicate whether the insulation is faulty or otherwise
2. B) Insulation Testing megger.
The adequate and accurate
method of testing the insulation resistance of the cables is with the
help of megger. It carries two terminals marked E
minal L is connected to the core of the cable and and L. The ter-
terminal
connected to earth terminal. Now the handle ofthe meggeris rotatedis
'E'
at uniform speed, then there will be deflection of the pointer on the
calibrated dial of the megger. This is the direct reading of insulation
rejstance of the cable between core and earth.
l2. Cable Jointing. The cable jointing is the work of a highly
skilled man, snce the successful working of the cable depends
the quality of the joint made. All joints in the cables mustupon
mechan be
ically and electrically perfect as imperfect joints are the
source of weakness and danger. The cable jointing can be divided
into following heads
(a) Preparation of the ends of the cable.
required for cable jointing and their equipmenWhen all the materials
t is ready, the seal of
the cable shcu!d be broken. Remove the lead sheath only two-thirds
of its thickness for a length of about iS cm. (about 4 cm.
than the half length of the sleeve of the joint) by means ofgreater
a back
knife and hammer. Care should be taken to make a slanting cut in
the lead sheath so that the core insulation may not be damaged.
After this operation, bare the C
onductor for a length of about
0.625 cm. more than the half length of the sleeve and the bare
stranded conductor should he cleaned with niaptha. The remaining
length of the cable from which 2/3rd t
protected f hickness of lead is removed is
i.e. 3 cm
stranded end of the co pprox.) with the help of a tape. Then
nductor is secured with the help of two turnsthe
of binding wire, also near the end of the of cut the cable is secured
with afew turns of tinned copper binding wire. Now remove the first
binding wire made solder it either with the help of a soldering iron
or by pouring molten solder from one ladle to another. For such
soldering, powdered resin may be used as flux.
(b) Making sleeve for the joint. For making the sleeve for the
joint, the conductors are made to butt each other in the sleeve and
are soldered. The sleeve usually is made from a sheet of copper,
which is cleaned thoroughly and is bent to form a split tube. Two
holes of about 1.25 cm. diameter are drilled from each end of the
tube. Then a layer of pure tallow is applied on the inside and outside
of the tube. Now a layer of solder is applied on the inside and outside
of the sleeve, first by rolling in it powdered resin and then dipping
it in molten solder. The excess of the solder on the sleeve is usually
removed by means of pulling a piece of rag through the sleeve when
hot.
(c) Jointing. Before the actual process ofjointing starts, a lead
pipe about 20 cm. long is taken to cover the jointing copper sleeve
and a hole of 0.5 cm. dia. is made which is called the filling hole.
Then beat up the lead so that a lip is formed at the top of the hole.
Drill two holes more, one at each end so as to act as air vents. Clean
the ends of the lead pipe and scrap outer edges slightly. If it is not
done, the joint will not take solder. Now thoroughly clean the lead
sheath on each end of the cable and pass this lead pipe on one end
of the cable.
Now insert the prepared ends of the copper or aluminium
conductors of the cable into the copper sleeve. It is necessary that
this sleeve should be a close fit over the conductors, and conductors
should be placed so as to butt each other. Pour molten solder over
the split copper sleeve from a small ladle and keep another ladle
below the joint to catch the drops of the solder. The excess of the
molten solder should be wiped off. Care must be taken that the joint
is in a horizontal position. It should be remembered that the jointing
should not take more than half a minute otherwise the insulation of
the cable will be spoiled.
(d) Insulating the joint. The method of insulating rubber
insulated cables and paper insulated cables is different.. For insu-
lated rubber cable, India rubber tape is used with the help of rubber
solution which is available either in collapsible tubes Or in tins.
Before the rubber tape is provided over the joint, it is necessary to
checkup the rubber insulation on the cable ; if it is damaged during
the soldering operation, it mustbe cutaway. Also bare the insulation
for about 3 cm. on each side of the joint. Clean the insulation by
282
WNG, ESTIMATING AND CCSTING
scraping so that no dust or threads etc, are left out. The rubc:
insulation on the cable now should be tapered by means of curved
scissors for about 1.5 cm. on each side.
• Now just beyond the point cf taper, start providing tape on the
bare conductors and copper sleeve. Care should be taken not to use
rubber solution for the fi rst layer, i.e. rubber solution should not come
in contact with copper conductor. After first layer the second layer
is provided, so that this layer overlaps the previous one for half of
its width ; over the first layer, apply a small quantity of rubber
solution and the serving of this tape now should be continued (only
after the conductor is covered with rubber tape) upto the tapered
portion of the rubber insulation. The serving of the tape should be
continued until the insulation provided is of so much thickness that
it comes up to the level of the rubber insulation with continued use
of rubber solution on both sides of the tape. The last two layers
should be contihued beyond the start of tapered rubber insulation
for about 1.25 cm. For insulating the joint, care should be taken that
the work must be clean and the rubber solution should be sparingly
used. The cable insulation should be kept tapered only for the
minimum period and in no case dirt or dust should come in contact
with it.
For insulation of paper-insulated cabie joints, impregnated

cotton tape; usually available in tins, is used. Before such tapes are
used, they are kept in a hot solution of sleeve compound at a tem-
perature of about 230°F, but in no case the tape should come in
contact with the container vessel. The impregnated tape should be
removed from the compound only when it has sufficiently cooled.
The applied tape should be drawn as tightly over thejoint as possible
in order to exclude air, and moreover each lap should overlap the
preceding one by half its width. In case of high voltage cables, (not
in case of low voltage ad medium voltage cables) after the insulation
is provided over the conductor,the core insulation is removed in a
tapered fashion for a length of cm. to 7 5 cm. depending upon the
voltage. This is obtained thus Give a turn on the cable with the
help of a copper wire and remove the paper insulation, and now give
the turn at a distance of about 0.6 cm. from the previous joint
(moving towards the end of the cable) and again remove the paper
insulation up to this point and soon. Now thejoint should be covered
with an impregnated cotton tape; the-thickness of the cotton tape
provided should vary from 1 to 2 times that of the paper insulation.
The tape should be tapered to tape 1.25 cm. beyond the lead sleeve.
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND IINSTALL\TIONS 283
(e) Jointing of lead sleeve. Aer the conductors have been

soldered and an insulation is provc.'d over them, it is necessary to
protect this insulation against chancatir'iury and from the effect
of atmosphere. Such protection is usually provided by slipping a
lead sleeve over the joint and filling it with a compound. This sleeve
is the same one which has been mentioned earlier and slipped over
the cable before the conductors are soldered. Assuming that the lead
sleeve and the lead over the cable have been well cleaned or scraped,
the following are two methods of jointing the sleeve with the lead
sheath on the cable
(i) Soldered joint.
(ii) Amalgaline plumbing.
(1) Soldered joint. Slip the lead sleeve over the insulated joint
and dress down its ends over the cable sheath. Insert cotton waste
into the joints near the ends. Light up a blow lamp and adjust its
flame about 5 cm. long. Warm up the lead on the sleeve and on the
cable, taking care that only the tip of the flame should touch the
lead and to heat the cable only at one point. Now bring the solder
near the cable joint and apply flame on the solder only, so that it is
laid first roughly over the joint in the form of lumps. Now heat the
joint by moving the flame round the cable. Care 'lculd be taken t(-
solder the edges properly. In order to check whether any pin-holes
are left or not while the joint is warm apply tallow or a solution of
glycerine and soft soap solution. Thus any pin-hole left is soldered
properly.
Similarly the other end of the sleeve is soldered.
(ii) Ainaigaline plumbing. In this method the lead on the sleeve
and the cable are properly cleaned and the ribbon of amalgaline
wrapped round the lead sheath of the cable. Then the lead in the
sleeve is dressed down so that it tightly fits over the ribbon. Now
apply heat by means of a blow lamp until the ribbon melts and at
the same time the lead sheath of the cable and sleeve melts and ran
together to form a solid joint. Such a method is quicker and neater.
13. Filling Compound in the Sleeve. The compound to be
filled in is heated in a pan or a ladle, taking care not to overheat. If
it is overheated the insulating properties of the compound will
deteriorate. So the compound should be heated up to a particular
temperatures which varies according to the composition of the
compound and a thermometer should be used for notng the tem-
perature. In general the compound should not he heated beyond
300°F.
When the compound is melted, the iad sleeve is warmed up
284
taking care not to overheat it, otherwise the solder at the ends will
be melted and the Joint will be weakened. The warming of it is
necessary, otherwise the poured compound
will solidify and thus
prevent the complete compounding of the joint.
Pour the mcten cornpoun in t
o the lip hole of the sleeve until
it comes out of the vent holes of the sleeve. Allow the sleeve to cool
down and then pour more compound to allow for shrinkage. Seal
the filling by means of soldering a lead cover over it, while the air
vents should be soldered with drops of solder.
14. Jointing a Multicore Cable. For multi-core cables also
the tapered lead sleeve joints are the best, since approximates to
the actual construction of the cable. But such a method is quite
expensive and takes more time, so such joint are not justified for
low voltage and medium voltage cables. For such cables, the con-
ductor joints so made (without lead sleeve) can well be insulated
and protected in a cast box which is filled with an insulating
compound. The method of making a straight joint for 3,500 V.3-core
paper cable is as explained below
Jointir.gofa multi-core cable

Fig. 9.11
(1) Mark the cutting points, giving an allowance of 2.5 cm. for
overlap. -
(2) Bind the armouring of the cable with a 16 S.W.G. bindjn
wire giving about 6 or 7 turns as a distance of about 20 cm. frorr
either end of the cable and remove the ar
mouring of the cable up tc
this point with a triangular file.
(3) Remove the lead sheath up to a length of 18 cm.
(4) Remove paper insulation and bare the conductor for a length
of about 25 cm.
(5)
Protect the exposed paper insulation from moisture and
solder etc. with the help of an impregnated cotton tape.
(6) Twist the conductor ends and insert the two conductors ih
a tinned brass conriectorso thatboth the conductors meet each other.
(7) Solder perforated tinned capper bonding strips before sol-
dering brighten the lead sheath under the bonding strip.
(8) Over the lead sheath at the point shown, bind the con.-
pounded canvas tape until the overall diameter is slightly more than
UNDERGROUND CASES AND INSTALLATIONS 285
the internal diame.er of the inner gland. For proper adhesion each
turn is warmed up with blow lamp.
(9) At the points, where both the cables are to be gripped, clean
the armouring of each cable and bind with lead strip 1.5 mm. thick
until the overall diameter is slightly more than the internal diam-
eter of the armourclamp.
(10) The three cores joined together should be separated with
the help of porcelain spreader which must be quite dry. For this
purpose before use, it is immersed in a hot compound.
(11) Place the bottom half of the box under the joint so made
and provide the armour clamp as shown and bolt it to the cable. The
inside of the clamp must be well cleaned in order to ensure better
electrical contact.
(12) With the stud, connect the lead bonding strip to the box.
(13) Warm thebottom haifofthe box with filling compound and
while the compound is hot, place the upper half of the box over it
and provide a bolt.
(14) Remove t1e manhole and heat up the box from outside and
fill it up with the compound.
(15) Remove t1e filling plugs of the glands and provide seaing
compound over thi glands.
(16) Allow the joint to cool down, and after the contraction of
the insulating compound, provide more quantity of it.
(1) After theoritraction is complete, fill the groove shown with
the sealing compnd and replace the manhole. Before replacing
the manhole, sealing compound houid be provided there.
(18) All the enings should be sealed with the sealing com-
pound.
The Fig. represents a two core Tjoint

Fig. 9.12
286
WIRING, EST IMATING AND COSTING
(19) When the job is completed it should be painted black with

bitumen paint, in a
ddiLion several metres of cable on both ends of
the joint are coated with bitumen paint.
Typical Questions
1.
propertiesWhat is tie use of under ground cables ? Explain about the
which the insulation of underground cable possess?
2. What type of insulating material are mostly used for under
ground cables? Explain about them.
3. Explain about the general Construction of underground cable.
How are the cables classified according to Voltage?
4. What are the types of 3 phases cables?
Explain about them with their diagrams.
5. What points are taken into consideration at the time of laying
under ground cables ?
6.
What methods are adopted for laying of cables under ground ?
E\plan about them.
7.
tvp cahesWhat
?
are the advantages of screened types of cables over belted
8. \Vh0, are the advantages and di s

a dvantages of oil filled cables?
- L \Yna do y ou understand by g
radingofcabj0 5 ?Explain about the
differert rrethods of grading ?
10. What methods are adopted to measure the insulation resistance
of under ground cables ?
11. Describe about the cables jointing.
12. Explain about the straight joint for 3900 V, 3-core paper cable.
Electric Earthing and Shock
1. Introductioo. 2. Neutral Wire. 3. Why grounding is required. 4. Comparison
between Neutral and Earth Wire. 5. Fire hazards from electricity. 6Why fuse is not
used in the neutral. 7. Connection with earth. 8.Value of earth resistance and factors
on which it is dependent. 9. Methods of earthing. 10. Definitions. 11. Points to
remember while earthing. 12. Earth Leakage circuit Breaker System. 13. Electric
Shock 14. Cure of shocks. 15. Artificial respiration. 16. Precautions against shock.
1. Introduction. The meaning of the term earthing or

grounding is to connect the electrical equipment to the general mass
of earth by wire of negligible resistance. This brings the body of the
electrical equipment to zero potentici and thus v/ill avoid the shck
to the operator. The neutral of the supply system is also solidly
earthed to ensure its potential equal to zero. According to Indian
Electricity Rules, "the earthed or connected with earth means con-
nected with the general mass ofthe earth in such manner as to ensure
at all t'nes an immediate discharge of energy without danger.
2. Neutral Wire. In India the general distribution is by means
ofA.C. 3-phase 4-wire distributors. The potential between any two
phases is 440 V and the potential between any of the three-phases
and the fourth-wire known as neutral is 230 V, and this neutral is
connected to the junction of the three-,phases at the generating end.
The neutral wire is always grounded at the generating station. The
residential electrical appliances such as lamp, radio, heater, iror
etc., all operate at 230 V, so for the residential wiring, one of the
outer phases and neutral are brought into the house. If the con-
sumer's load is quite high, then all the three-phases and neutral are
brought in, but the appliances are connected between a pt,.ase and
a neutral and whole of the load is equally distributed on all the
phases. -
3. Why grounding is required. Let an electrical apparatus
of resistance R be connected across the supply mains and let it be
not earthed as shown in Fig. 10.1. Let us assume that the potential
between the live wire and neutral is V. If the insulation resistance
—20
288
WrNC, E STLMATING AND COSTThC
between the electrical element Of '!he apparatus and its metal case
be fl, and resistance of the body of person, who happens to touch
the apparatus be R,
lithe person who touches the apparatus
standing on the earth, then the current from the supply main will
have an alternative path through the insulation resistanceR of the
electrical apparatus resistance R6 of the body to earth, and finally
through the earth resistance R to the neutral of the supply. The
electrical circuit for the above is shown in Fig. 10.2. The current
in the second shunt path depends upon the insulation resistanceR1b
R, R and the applied voltage V. However, mostly it is dependent
upon R, since it varies from infinity when the insulation is quite
sound and zero ohms when there is a dead short circuit between the
element and the metal case respectively. No current will pass
through alternative circuit, if the insulator resistance is infinity.
METAL C45E OP THE

c&51
ELECTP/C APAP,,.
An unearthed apparatus being touched by a person standing on

the ground or earth.
Fig. 10.1
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK
289
Rb
Electric circuit at the time of getting a shock

Fig. 10.2
When the apparatus is sound
R i soc ..(10.l)
16 oc+R6+R0 ...(l0.2)
Hence no current passes through the body and no shock is

experienced by the person.
When the insulation of the element becomes defective, the

i11iaLior. resiitnce of the apparatus will approach zero, and then
the value ofI -ill be much dependent upon the resistance R6 of the
body and it may be quite sufficient to give a fatal shock tc the person.
In this case,
V
(10.3)
IVRI'Pi
L
c
2 ra
Re Re,
(a) (b)
Illustrating an earthed Electric circuit when the apparatus
apparatus. is earthed.
Fig. 10.3
Now let the metal case be earthed as shown in Fig. 10.3 (a). Fig.
10.3 (b) represents the electrical circuit when any person standing
on the earth touches -the apparatus.
290
WUflG, ESTIMAT[NG AND COSTING
Again the leakage current will largeiy be determined by the

resistance R ; when the I
nsulation ofthe element is sound, the value
of Rj will be very high and
the leakage current I will be almost
negligible. When the insulation deteriorates the value
of R,
approaches zero ; the value of the leakage current no doubt will be
quite sufflcientto give a fatal shock, but at junction A
before it passes
through the body, it divides into two paths open for it, one through
the body offering resistance Rb
resistances R 1 which is negligible. and the other through the earth
The resistance R 1 comprises
the resistance of of
the earth electrode and resistance of the general
mass of earth which is dcnoted as 1?. AsR6
and re parallel, the
effective resistance will be approximately equal to
R.
Thus the equivalent resistance of
the alternative path will be
R =R.+--_--
l/R, + I/R b -
R, x
P, --:-
...(10.4)
L'i view of Eqn. (10.4),
V
/ &
..:(10.5)
The current for which value has been arrived at in Eqn. (10.5)
will be divided in two parts at junction A. If
the value of the current
through the body and earth be I and
'd which adjust themselves in
the inverse ratio of their resistance, then.
/b
Ac
R 1 +R R 1.
..(I0.6)
and
R,1±R ...(I0.7)
Since the maximum value R., is of the order of 5 ohms,

(according to I.S.I. Specifications) R
under worst condition will be
1,000 ohms, thus current 'd
will be much more than that of 1. and
this current will not be sufficient to cause any shock.
The value of the leakage current I will be sufficiently high t
cause the fuse in the circuit to melt and thus will help to isolate he
clectricil appliance from the supply mains.
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK 291
It will be observed from the above that the effective isolation of

the plant from the supply mains depend upon the earth resistance
comprising the resistance of earth electrodes and the resistance of
general mass ofthe earth in between these two points. If due to some
reasons, the earth resistances rise above the safe limits, it will cause
the current through the body to increase to thus the possibility of the
shock further increases. Hence the arrangement is not fool-proof.
In order to make the arrangement absolutely safe from shock
point of view, an alternative arrangement is to run an earth wire
between the electrical apparatus to be protected and the neutral of
the source of supply called a bonding connection, as shown in Fig.
10.4 (b). When any person touches te .: case of the electrical
apparatus, the circuit reduces as shown in Fig. 10.4 (b).
L Switch Fuse 1 1
fliustrating an earthed appa- Equivalent electrical circuit

ratus and bonding connection of Fig. 10.3 (b)
(t) (b)
Fig. 10.4
Thus it will provide an alternative low resistance path to the-
neutral. The salient features of the bonding must be:
(i) the earth wire acting as a bonding connection must be of
sufficient cross-section to carry the fault current under
worst conditions
(ii) the bonding must be continuous from the appliance to be
protected to the neutral of the source;
(iii) the resistance of the bonding must be very low
(iv) the bonding wire must be strong enough so that it cannot
be broken easily at any point;
(v) the connection of the bonding wire must be perfect at both
ends;
(vi) all bonding connection should be protected against corro-
sion.
292
4. Comparison Between Netural and Earth Wire:

S. No. Neutral Wire Earth Wire
It is directly connected to the It may be directly connected to
neutral point of the supply the neutral point to supply
system. system.
2. It serves as a return conductor. I t May carry current only jncase
of fault.
3 Its potential at some point may It is supposed to be at zero
be substantially far from zero, potential. It is not mounted on
It is therefore insulated from any insulator and is in direct
the pole on which it is sup- metalic contact with the sup-
ported. In this case, the insu- port metals work.
lator is smaller in size than the
one supporting the phase
conductors.
4 It may notbe connected to earth It must be connected to earth at
at an intermediate point in the least at 3 places in a Km or at 4
line, places an a mile.
5. Fire Hazards from Electricit y.
Whenever there is a
breakdown of insulation over the wires it is always accompanied by
generation ofheat and increase of temperature near about the fault.
If there is a faulty earth and there is no isolation of circuit due to
fault current, then the fault persists which
further increases the
temperature of the surrounding and if the temperature eaches
ig'tfon point, the insulation starts burning, and fire breaks out.
1I;- tQ avoid the Fire hazard earthing or bonding isanecessity.
6. Why the fuse is not used in
the neutral. According to
Indian Electricity Rule 32 clause 2, no cut-out, link or switch other
than a linked switch arranged to operate simultaneously on the
earLhed or earthed neutral conductor and live condutors shall be
inserted or remain inserted in any earthed or earthed neutral
conductor ofa two-wire system or in any earthed orearthed neutral
conductor of a multi-wire system or in any conductor connected
thereto with the following exceptions
(a) A link for testing purpose, or
(h) A switch for use in controlling a generator or transformer.
In order to prove it, let a fuse be inserted in the neutral of the
supply as shown in Fi g . 10.5 and let the metallic body of the electric
appliance be earthed to avoid electric shock. Let the insulation of
the appliance deteriorate and there is a leakage current and this
makes the fuse in the neutral to melt first. But as soon as the
some-one touches the electric appliance in order to know what has
happened, he will complete the circuit through his body to earth
and source and thus will get a severe shock since it is still not
disconnected from the live mains.
Hence for safety reasons, a fuse should never be used in the
neutral.
Fig. 10.5 -
7. Connection with Earth. (i) According to Indian Electricity

Rule 61, the following provisions shall apply to the connection with
earth of s y stem at low voltage in cases where the voltage normally
exceeds 125 volts and of the systems at medium voltage (a) T'.e
neutral condutor of a 3-phase four-wire syster and the middle
conductor of a two phase 3-wire system shall be earthed by not less
than two separate and distinct connections with earth both at the
generating station and at a the substations. It may also be earthed
at one or more points along the distribution system or service line in
addition to any connection with earth which may be at the consumer's
premises.
(b) The frame of every generator, stationary motor and so far
as is practicable, portable motor, and the metallic parts (not intended
as conductors) of all transformers and any other apparatus used for
regulating or controlling energy and all medium voltage energy
consuming apparatus shalt be earthed by the owner by two separate
and distinct connection with earth.
(c) All metallic coverings containing electric supply wires,
294
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN-
metallic apparatus viz., iron clad switches,

down rod of fan, w di stribution fuse board—.
ater-tight switches etc. should be earthed. Ii
addition to running earth conductor, the main switch board a
consumers premises should be earthed with an earth electrode.
(d) All apparatus viz,
refrigerator, energy meters, cooking
range, oven, electric heaters, press etc. should be earthed,
(e) In an underg-round cable, metallic sheath should be earthe
by two separate and distinct connection with the earth.
(f) Iron clamps, brackets, steel poles, steel tower stay wires o
a distribution and transmission system should be earthed.
(g) No earth connection is made to that gas pipe.
-
(h) In case of d.c. supply, the middle conductor should b
earthed at the generating Stations.
8. Values of earth electrode resistance and factors
which it is dependent:
The earth resistance is dependent upon many factors as
detailed below and as such its value can vary
(a) Material of electrodes and earth wire.
(b) Size of electrode and earth wire.
(c) Temperature of the soil.
(dj Moisture of the soil.
(e) Depth to which it is embedded.
(/) quantity of coal and charcoal in the earth electrode pit.
Maximum value beyond which the earth electrode resistance
should not be increased is 5 ohms. However for better performance
at power house and su bstation its value should be 0.5 ohm and 1.00
ohm r espectively. Water is poured in the earth pit containing
electrode to improve the resistance.
9. Methods of Earthing. There are three methods of earthing.
1. Earthing through a water main.
Before making an earthing
connection to the water main, it must be ascertained that
throughout C. I. pipes have been used, otherwise if the cement
concrete pipes have been used, the earthing will not be effective.
When making an earthing connection, care must be taken to limit
the contact resistance to the minimum. For that purpose properly
designed earthing clamp should be used. The stranded copper lead
is fanned out and is soldered to make it solid. Then the lead strip is
bent round the pipe so that it may be seated properly over the pipe.
The surface of the pipe is cleaned properly, and all traces orgreas
ELECTRIC FARTI4ING AND SHOCK
placed the clamp. In between the

clamp and pipe i inserted the lead and is tightened with the screws
shown in Fig. 10.6.
7ed Out
'Y.'"_
Soldered SO/Id
traded Coppe'-. 1116
Representing earth connection with water main.

Fig. 10.6
TLs method is ;ov;ever not popular as water means are of
concrete or cement.
(2) Pipe Earthing. If the water-pipe cannot be used as an earth,
a galvanised iron pipe of approved length and diameter can be used.
The size of the pipe depends upon (a) the current to be carried, (b)
the type of soil. According to I.S.I. Standard No. 732-1963 the
galvanizd iron pipe shall not be less than 38.1 mm. diameter and 2
in, long for ordinary soil but if the soil is dry and rocky, the length
of the pipe should be increased to 2.75 m.
The pipe is placed upright as shown in Fig. 10.7, and must be
placed in a permanently wet ground. The depth at which the pipe
should be buried depend on the condition of the ground moisture.
According to Indian Standard, the pipe should be placed at a depth
of 4.75 m. ; it can be less if the soil provides sufficient moisture
earlier. The pipe at the bottom should be surrounded by broken
pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance of about 15 cm. around the
pipe. The coke increases the effective areas of the earth practically
to the outside of the coke bed. -.
Impregnating the coke with salt decreases the earth resistance.
Generally alternate layers of salt and coke are used for best results
as represented in Fig. 10.7. In India in summer season the moisture
in the soil will decrease to a large extent which will increase the
296
Cost Iron Cover
W
Wre Mesh
6' (,
I9m Did ()
Cm.
.12mm flak
.-.-
of
Fig. 10.7 Pipe earthing

earth resistance. So in order to have an effective earth, whenever
needed, 3 to 4 bucketsof water should be put into the funnel con-
nected to the main G. I. pipe through 19 mm. dia. pipe.
The earth lead used must beG. I. wireorO. I. strip

(not of copper)
of sufficient cross-sectional area to carry fault current safely. (It
should not be less than electrical equivalent of copper conductor of
12.97 sq. mm (8 SWG) cross-sectional area. The earth wire from the
G.I.pipe of 19 mm dia. should be carried in a G.I. pipe of dia. 12.7
mm. at a depth of about 60 cm. below the ground. Further when the

ECRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK 297
earthja
wire is carried over from one machine to the other, it should
be well protected from mechanical injury, by carrying the earth
a recessed portion.
Plate Eart?iing. The earth connection can again be provided
with the help of a copper plate or a G.I. plate. When G.I. plate is
used it should not be of less than 60 cm. x 60 cm. x 6.35 mm while
for copper plate these dimensions may be 60 cm. x 60 cm. x 3.18
mm. However, the use of the copper plate in these days, is limited.
Cast I,o., (-"er
copper Wra for Ccer Pct

& 6! Wt 1r 61
' 6re
61
1 /271
95 mm Dja Fpe
6.! PIP"
Dia
a-..
I
-

Hi
OrCi aja..e
::at
H (b
(1
Fig. 10.8 Plate earthing
The plate is kept with its face vertical at a depth of 3 in. (10 ft.)
and is so arranged that it is embedded in an alternate layer of coke
and salt for a minimum thickness of about 15 cm. in case earthing
is done by copper plate and in coke layers of 15 cm. if it is done with
G. I. plate. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earthplate with
the help of bolt nut and washer, the details of which are shown in
Fig. 10.8(b). It should be remembered that the nuts and bolts must
be of copper for copper plate and should be of galvanized iron for
galvanized plate. The other details of plate earthing are same as
that ofG.l. pipe earthing.
298
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTEr-
10. Definitions.
(1) Earth Electrode. The conductor
e mbedded in the grow—
for the purpose of rnak ng connection with the general mass of ear
is known as earth electrode and the wire which connects overhe
earth wire (or any other equipment to be earthed) with ear
electrode is known as earthing lead.
Where available underground water pipes or lead sheathed a—
steel armoured cables should not be used as earth electrodes. The
are prohibited by ISI, vide IS 732-1963 (Revised)
"Sprinkler pipes or conveying gas, water or flammable liqui
conduit, metallic enclosures of cables, conductors and Iightnii-
protection system, shall not be used as a means of earthing =
installation, or even as a link in earthing system."
The reason is, the water pipes are not usually in direct conta
with earth, particularly if no-conducting joining have been us
between section of water main. The same is the case with lead shea
or steel armouring of cables.
There are 3 types of artificial electrodes, following ti
specifications of ISS.
(1) Driven Electrodes i.e. pipe or rode electrodes,
(it) Strip electr dc
(iii) Plate electrodes.
(ii) Driven Electrodes The electrode is made of metal rod
pipe having a clean surface line, not cjvered by any poor
conducting material such a paint or enamel. Rod electrodes ofste
or iron shall have a minimum dia. of 16 mm and those of copper
at least 12.5mm dia. Pipe electrodes shall not be less than 38m
internal dia-meter if made of iron or steel, (galvanised,) The lengt
of this electrodes shall be not less than 2.5m. The electrodes sha-
normally be driven to a depth of at least 1.25 metres. But if rock
encountered they may be burned in a horizontal trench and sha
be not less than 2.5m. in length.
(iii) Strip Electrodes. These consist of copper strips, n
smaller than 25mm x 1.6mm in cross section of bare COPPE
conductor not less than 3mm 2 in section. They are burned i
horizontal trenches, not less than 2.5m deep. The length shall b
such as to give required earth resistance.
(iv) Plate Electrodes. A plate of copper or galvanised iron c
(0.6 x 0.6 x 0.006 m for iron OR 0.6 x 0.6 x 0.003 m. copper) is burrie
with its face vertical iri an alternate layer of coke and salt for
minimum thickness of about 15cm. The earthing lead is enclosed i
a G.I. pipe of 12.7 mm dia and is bolted to the earth plate with th
help of bolt, nut and washer.
Earch conductivity is electraly'ic in nure anu is affected by

moisture content of the soil and its chemical composition. Therefore
electrodes shall use as far as possible, practicable, be embedded
below permanent moisture level. Een then the earth resistance
may increase appreciably during summer when the moisture in the
soil decreases considerably. Arrangement, must therefore be made
to keep the electrode wet, even during such periods by pouring 3 to
4 buckets of water into the sump once for every few days. Further
to reduce the soil resistivity, some common salt is dissolved in the
moisture by packing it all around the electrode.
The electrode material does not affect earth resistance and so
a material which can resist corrosion is to be chosen. For a.c. circuits,
zinc coated iron electrodes should normally be used, as the price of
copper is very high. But in d.c. system, the electrolytic electrodes
are generally used.
For a low protective fault current, pipe electrodes are used. For
a large protective fault current, plate electrodes are used.
(v) Earthing lead or the main earthing conductor. The
wire connecting the earth electrode with the main switch board or
• with the continuous earth wire run along the distribution,
I or the servie line s ncwn as ar'hing lead or the
main earthing conductor.
(t.'i) Sub-main earthing conductor. The earth wire v.hich
runs between the main vjtc 1 board to the distribution board or
other words along the sub-mains is known as sub-main earthing
conductor.
i.uii) Earthing continuity conductor. The wire running
between the distribution board and various plugs and appliances is
known as earth continuit, conductor.
11. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker System
In this system, the parts of an electrical installation to be
protected even from leakage of very low current, are connected to
an earth electrode through the coil of an earth leakage circuit
breaker, which controls the supply to that part of the installation,
in addition to the already earthed equipment. As shown in the fig.
it provides the means ofdis:onnectng the faulty circuit at a current
level of about 30 miili-amps which is only a fraction of the normal
full load current, and is the most effective methodofprot'ctiOfl. This
method is especially recommendtd for ir,stallations of high earth
resistance. The trip circuit breaker ma y be provided v;ith time lag
feature to allow the ope1ation of the protective devices protecting
individual circuit.
300
WIRING ESTLMATING AND COSTLNC
NEUTRAL
-
py
OP
MA IN S TCH
RESISTOR
KEY I
I:; INSULATED
LEAD
J
EAR 7- H F
WIRE
L
Ll LAETO BE
Fig. 10.9 Shows

the Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker System
12. Points to remember while providing earthing.
Following points should be remembered while providing
earthing to an i nstallation and premises Various details
per I.S. s p ecification are giv en as
(i) Distance The distance of the electrode from the
installation at the premises should be more than 1.5 metre.
(ii) Cro ss-section
of the earthing lead. It should never be
less than half the cross-section c f
selection should be made in such ' the mains wire or conductor. The
a way that even in worst condition
it shall not fuse out. The minimum size of the earthing lead should
not be less than electrical equivalent of copper
(12.97 sq. mm c r c onductor of SWG
oss-section). The sizes of earthing lead for various
loads and installations are given in Table 10.1
(iii) Cross-section of the earth Continuity
con ductor. The
size of the earth Continuity conductr should not be less than 14
SWG (2.894 .sq. mrn
(iv) Electrode. As already discussed, the earthing can be done
either with plate or pipc eIectrodi I
tshould be remembered that the

301
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK
material for earth electrode and earth lead should be same and the
electrode should always be placed in vertc :l position. The size of the
plate earth electrode for various loads and insulation should be in
accordance with the details given in Table 10.1.
(u) Earth resistance. The earth resistance of any earthing

should not be more than 5 ohms. As already said that for better
performance at power house and sub-stations or for high horse
power motor beyond 100 H.P. the earth resistance should be upto
0.5 ohm and 1 ohm respectively.
Table 10.1
Type of loads and Size of the earth lead I Size of the earth
installation electrode
-J
Copper I G.1. Wire
SWG Area inSWG Area in
sq. mm sq. mm Copper i G.I.
Consumers S 12.97 8 12.97 o0cm.x 6Ocm.x
residential 60cm x 60cm. x
premises 3.18 mm 6.35 mn
Pole earthing of-do . -do. S 12.97 -do . -do-
transmission or
distribution lines
Industrial loads -do- -do- 8 12.97 -do- .do-
upto 10 HP
Industrial loads -do- -do- 6 - 18.68 -do- -do-
between 10 HP to
15 HP
Industrial loads 6 18.68 2 38.60 -do- 9cm.x
between 15 HP to I 90cm. x
30 HP 6.35 mm
Industrial loads 4 27.27 not used 90cm.x Not used
betWeen 30 HP tol cm. x
50 HP 16.35 mm
Industrial loads (i) 2 38.60 not used -do- Not used
between 50 HP to (iL)copp 12.7mm
100 HP er strip 2.54mm
Industrial loads copper 25.4mm rot 1 used -do- L
above 100 HP strip 2.54mm
PowerHouses and copper 25.4mm not used -do- -
sub-stations strip 2.54mm --d
The resistance of earth is dependent upon area of electrode in

contact with the general mass of earth, the quantity of earth, coal
and salt.
302
The resistance of an existing earth can be increased by Pouring

water for G.I. plate earthing, salted water for copper plate earthing
or by replacing the coke and salt.
The low earthing resistance can be obtained by increasing the
cross-sectional area of electrodes and this can be achieved by
connecting a number of electrodes in parallel.
13. Electric Shock. The effect of electric shock may be death—.
(1) due to fibrillation of heart. i.e., damaging the heart to small
pieces causing the stopping of breathing
(2) due to stopping of breathing action caused by blockade in
the nervous system causing respiration
(3) due to local overheating or burning of the body.
The fibrillation of the heart is the most serious cause of death
and there is no cure, although there is Possibility of rescuing a man
who has suffered by the latter two causes. The seriousness of the
electric shock is de p
endent upon the following factors
(i) The Current Strength ,
It has been experienced that in
alternating currents of low frequency the current between 1 MA
and 8 mA are j.ist bearable, but currents between 8 mA and 15 mA
give a paafui shock whch sometimes contract muscle 3
leakage current is between 20 mA ad 50 mA and it passes too. If the
through
chest it may stop breathing and currents between 100 mAand 200
mA may cause fibrillation of heart. Current beyond 200 mA will
cause bu r
n, and if it passes through heart even, it will not cause
fibrillation but may stop breathing temporarily.
Thus it is seen that it is the current which
giv es
it depends upon the voltage. The leakage current is shock given although
F
I=
where E is the supply voltage and R
is the body resistance.
The body resistance is different 'under different conditions.
When the body is dry, its resistance varies between 70,000 n and
100,000 Q per sq. cm . (the sl:in resistance is high while the internal -
resistan is lo), but when the body is wet, its resistance reduces
to between 700 Q and 1,000 Q per sq. cm
. The average effective
resistance of the body may be taken as 50,000 Q when dry and 1,000
Q when wet. The high voltage causing currents beyond 200 mA
punctures the outer skin causing burns. Table 10.2 gives the results
of shock under different Conditions and under different voltages.
Hence it is concluded that when body is wet 100 V supply is as
dangerous as 10000 V when the body is dry.
ELECTRIC FARTH ING AND SHOM 303
( j ) The frequency ofcurnzts. The lower the frequency, the more

dangerous is the shock, andt:direct current shock is the most severe.
(iii) The path taken bytbcurrent through the body. If the path
of the leakage current is Wi thout involving the chest or heart,
survival is possible but then are severe burns on the parts of the
body involved in the shock ending upon the value of the current.
Table 10.2
Condit Electric re
ion of szstanceo/ bo y 500V 10,000 V
body the body
ohms Current I Current Current
A zFect A I A Effect
Totally 1,000 0.1 Cin 0.5 A B 10 Severe
wet and probable burns;
1 itht I death may
survive
Neither 5,000 0.02 1Xv 5urnsl 0.1 2 Severe
wet not o ijury; death; burns;
dry pail slight
burns vive
Dry 100,000 0.003 Vligh coo: Light 0.1 ue
sh; oaF shock, no de'ayth;
I lburns sli ht
14. Cure of Shocks. Innost of the cases the electric shock due
to accidents is momentarvand the contact with the live wire is
imperfect, in such cases breh stops momentarily. But ifdue to the
shock the victim becomesnscious, stops breathing and his heart
still beats, the most urgetand immediate cure for this victim is
that should be given irnm-ate artificial respiration in the manner
detailed on next pages be, and it should be continued until the
victim starts breathing nos'nally. It should be borne in mind that if
the artificial respiration ispped just after the victim recovers, he
is liable to become unconus again. In some cases the artificial
respiration is to be contimi for 6 to S hours.
If due to shock the hearistops beating it means that fibrillation
of the heart has occuredas1 death is certain.
15. Artificial Respiution. At the time of accident due to
electric shock, proceed asfdlows
(i) When anyone getsa shock, the first and foremost duty of
the observer is toreak the contact of the live mains and
body eTher by swithing off the main supply, or the body
should be rclledavay with a dry wooden stick. If stick
—21

etc. is not at hand, a dry piece of cloth should be used to

detach the body from the live mains, or if that is also not
available the loose cloth such as coat or shirt of the victiiîi
should be pulled with care without touching his body.
(ii) See, if the operator's clothes are smouldering ; if so,
extinguish the sparks etc.
(iii) Check up if the patient is breathing or not : if he is not
breathing, immediately start artificial respiration as
detailed below until medical aid arrives—
Lay the patient so that no pressure on the ourns of the patient
is applied. There are two methods of laying the patient for artificial
respiration:
Method 1. Lay the patient as represented in Fig. 10.10. Kneel
over the patient's back, and place both the hands on the patient's
thin portion of the back near the lowest rib in such a manner that
the fingers remain spread on the sides and the two thumbs almost
touch each other and are parallel to spine. Now press gradually, and
slowly for about 3 seconds by leaning forward your hands as shown
in 10.10 Fig. Th: ptiPrit shold be kept warm.
Fig. 10.10. Artificial respiration
Now relax the pressure slowly and come to the oriinal kneeling
position for about twe seconds as represented in Fig. 10.9. Repeat
the process for about 12 to 15 times in a minute. It expands and
contracts the patient's lungs so as to initiate breathing. The process
should be continued with great patience and in so case violence
should be used.

Method 2. When the patient has got burns etc. on his chest or
anywhere on front side, then the patient must definitely not be laid
as in Fig. 10. 11, instead lay him as shown in Fig. 10.12 with a pillow
or rolled coat under his shoulders. The clothes of the patient must
be loosened before starting the process of artificial respiration.
Artifici al respiration
Fig. 10.11
(a) Hold the patient just below the elbows and draw his hands
over his head until they are horizontal, keep them in that position
for about two seconds. Now bring the patient's hands on to his siIes
kneeling over the patient's hands so as to compress them down as
represented in Fig. 10.12. After 2 seconds repeat the process again.
Artificial respiration
Fig. 10.12
306
WIRING. ESTIMATING AND COSTING
(h) If the operator has got burns cnly, the burns should be
dressed properly ; oil should never be used on the burns. After the
patient's burns have been dressed properly, he may look cheerful
and quite all right. It is important to note that one who has received
electric shock is liable to get an attack of h yp
orstatjc pneumonia.
So it is necessary to keep him warm for at least one day.
16. Precautions against Shock. It is always necessary to
observe the following precautions against shock, since prevention
is better than cure
(1) Try to avoid work on live mains which should be switched
off before working.
(2) If it is not possible to switch off the mains, be sure before
working that your hands r feet are not wet and i
rubber shoes. nsulated with
(3) In order to rescue a person who has got an electric shock if
there is no other insulator available for rescuing, useyour feet rather
than hands, wearing the rebber shoes or P.V.C. shoes.
(4) When working on high voltages, be sure that the floor is not
conductor. Concrete floors are dan g erously conductive.
(5) When working on high voltage, try to keep your left hand
in the pocket i.e. avoid your left hand to get in contact with an
y live
conductor orme tall ic causing of an apparatus or metal pole or cross
arms.
(6) Do not work in such a place where your head is liable to
touch the live mains before making the circuit dead.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Why earthing is done?
2. Why fuse is not used in the neutral?
3. What are the various points which are to be earthed in accordance
with Indian Electricity Rule !
4. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Earth lead (ii) Electrode
(iii) Earth Continuity conductor (iv)
Sub-main earthing conductor
5. What are the various points to
be remembered while earthing?
6. What are the values of earth resistance?
7. What are factors on which earth resistance depend?
8. What are the various methods of earthing ? Explain one of the
method with sketch.
9. Recommend type of earthing for residential accommodation.
10. What should be the size of conductor and plate ejectr
recommended for earthing at various places?
11. What do you understand by the phenomena of"Electi-jc Shock"?
12. How a person who has suffered an electric shock is to be cured.
13. Suggest various precautions required to be taken to avoid electric
shock to a worker.
14. Write down the specifications for:
(a) Plate electrode (b) Pipe electrode
(c) Earth lead (d) Barth conductor
11
Power Stations and Substations
1. Thermal Power Stations. 2. Hydro Electric Power Stations. 3. Diesel Power Ste.
tioüs. 4. Nuclear Power Stations. 5, The Gas Turbine Power Plant.
Substations 1. Introduction. 2. Ciassication of Substations. 3. Transformer. 4.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Out-door Substations as Compared to Indoor
Substations. 5.Design of substation. 6. Main connection Schemes. 7. Graphical
symbols for various types ofApparatus and Circuit elements on Substation. S. Main
Connection diagrams showing the arrangements of various typical connections and
of the simple substation scheme. 9. Insulators. 10. Substation Auxiliaries Supply.
11. Complete Bus BarArrangementa on High and Low Voltage side for a 5L.8titions
12.RingMain system 13. CrruitBreaker 14. Circuit Breaker Contacts. 15. }luhi -igs.
16. Oil Circuit Breaker 17. Description of Oil Circuit Breaker 18. Ccr.necti fla-
PowerStation. Electric power stations are classified according

to the kind of energy used by the prime-movers and named a:
1. Thermal Power Stations. In thermal power btations, the
heat of combustion of coal is utilized by the boilers to produce steam
at a high pressure and temperature. This steam is used in dn mg
the steam turbines or sometimes the steam engines coupl3 to
gencrators which produce the electric power. The fuel used in the
boilers is mainly bituminous coal but in case of emergency some
heavy oil can be used for the fuel.
The thermal plant is preferred where the generation of large
electric power is required and where the financial, climatic and
geographical conditions do not permit the installation of hydro-
electric power stations.
Its operating cost in about Rs. 100 per kW of installed capacity
and Rs. 0.04 per unit generated.
The advantages and disadvantages of thermal planth are given
below
Advantages (i) Fuel used is cheaper (ii) Less space is required
in comparison with that ofhydroelectric plants (iii) cheaper in initial
cost than other power stations. (iv) Its cost varies from Rs. 800 to
Rs. 1,000 per kW of installed capacity (v) Cheaper in production cost
thin that ofdisl nnwr 02tinns (vfl Such niants cnn hp. insthllpd

at any place whereas hydra-electric plants can be developed only at

the source of water power. (vii) Such plants can be located near the
load centres, whereas the hydro-electric plants to be installed at
source of power which is usually isolated from urban areas.
Disadvantages. (i) Costlier in running cost than that of
hydro-electric power plants. (ii) Atmosphere is polluted by fumes
and residues.
Schematic arrangement of a modern coal fed power-plant. The
entire arrangement, may be divided into 4 main circuits namely (i)
fuel nnd ash circuit (ii) a flue gases circuit (iii) feed water and
steam circuit and (iv) coo;ng water circuit.
(i) Fuel and AshCircuit. Coal is delivered from the supply
points to the storage site by road, rail or water. By road, coal is
transported in trucks and for small stations such inland transport
may be enough. Where power plants are situated close to a water
-
.1
JE
LAT
EHE
FLUE O AS ES
E .AE jj_l_
TANSFCME
AN VA .E
SUEP L-
hE4IEC 5E -
Con d en s
PJSTEA
P UNP
CO EN-1
, P'I'ts e^SE
1,
IAZU' AT
RIVER OR CANAL
Fig. 11.1. The Schematic Arrangement of a Modem Coal Fed Plant.

way, such as a canal, river or sea, transportation is done by boat or
ship. However, in most cases transportation of coal by rail, road is
the most common. In the case of small power plants, the quantity
of coal being small, manual unloading from rail car may be used but
for large power station the u.nloadingfrom the railway siding is done
with the help of wagon tipplers and then the coal is conveyed to the
coal handling plant. The coal having been good enough to be burnt
into boilers is taken into the boiler bunkers by means of bucket
coveyers. The coal is thus stored inthe bunkers from, where it falls
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 309
into the hoppers by gravity and finally the requisite quantity of coal
either goes on falling directly on the grate, or where the coal
spreaders are provided, coal is spread in the grate up to the rear
end. When use of spreaders is made, most of the coal burns in air
and remaining falls at the rear end of the grate. Any unburnt coal
particles in the middle of the grate are collected in a pipe and are
again refired by cinder-refiring fan. The grate in such types of
boilers, where use of spreaders is made, moves from rear end to front
end, and without spreaders, the movement of the grate is from front
to rear end. Combustion is controlled by controlling the grate speed,
quantity of coal entering the grate, the damper openings. The ash
is collected after complete combustion of fuel at the back of the boiler
and is removed to the ash storage by means of scrap conveyors. -
(ii) Air and Flue Gas Circuit. Air is drawn from the atmosphere
by a forced draught fan through the air preheater, in which it is
heated by the heat of flue-gases passing to chimney, and then
admitted to the furnaces. The flue-gases after passing around boiler
tubes and superheater tubes are drawn by the induced draught fan
through economiser and air pre-heater and finally exhausted to the
atmosphere through chimney.
(iii) Feed Water and Steam Circuit. The condensed water is

extracted from the condenser by the condensate pump and is tlmr,
forced to the high pressure feed water heater, where its temperatuo
is raised b y the heat from bled steam. The feed water is now pumped
to high pressure water heater, where it gets heated by the heat from
bled steam extracted at suitable point of steam turbine. It is then
pumped into boiler through economiser, in which it is further heated
by the heat of flue gases. In boiler, water is converted into high
pressure oteam, which is wet. Wet steam is passed through super-
heater, where it is further superheated, and then supplied to the
steam turbine through the main valve. After giving out its heat
energy to the turbine, it is exhausted to the condenser where its
latent heat is extracted and steam is converted into feed water. At
one or more stages, a quantity of steam is bled or withdrawn for
heating of feed water. Making up water for boiler is taken through
the evaporator, where it is heated by low pressure steam extracted
at suitable point of turbine.
(iv) Cooling Water Circuit. Cooling water is supplied from a
river, canal, or lake or cooling towers through screens to remove
the matter, that might choke the condenser tubes. It is circulated
through the condenser for condensing the steam and finally dis-
charged to the suitable position near the source of supply. During
the passage, its temperature rises and in the case of cooling towers
the heat must be extracted before the water is again pumped to the
condenser. A low pressure in the condenser is maintained with the
circulation of cooling water to the condenser.
Factors Influencing the Choice of Site For Thermal Plants. The
following factors should be considered while selecting a site for
steam power station for economical and efficient generation
(i) Nearness to the load centre. The power station should be as
near as possible to the centre of the load to reduce the transmission
cost and losses. This factor is most important when d.c. supply
system is adopted. Howver, in case of ac. supply system where
transformation of energy from lower voltage to higher voltage and
vk'e-versa is possible, power station can be erected at places other
than that of centre of load provided other conditions are favourable.
(ii) Supply of water. The power station should be near
6
source of water. Since large quantity of cooling water (500 tonnes
the
of cooling water for every tonne of coal burnt) is required far the
condenser.
(iii) Supply of Fuels. The power station should be near to the
coal mines if possible to reduce the transportation cost of fuel.
(iv) Transportation Facilities. The facilities like railway station
must be available for transportation of heavy equipment anct fuels.
(v) Cost of land. Land should be available at a reasonable price.
(vi) Type of land. Soil of land should be very stiff to bear the
weight of th6 large building and heavy machinery.
(vii) Available area. Sufficient area must be available to keep
the land in reserve for future expansions.
(viii) Distance from populated area. The site for the power station
should be away from the populated area so that there may be no
effect of pulverised fuel, residues and fumes on the population.
All the factors given above make us to select the site for the
thermal power station away from the towns. New-a-days more
importance is given to the facilities for generation than those of
distribution and a site for steam power station neaqr by river side,
where ample water is available, no pollution of atmosphere occurs
and fuel can be transported easily, is an ideal choice.
Constitutents of Steam Power Station and Layout. The
important parts and auxiliaries of steam power stations are dis-
cussed below
(i) Steam Generating Equipments.
(a) Boilers. Steam boilers used in steam plants are of two types
namely fire tube and water tube. In fire tube boilers, the tubes
containing hot gases of combustion inside are Surrounded with
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS311
while in water tube boiler, the water is inside the tubes and hot
gases outside the tubes. Fire tube boilers use is limited to low cost,
small size and low pressure (to about 10 kg/cm 2 ) plants. For central
steam plants of large capacity, water tube boilers are usually used.
The water tube boilers have following advantages over fire tube
boilers.
1. It has high evaporative capacity due to having a large
heating surface
2. Owing to rapid and uniform circulation of water in tubes,
it has better heat transfer to the mass of water and better efficiencY.
3. It has high working pressure due to small size of drum.
4. Owing to large ratio of heating surface to water volume, it
has quick raising of steam.
5. It has got safety in operation.
6. It occupies less space.
7. Overall control is better.
S Easy removal of scale from inside the tubes.
Fire tube boilers for low pressure are cheaper and capable of
nieting large fluctuation in steam demands due to greater cater
crge n tho anm.
The design of boiler depends upon weight, height, portability,
safet y , bulk, character of operating labour life, efficiency and cost.
The boilers may be straight or bent tube of diameter ranging from
25 mm to 100 mm; longitudinal or cross drum, horizontal, vertical
or inclined tube, forced or natural circulation, single or multi-drum,
sectional or box header, cross or parallel baffles, marine or sta-
tionary. Header boilers, using straight tubes are superseded by
curved-tube drum type. Natural circulation (by density difference)
of water is used with pressure upto 175 kgicm 2 . Pumps giving
controlled circulation, are often preferred on design delivering more
than 3,40,000 kgm of steam per hour at pressures above 100 kg'cm2.
(b) Boiler Furnaces-. The construction of boiler furnace varies
fromplain refractory walls to completely water cooled walls,
depending upon characteristics of fuel used and ash produced, firing
methods, nature of load demand, combustion space required, excess
air used, operating temperature, initial and operating cost. Water
walls are built of tubes of diameter from 25 mm to 100 mm variously
spaced, with or without fins or studs, and bare cr,witla different
thickness of moldable refractory on the inner face. Heat transfer
rates run from 50,000 to 150,000 B. Th. U. per holr cubic ft. of
surface. To meet these requirements of heat transmission, circu-
lation on the water side should be adequate, obtained by convection
or by pumps. Air cooled walls are no more preferred. Surrounding
312 VLUNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
the furnace, and the rest of the boiler, is the insulated casing which
may be finished in plastic or with a sheet-metal sheath. The boiler
is supported on its own structural steel with provision for expansion.
There are two methods offiring coal in boiler furnaces i.e. hand
firing and mechanical firing. Hand firing of coal is limited to small
or transient services (less than 4,500 kg of ream p€r 1cur where
the inefficiency of poor combustion control is acceptable. Stokers
give mechanical feeding of coal. Mechanical stoker receive fuel by
gravity, carry it to the furnace for combustion and after combustion,
discharge the ash at the appropriate point. The advantages of stoker
or mechanical firing over hand firing are given below:
(i) There is uniform feeding of fuel into the furnace.
(ii) There is better regulation and efficient combustion due to
easy control of firing.
(iii) Lobour cost is less.
(i) There is a possibility of use of poor grades of coal due to
better control.
(v) Combustion capacity is more.
Mechanical stokers are of two types namely over feeo stokers
and under feed stokers. In the over feed stokers, the fresh fuel is
added to the top of the burning fuel bed while in the under feed
stokers the fre's' h fuel is introduced from below the burning fuel.
Underfeed tokers are suitable for cooking type coals and run with
fuel bed thicknesses upto 60 cm. Travelling orhain grate stokers
are used for burning middle-western bituminous coals with fuel beds
less than 15 cm in thickness and grate travel rates of 30 to 60 cm
per minute. Spreader stokers, with dumping or travelling grates,
are suitable for a wide variety of coals using thin fires (5 to 7 cm).
Solid fuels can be used in a powdered form and burn like oil and
gases. The coal is first dried usually by the flue gases and then
ground to a fine powder in pulverised mill. The pulverised fuel has
the following advantages.
(i) It enables the boilers to operate for longer period at maxi-
mum capacity
(ii) Steam can be raised rapidly.
(iii) There is possibility of high rates of combustion.
(iv) Quantity of air required for combustion is less.
(v) Efficiency can be increased if fuel and air are adjusted
accurately.
313
t ND SUBSTATIONS
P OWER STAT1OS
low grade.
(vi) Fuel used may be of
(vii) Ash removing troubles are not more.
However the pulverised fuels have the following disadvantages:
Initial and running costs of pulverisation plant are high.
(i)
Higher thermal losses in the flue gases are caused by higher
(ii)
combustion temperatures
(iii) There is a risk of explosion.
These consist of groups of
(c) Superheater and Re-heaters.
tubes made of special steel (carbon steel for steam temperature up
to 950°F, carbon -molybdenum steel for steam temperature of 1050°F
and stainless steel for steam temperature of 1200°F) with an outside
diameter from 25 mm to 64 mm. Tube bundle location and
arrangement, with counter current, an'or parallel flow is dictated
type of firing, required steam temperature, and steam-
I b
tomperature characteristic. Tbe superheater tubes are heated
the heat of ccibustiufl gases duag their passage from the furnace
to he chimney.
ldiant superheater5 ad
Superheat ers are of two types . (i superheater is located ia he
ronv000fl superleat r. diant L. po the
furnace between the f,rnace water-walls, absorbs heat from
ves droopir
radiation and
bu.ing fuel through
characteristics—the temperatra of superheat falls with the
increase in steam output. Convection superheater is located well
back in the boiler tube bank, receives its heat entirely from Cue
racteriStjc5_t
gases through convection and gives rising
temperature of super-heat increase with the increase in steam out
Desir ed
ut. Convection superheater3 are more commonly used.
p
control of characteristic is obtained by
(i) proportioning and locating surfaces in series.
using internal dampers on boiler gas side.
(ii)
(iii) temp. rating by vater or
supplementary burners. Heat transfer rates of 10 to 12
(iv)
B.T.U. per hour per square ft per degree temperature difference are
representative.
The steam is superheated to the highest economical, tempera-
ture not only to increase the efficiency but also to have following
advantages:
Owing to its high internal energy, there is reduction in
(0
requirement of steam quantity fr a given output of energy which
reduces the turbine size.
WIRING. EATING AND COG.
(ii)
Superheated steam being dry, turbine blades remain dry
so the mechanical re sistance to the
flow
which increases ta efficeiicy -. ofstam over them is small
(iii)
There
to dryness is no or rosion and pitting at the turbine blades due
of steam.
(d) EconQmisers and Air
number of closely, pre-heaters 1 con sists of a large
spaced
diameter (about SO mm) co parallel tubes with thin walls and small
nnected by, headers or drums.
rate sometimes finned to increase the heat transfer The tubes
omiser and air p su rface Econ-
would p re-heater are used to recover a part of heat that
therwise be lost. These raise boiler efficiency lowering the
stack temperature and saving the fuel but involve extra cost of
in stallation and maintenance and additional
requ irement of floor
space. Either one or both may be used or they may
entirely, be omitted
Eco
nomisers recover heat from the flue gases by adding it
to the feed water on its way to the boiler, thus raising the temper-
ature of water usually without
ev
he sufficiently, pure which may notaporation
fo
The
feed water Should
Corrosion scales and cause internal
Air p
re-heaters recover the heat from the
it to the air suppijed for flue g ases by adding
co mbustion This raises the temperature
of the furnace gases, improves co
mbustion rites and efficiency ,
lowers the stack temperature thus theoyerLIl efficiency of the boiler and
is increasedr p reheaters are ofto types namely
re
generative types. The recuperative type uses a recup bank erative and
of straight
light gauge steel tubes 25 mm to 75 mm. in
the flue gases inside the tubes and di ameter usually with
air
types transfers the heat by using slowly outside The regenerative
of c o rrugated metal which moves r evoMng drum (1 or 2 m)
and cold air streams atr nately through the hot gas
(ii) Condensers . The con

densers
very low pressure at the exhaust are used
of turbines to to create a Suction at
P ermit expansion of
steam in the prime mover to a very low
efficiency is in creased The p ressure and thus the
con densers also
exhausted steam for use as feed water, airfaci litate in removal of
and
gases from steam when passing through them. non-condensable
Con densers are of two types. Thejet
type Condensers which type and
surface type. Jet
mix up steam and circulating water, are
limited to small ir4 ustrjal
app lications (1,000 kW.), where best
vacuum are not required (50 mm. to 125 mm. Hg
con abs).
densers, as the steam mixes with Cooling water, so In jet type
used as feed water. So thejet type ca
c ondensers being low in nnot be
are not used in modern power plants Surface cost even
con densers in which
steam and cooling mediums are separated by a surface, prevail in

large installations for best vacuum (12 mm. to 50 mm. Hg. abs.) and
condensate must be conserved.
Surface condensers use welded steel plate for the shell with cast
iron water boxes. Horizontal tube banks using 25 mm. diameter
nonferrous tubes and tube sheets prevail. Tubes are generally rolled
at both ends with a slight bowing or with a joint in the shell for
expansion. Straight tubes, rolled at one end and with a packing
ferrule at the other end, are used. For fresh water, tubes sheets are
commonly Munt.z or Admiralty metal, while tubes are brass, copper,
arsenical copper or aluminium brass. Tubes support plates are of
copper bearing steel. Divided water boxes and water flow reversal
arrangements facilitate in cleaning and maintenance. The con-
denser is attached to turbine by
(a) direct bolting to turbine exhaust flange (up to 20 MW).
(b) direct bolting to turbine exhaust flange with spring sup-
ports under the condenser.
(c) Solid support of condenser with expansion joint between
the turbine and the condenser.
(1-ii) Prime-Mouers. Steam prime movers are either r2CiprOCat-
ing engines, or turbines. Due to reciprocating motion steam engines
have become obsolete n thele days and steam turbines are usually
used as p-,-,me mo.er.s. Steam turbines give high speed (1,800 t
5,000 r.p.m.), maximum size (275 MW), minimum floor space, hulk
in weight, maximum efficiencies (80%) in large sizes, suitability for
highest steam pressures (350 kg/cm, steam temperatures (1,200
vacua (12.7 mm. mercury). All large units (above 1,000 kWj are
steam turbines.
According to the action of steam on moving blades, the st-earn
turbines are of two types namely impulse and reaction types. These
two types differ in working. In impulse turbines, the steam expands
in nozzles only and when passing over the blades, its pressure
remains constant. Thejetpasses over several rings ofmovingblades
until its kinetic energy is expanded. In reaction type turbines, the
steam does not expand in nozzles but expands as it flows over the
blades, the blades will, therefore, act also as nozzles. The expansion
of steam as it flows over the blades is adiabatic, any friction losses
between the steam and blades are converted into heat, which, in
turn will reheat the steam. The effect of this is to dry or superheat
the steam as it flows over the blades.
The final velocity of steam Will be extremely high if the steam
is expanded in a single nozzle from the boiler pressure down to the
316
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTJN(-
condenser pressure. If this jet is now passed over a single blade rinMm
and its kinetic energy is absorbed by this ring, it will be found tha-
the speed of this blade ring is too high for practical purpose. One o
the chief objects in steam turbines development has been to devis
of ove r coming this high speed of turbine wheels. No reduction gea
is required for the reaction type turbine because the speed beinj
relatively low.
The steam turbines used are of two types namely axial flow am
radial flow type according to the type of flow of steam. In axial flo'
type turbines, the steam flows over the blades in a direction paralle
to the axis of the wheel. In radial flow turbines, the blades are—
arranged radially so that the steam enters at the blade tip nearest—
the axis of the wheel and flows towards the circumference
be: The steam turbines ha ving horizontal shaft are used. These ma
(i) condensing or non-condensing.

(ii) single shaft or multiple shaft.
(iii) single or multiple cylinder.
(iL) single or double flow.
(v) extracting or non extracting.
(Li) controlled (automatic) or uncontrolled extraction.
(vii) reheat or non-reheat.
(viii) throttle or multiple nozzle governed.
(ix) constant or variable speed.
(x) single or double shell.
As regards the size of units to be installed, it depends upon—
several factors such as capital cost, spares required, load factor and
he peak load of the system.
(iv) Water Treatment Chamber. The boilers require clean and
soft water for their long lives. The water taken from a river or from"-
other source of supply is stored in storage tanks. Water is suckec-
from storage tanks by pumps, purified and softened by chemicah
and then delivered to the boilers by means of feed pumps.
(v) Control Room. In case of remote control, the control roorr,
houses all the necessary measuring instruments for each panel of
alternator and feeder, synchronising gear, protective gear, auto-
matic voltage regulator, co mmunication arrangement etc. A sepa-
rate battery room and a motor generator set or a rectifier is also
installed for supplying to make and trip circuit of switchgear. In
case of outdoor switchgear, normally compressed air is used for
operation.
-
cpx rT,,,.
H WATE,R P.M :I
I OFFICE I
I4 CH
yQD
&
lTRAS-
VCRWER
0 tJ
a
0
454 C-,
FAT At,O 10
rX
LII P
F'g. 11.2. The La y out of Thermal Power Station.

( jl Switch Yard. The switchvard houses tran mcrs, circuit
breakers and switches for connecting and disconnecting the tran
formers and circuit breakers. It also has lightning arrter for t
protection of the power station against lightning stroKes.
The supply to the bus-bars from alternators is taken thruu
transformers and circuit breakers of suitable ratings.
The power station over and above this requires workshop, store.
labour canteen, library and also residential accommodation for the
operating staff.
Example 1. A thermal station has an overall ef/ciency of2 IC/c
and 01kg of coal is htirnt per kWh of energy generated. Determine
Ma calorific value of coal.
(S.BT.E. Final Year. (Elec. Engg.) 1973 Supp.)
Solution. Heat produced by 0.7 kgm of coal
Output in heat LflitS=
4,095 k.
Overall efficiency 0.21
Since lkWh = 860 Ic. cais.

Heat produced by I kgm ol coil
= 5,850k. cais
=
Hence calorific val ,.Ie of coal = 5,850 k cals/kgm, Ans.

18
Example 2. Determine (he thermal efficiency of q power station

and it coal bill per annum from the following data
Maximum demand 20,000 kW
Load factor 40%
Coat con,surnption 1.93 lb /unit generated
Boiler efficiency 85%
Turbine efficiency 90%
Price of 1 ton of coal Rs. 30
[AJI.I.E. Sec. B. NOV. 19651
Solution. Thermal efficiency of powri.tation
= Boiler efficiency x Turbine efficiency
= 0.85 x 0.9 = 0.765 or 76.5% Ans.
Units generated per annum = Maximum demand in kW. x load factor x 8,760
= 2O,cX)OXO.4X87607008X lO4kWh.
Coal consumption per annum = 7,008 x iOx t1.93

2,240 ons
7008x 104 x 1.93x30
Cc' 'Icojl/nrn =Rs. =Rs.18,1l,443 An
40
2. Hydro-electric Power Stations. For hydro-electric power
station; water collected in natural lakes and reservoirs at high
altaude is utilised or water maybe artificially stored by constructing
darns across flowing streams. The pressure head of water or kinetic
energy of water is utilised to drive the water turbines coupled to the
alternators which generates the electric power.
Dua to limited reserves of fuels and increasing demand of
eiectric power the hydro-electric power stations are becoming more
and more popular in these days. The hydro-electric power stations
are generally located in hilly areas, where dam can be built easily
and large reservoirs can be obtained.
The operating cost of hydro-electric power plant is about Rs. 200
per kW of insta!led capacity and Rs. 0.01 per unit generated.
The h ydro-e l ectric power stations have the following advan-
tages u isadvantages.
Advantages. (i) No fuel other than water is the source ofener'
required in it.
(ii) It can be put into service instantly
NO Cheapest in operation and maintenance.
POWEP STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 319
(j) -uch power stnticcl s have constant speed and hence con-
stant frequency as very acute governing is possible with water
turbines.
(v) No standby losses are there.
(vi) Such plants have got longer life.
(vii) It is very neat and clean plant as there is no smoke or ash.
(viii) Highly skilled engineers are required only at the time of
construction but later a few experienced persons will be sufficient.
(ix) In addition to generation of electric power such plants also
serve other purposes such as irrigation and flood control.
Disadvantages. (i) Large area is required for its installation.
(ii) It has very high construction cost.
(iii) Very longer period is required for its erection i.e. from 5 to
7 years.
([v) Transmission lines cost more.
(v) The power supply may be effected due to long dr y seasons.
Factors to be considered for the location of hydro-
electric power stations.
The following factors should be taken into consideration for the
location of hydroelectric power stations.
' such power stations should be built where there is ade-
(juate water available at good head or huge quantity of water is
flowing across a given point as generation ofeleetric power depends
upon the potential energy of water fall or kinetic energy c.fflowing
stream.
vii) Convenient accommodation for the erection of a-dam or
reservoir must be available because storage of water in a suitable
reservoir at a height or building of dam across the river is essential
in order to have continuous and perennial supply during the dry
season.
(iii) The reservoir must have a large catch mentarea to maintain
the level of water in the reservoir required in the dry season.
(iv) The land should be of reasonable cost and rock y to with-
stand the weight of large building and heavy machinery.
(v) Adequate transportation facilities -must be availahle
nearby.
(vi) There should be possibility of stream diversion at the time
of construction
E1ernenL f a Hydroelectric Plant. An hydro-electnc plant
consists ofa diversion dam, a conduit to carry the water to the water
-22
320
wheel, the powerhouse 4nd its equipment, and a tail race. The size,
location, and type of each of these essential elements depend upon
the topography and geological conditions and the amount of water
to be used. The height to which the dam is to be built is usually
limited by the extent of flowage damage. Pondage may have great
value, particularly for peak load power plants. The spillway section
ofthe dam must belong enough to pass safely the maximum amount
of water to be expected. Likewise the abutments and other short
structures must be built to withstand successfully the greatest
freshet conceivable on the river.
(i) Darns. The dam maybe either impounding (or non-overflow

type) or spillway (or flow type). In case of non-overflow type dams,
means are provided to release excess flow, by a separate spillway
section by regulating valves, or by large spillway gates. Non-
overflow type dams are earth dams, rock-fill dams, and high-
reservoir arch dams.
(ii) Spillway. This is constructed to act as a safety valve. It

discharges the overflow water to the down stream side when the
reservoir is full. These are generally constructed of concrete and
prc.vi.1ed with v,atr discharge opening shut off by metal control
gates. By changing the degree to which the gates are opened, the
discharge of the head water to the tail race can be regulated to
maintain the water level in the reservoir.
(iii) Intakes. It may consist of canals, flumes, pipe lines, and

pressure turthels with or without fore bays, which provide a small
amount o(reservoir capacity to take care ofvariations in load. When
long flow lines in close conduits are used and a forebay cannot be
constructed, surge tanks are usually provided to care for the fluc-
tuations in load.
- (iv) Penstocks. Penstocks are built of steel or reinforced con-

crete. Steel penstocks are almost always welded on the longitudinal
seam. The circumferential seam may be welded also. It is a closed
conduit which connects the forebay or surge tank to the scroll case
of the turbine. In case of medium head power plants, each unit is
usually provided with its own penstock. In case of high head plants,
a single penstock is frequently used, and branch connections are
provided at the lower end to supply two or more units. In long
penstocks great care is to be taken to protect the conduit against
water hammer. The thickness should be adequate to bear both the
normal hydrostatic pressure and also the sudden surges both above
and below normal caused by fluctuations in load and by emergency
con di!ons.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS
321
(v) Values and Gates. In low head plants gates are needed at
the entrance to the turbine casing to close the flow of water for
inspection and repairs Individual hoist-operated gates are provided
in cases where frequent shutdowns are required and where the time
available for inspection is limited. Other plants use stop gates or
stop logs placed in sections by means of travelling crane. While using
medium or longer length penstocks or a common penstock for more
than one unit, it is necessary to install valves at or near the entrance
to the turbine casing. These are usually of the butterfly or pivot type
for low and medium heads.
(vi) Rocks. These are built up from long, flat bars set vertically
or nearly and spaced in accordance .vith the minimum width of water
passage through the turbine. The clear space between the bars
varies from 25 mm or 40 mm to 150 or 200 mm on very large
installations. These are used to prevent the ingress of floating and
other material to the turbine. In some cases where large diameter
turbines are used, the racks are omitted, but provision is made for
skimmer walls or booms to prevent ice and other material from
entering the unit.
- -'7
iKg
- I
IE
ir[Lr_
T - % I
L
'.t.
Fig. 11.3. The Hvdrn . Electrjc Schemes
(cji) Tail Race, The wtr after having done its usual'work
in
the turbine is discharged to the tail race which may lead it to the
same stream cr to another one
(viii) Dra ft Tubes
An air tight pipe of suitable diameter con
nectod to the runner outlet and conducting water down from the
wheel and discharging it under the suace of the water in t h e t at
322 WrnrNG, ESTEMATING AND COSTING
race is known as draft tube. It is provided to increase the head acting

on the water wheel.
(xi) Prime Mover or Water Turbines. According to the type of
flow of water, the water turbines used as prime movers in hydro-
electric power stations, are of four types, namely (i) axial flow tur-
bines having flow of water along thehaft axis such as propeller and
Kaplan turbine (ii) inward radial flow turbines having flow of water
along the radius such as Francis turbine (iii) t angentialfiow turbine
having flow of water along the tangential directions such as Pelton
wheel and (iv) mixed flov (radial inlet and axial cutlet) such as
Francis turbine. According to the action of water on moving blades,
water turbines are of two t y pes viz impulse and reaction type tur-
bines. In the impulse type turbine the entire pressure d water is
converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the jet thus formed
drives the wheel. Whereas in reaction type turbine, the water
pressure combined with its velocity, work on the runner.
According to the name of the originator water turbines are of
three types, L'2 Felton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
The Pelton Wheel. It is an impulse type turbine and is suitable
or high hean and low flow plants. It consists cf a rotor eq.iipped
with elliptical shaped buckets along the periphery of the turbine.
The rotor starts turning due to impact of the jet on the buckets. The
quantity of water discharged by the nozzle is controlled by con-
trolling the nozzle opening by means of needle placed in the tip of
nozzle. The movement of the needk is controlled by the governor.
Deflectors are used for control of speed in addition to the needle.
Francis Turbine. In these turbines water glides over the blades
of a turbine with a small and fairly constant velocity and exerts a
pressure varying from maximum at the top to a small value a tF.:
bottom. The water flows radially inward towards the centre. The
guide blades ofthe turbine are each pivoted about an axis in parallel
with the turbine axis so that quantity of water entering the turbine
may be regulated by turning them simultaneousy in one direction
or the other. It is a reaction type turbine and is suitable for low to
medium head and waterfiowplants. Itessentay consistsofguide
apparatus" consisting of an outer ring of stationary guide blades
Fixed to the casing of the turbine and an "inner ring" consisting of
rotatingblades forming a wheel era runner. Like Pelton wheel their
motion is automatically controlled by governors.
The full load efficiency of this type of turbine is about 92 per
cent. Francis type turbines can be constructed in vertical or hori-
zontal forms. The horizontal constructions are more accessible
and have higher speed but for large machines generally vertical
construction is preferred.
Kaplan Turbine. In this type of turbine the drawback of con-
siderahle loss at low loads due to rotary motion of water in Francis
turbine is overcome and uniform ernciency ataliloads is maintained.
It is also a reaction type turbine and has gate and governing
mechanism similar to that of a Francis turbine. The difference
between Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine is that in the former
runner, the water strikes the turbine blades axiall y wherea3 the
latter receives water radially. This type of turbine is suitable for low
head and large flow plants. Kaplan turbine gives high speed than
ordinary Francis turbines. The characteristic features of Kaplan
turbine is that the gate opening and blade angle are adjusted
simultaneously by the governing mechanism. Its efficiency is about
90 per cent at all loads.
Propeller Turbine. In these turbines, the blades are casted
integrally with the hub. It is an axial flow turbine and has got no
provision for changing the runner blade angles while the turbine is
in motion. Its efTciency is about 92 per cent at full load and drops
to 65 per cent at half full load.
Classification of Hydro-electric Plants.
On thebasisof operating head, Hydro-electric power plants may
be classified as (i) low head (ii) medium head, and (iii) high he:il
plants. Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low,
medium and high heads but the head below 60 metres is con sid
as low he, the head above 60 metres and below 300-metres is
considered ai medium head and the head above 300 metres is
considered as high head.
F 0F, ES 4Y
04 H
PENSTOCK POWER H05E wfT.li
S..'.
Fig. 11.4. ArrangorQnt of Low head 11vdro-eectdc Plant.

In low head plants Kaplan turbines are used. In these plants a
pipe of large diameters and short lengths are required. Head being
low, and large quantity of water is required for a given output.
Structure of such plants is extensive and expensive. Generators
used in such plants are of low speed and large diameters.
W IRING, ES TIMATING ANt) COSTING
OPEN CHANNEL - -
POWER HOU
GROSS HEAD
STREAM DEE
TAIL
CACE
TUR B I NE 1 1 -7,
Fig. 11.5. The Medium Head Plant.
Medium head hIycJroEectrjc Plants. In such plants horizontal

shaft Francis turbines are used. The characteristic of medium head
plant may be either of high head or of low head plants according to
its working head nearer to high lead or low head.
If/glz hI&'ad Jfvdro . Elcctrjc Plants.

For the i nstallation of such
a site may be chosen,
where a stream descending a steep
Lit(-ral vnlle can be darnmd and a reservoir for storage of water
forne(j A pressure tunrd is constructed between reservoir to
ol--e hous 0
ti at the stat f penstock to carry water from reservoir
aive hous Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just
between the start of p
ertoek and the valve house so that the
.erity of water hammc. F rt0n p
of sudden closing of flxed gates of enstock can be reduced in case
s:ddn increase in derna , i L. surg the water turbine \en there is
fr i whh the turbine can draw 'water e tank sees as a ready reservoir
consists of main sluice valves and tempor arily. The valve house
a utomatic isolating valves which
operate on bursting of p
to penstock enstock and cut off further supply of water
Penstocks are steel pipes and carry the water from the
valve house to the turbines
In such plants Pelton wheels or jet impulse turbines are

emplo y ed The g
enerators employed are of high speed and small
diameter. Penstocks are of large length and of comparatively
smaller Cross section.
Hy dro-plant Auxiliaries
The auxiliaries required for
electric plant are governor, cranes lubricating oil pumps, airhydro-
pressors, high pressure oil pumps for ge com-
system, fans, cooling water pumps, drainage nerator
and motor jacking
gate hoists, valves, battery charging units, CO de wateringpumps ,
2 cylinders etc. These
auxiliaries are generally electrically driven Water is used to cool
the bearings of the turbines and g
enerators
and is circulated through water pumps. Air and the transformer
co
a supply ofair under pressure for operation of mpressors maintain
gener atorbrakes and
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSFATIONS 325
other uses in the power station. Fans are used for ventilation of the
turbine and switchgear room or for cooling transformers. Oil pumps
iandie transformer oil through the cleaning and cooling system.
Cranes are used to lift heavy parts or replace them in position during
repairs. Water pumps are used for unwatering of turbine pits durir
repairs or inspection. Storage batteries are used to supply low
voltage d.c. power for switchgear control. These batteries are con-
stantly charged through a battery charging equipment using a
rectifier or motor generator set. Carbon-di-oxide cylinders and other
fire extinguishing equipment are used in case the fire breaks out.
The supply for the above auxiliaries is usually obtained from the
station transformer, which is installed solely for this purpose.
qESERVOIP(DAN
( DGE'\
I TANK
PE5SUP
HAPThEL VALVE HOUSE
PENS OCK
POWER HOUSE
Fig. 11.6. The System for High Head Plant.

Example LA h ydro-electric generating station is supplied fror
a reservoir of capacity 20 million cubic metres at a head of 180
metres. Calculate the total electrical energy generated in kWh if the
hydraulic efficiency be 0.8 and the electrical efficiency 0.9.
(A.M.LE. Sec. B. Hydro-Power Engg. Nov., 1967)
Solution. Volume of water. V = 20 x 106 cubic metres
Weight of water available, \V = 20 x 106 x , 000 = 20 x 10 kgra
Head of water. H = I 80 metres

Total electrical energy generated
= W x H x TI, x fl
= 20 x iO x 180 x 0.8 x 0.9 kgrn

326
WIRING, ESTIMT[NC AN!) COSTING
A Nw-rn 0: j üu1 or \2U-secs
2,592x 10 9 x 9.81
=
1 , 000 x 3,600
7O,63, 200 kWh Ans.

Example 2.
Determine the power that can be generated in a
hydro-station having an available head of 40 metres, a catchment
area of6 x lU sq. metres. The rainfall per annum is 1.5 metres. Given
that 65% of the total rainfall can be collected. Assume the following
efficiencies
Penstock 95%; turbine 85% and g enerator 90%
[S.B.T.E UP Final Year (Elec. Engg.) 19731

Solution. Cachmcnt area, A = 6x 10' m2
Annual rain fall, F = 1.5 metres
Volume of water available per aJlnu-r
r=A <F x
=6x103x1x 0 6 555> 1(
\Vh€e k is theyield factor to allow
forr unoff and loss byoperic
:nd is eq9a1 to 0.65
Weight of water available per annum,
=585x 1O'x 1000 kg]
585 x 10' kg (Since 1m 3 of water weighs 1 COO kg

Weight of water available per second
585 x 10'
W -18,57lkg
8760 x3.600
Head of water,H =4Ometres
Average power in kW = ____

1000
185 71x40X981x095x 0.85 x 0.9

1000
= 5340 Ans.
Example S. An hydra-electric station is supplied from a

catchment area of 150 square km with an annucl rainfall of 150 cm.
and effective head of 300 metres. Assume a yield factorof 5O'lc, overall
efficiency of 809c and a load factor of 40lc, calculate the available
con tiruouS power and the rating of the generator installed.
[D.T.E. Final Year. (Elec. Engg.) 19591
Solution.
Volume of water available per annum = Catchment area x rain fall
r 150x 106 x 1.5=225x106 m2

Volume of water utilised = Volume of water available x yield factor
=225Xl0'XO.5=2.5xl06m
Weight of water utilised per annum, W = 112,5 x 106 x 1, COO kg
= 112.5x IO kgrn
since 1m 2 of water weighs 1,CO0k
Head of water, H = 300 metres
Stored energy in catchment area = WI!

= 112.5 x 10'x 300kg-rn
= 3,375 x 10' 0 x 9.81 Joules or wart-secs
Total electrical energy available = stored energy x overall effici&y
=3,375 x 1 0,0 = 9, gl xO.8ouleS or watt-se-CS
26,487 x 10° waft-secs
26,487 x lOb kWh

3,600 x 1, Ci
=73.6x lO'kWh
Total energy available
8,760
32
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COMING
Installed capacity of the plant = Average load 8,400

load factor 04
= 21,000 kW Ans..
3. Diesel Power Stations. Diesel power stations are installed
where supply of coal and water is not available in sufficient quantity
or where power is tobegenerated in small quantity or where standby
sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospitals,
telephone exchanges, radio stations and cinemas. One or more
diesel engine driven generators may be installed in a medium size
power stations either to supply the peak loads for small duration or
for seasonal loads. These may be used for supplyirg power to aux-
iliaries in the event of failure of the main working units in a steam
plant. The advantages and disadvantages of diesel-electric power
stations are follows
Advantages. (i) Such plants are very simple in design and
installation.
(u) The efficienc y of such plants at part loads is not rcduce ' i so
much as that of a steam plant.
(iii) Such plants give good response to varying loads :ithotit
any difficulty.
(it') Such-plants occupy less space because of using minimum
auxiliaries.
(v) Low cost of building and civil engineering works.
(vi) The standby losses are less.
(vii) Less quantity of water required for cooling purpose.
(viii) Such plants can be started and put on load without wasting
any time.
(ix) The overall capital cost including installation per unit of
installed capacity is lesser in comparison to steam plant.
(x) Being simpler in operation such plants requires lesser
operating and supervising staff as compared to that for steam
plants.
Disadvantages. (1) Due to high cost of diesel oil as fuel, the
operating cost is very high.
(ii) Maintenance and lubrication cost is also high in comparison
to other plants.
(iii) Diesel plants are unable to supply overloads continuously
whereas steam plants can work under 25 17c overload continuously.
(iv) These units cannot be constructed in lar ze because of

limited capacity.
Diesel Plant Elements. A diesel-electric power plant consists
of the engine proper and the auxiliary equipment as given below.
(i) Engine air intake system in.firg air filters, ducts,
supercharger (integral with the engine). The air required for com-
pression purposes in each cycle is supplied through the air filters to
prevent the dust particles from ingress to the cylinder.
(ii) Engine fuel system including fuel storage tanks, fuel
transfer pumps, strainers, heaters and connecting pipe work. The
fuel oil for the whole day is transferred to the all day tank by means
of transfer pump. The fuel is passed through the strain to remove
suspended impurities. From this tank the fuel oil is fired into the
engine through fuel filter and fuel injection pump.
(iii) Engine exhaust system including silencers and connecting
ducts. This system is provided to discharge the engine exhaust to
the atmosphere outside thebuilding. The exhaust manifold connects
the engine cylinder exhaust to the exhaust pipe provided with a
muffler in order to reduce pressure in the exhaust line and eliminate
most of the noise which may result if the waste gases are discharged
directly into the atmosphere. In case of diesel-electric, generating
units installed in steam plants, exhaust system also includes water
heaters and steam boilers to utilise the heat of waste gases.
(iv) Engine cooling system including cooling pumps towers or
spray ponds, water treatment or filtration plant and connecting pipe.
For cooling of engine cylinder, the cooling water is passed through
the jacket. The water used for cooling engine cylinder is softened
by water treatment or water filtration plant to avoid formation of
scales etc. in it. Hot well is provided in the surge tank to make a
provision of jacket water.
(v) Engine lubricating oil system including lubricating oil
pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers, purifiers and connecting pipe work.
The lubricating oil is drawn from the sump by means of a pump and
is passed through a strainer and filter. Usually the lubricating oil
is hot when drawn from the sump, if it is not, it should be heated,
first before passing through the filters, to increase its viscosity and
make the filtration easy. The oil is then cooled through a heat
exchanger and then sent into engine.
(ui) Engine starting system including battery, starter, com-
pressed air supply etc.
Small sets are usually started manually by handles but for sets
330
WIRING EST IMATING AND COSTING
WY?KSHGO
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LOADING
BAY
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LU Ili 417F , ' I,
LJ L
V) GLn
STORES
L_J /
.' .. z•.
COMPRESSORS
WATER COOLING ___
Pump =
HOT WELL WATER FUEL
OIL PUMP TO
COOLING STORAGE SERVICE
TOWERS TANKS O.H. TANKS
Fig. 11.7. The Layout of Diesel Plant
of large capacity say above 75 kW, tho compressed air is required
to be sent into the engine for starting purpose. Ba
can also be used for starting purposes. ttery driven motors
Example. A diesel Power station has fuel Consumption of 0.25

kg. per kWh, the calorific value o
Estimate the oerall eff-iciency offthe oil being 10,000 k.cals per kgm.
the power station.
Soutjo When output = 1 kWh = 860 K. cals
= fuel consumption per kWh output x calorfic value of fuel

0.25 x 10,000K. cis = 2,500K. cals
Overall efficiency = 860
input lOOX100=34.4%Ans.
4. Nuclear Power Stations. The nuclear power station has
been developed due to attention of scientists towards the peaceful
applications of atomic energy. The first atomic power plant was
commissioned in U.S.S.R. on June 27, 1954 and after that a number
of atomic power plants have been commissioned in many countries
like U.S.A., Canada, Great Britain, Japan and France. In our country
also two atomic power plants are working The first one is Tarapur
Atomic Power Station and the other is Rana Partap Atomic Power
in Rajasthan. The atomic energy commission has plans to generate
2,700 MW of electricity from nuclear power stations by 1978-79 To
generatestates.
various 2,700 MW some more stations have yet to be installed
in
According to the atomic energy commission the
gen eration from
the coal based station located with in 80 km of the coal mines is
cheaper than that from nuclear power plant. The most Suitable area
PC) V; Lit STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 331
for nuclear stations are Western U.P., Northern and Western

Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. According to experts of the atomic
erl. era corrmisnn power generation from 1,000 MW nuclear sta-
tion will be one paisalunit cheaper than the coal based power station.
A 1,000 MW power station will feed 560 crate units/year into the
system excluding the spinning and cold reserve. The saving in the
energy bill of nuclear power station will be Rs. 5.6 croes peryear.
The basic requirements for the location of a nuclear power
station (i) The adequate supply of water for cooling should be
available (ii) adequate land away from habitation (iii) Safety of the
area is essential from the danger of floods and (iv) accessibility of
site by rail and roads.
Fuel used. The main fuels used to produce the atomic energy
7
are Uranium (U), Thorium (Th ) and Plutonium (PU). It has
y
been estimated that uranium alone contains far more energ than
all the world's resources of coal and petroleum put together.
Fig. below shows a flow diagram of a nuclear power station.
BUS BARS -i-I IISOlATOR
-
\ EXCHANGER C8 ITT'
7
HEAT
STEAM 'ISOLATOR
AToMIc I t
Ho T
STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
IN ALTERNATOR
EXHAUST STEAM
PUMPL-NDR
WATER
PUMP FEED
METAL
COLD
cCCQLG \TowER
RIVER OR CANAL
Fig. 11.8. System of Atomatic Power Station.
The above metals become unstable and transformed to metals
of lower atomic weights like silicon, nickel etc. by Fission Process.
The splitting of 1 kg of Uranium (U) atoms yields 25 x 10' kWh
in heat form, which when conveyed to gas turbine or steam turbine
through molten metal and heat exchanger results in about 6.5 X
lO
kWh of electrical energy. Thus energy obtained by fission of 1 kg of

32 IJNG, ESILMATINC, AND COST[NG
uranium is roughly equivalent. tw Jiat obtained by burning about

2,500 tonnes of high grade coal.
By Fission Process, in an atomic rca:tor, when the atoms of
Uranium or other similar metals of large atomic weight are broken
into metals of lower atomic weight, the tremendous amount of heat
energy produced is extracted by pumping fluid or molten metal like
iqnid sodium or gas through the pile. The heated metal or gas is
the allowed to exchange its heat to the heat exchanger by circulation.
in heat exchanger, the gas is heated or steam is generated which
are utilised to drive gas turbine or steam turbine coupled to an
alternator, thereby, generating electrical energy.
Characteristics of Nuclear F',ecr Planes. (i) These plants are
most economical in large capacity. The capital cost of such power
plants is Rs. 3,000 per kWexcluding the investment on fuel process,
which is about Rs. 500 per kW.
(ii) There is no transportat i ,' )-.l difficulty as the quantity of fuel
required is very small.
1w; The prmary distributu,n ccst is less because these plants
can be located near the load c-o.
(ic) Such plants are ye r L;scful to be employed as base load
p lants because the running cost is quite low and is independent of
ioading of the station though the capital cost is very high.
L') The oupot control is €-'termely flexible.
5. The Gas Turbine Power Plant. The gas turbine utilises
the heat developed by the combustion of gaseous and liquid fuels.
The principle is that a turbo-compressor compresses pure air or air
and gas to a high compression and then it is burnt in the combustion
chamber where combustion takes place at a constant pressure and
the products of combustion expands dQwn to atmospheric pressure
in the turbine. Gas turbine sizes varyfrom 40 to 30,000 M.
Advantages of gas Turbine Power Plant. 1. simplicity and
flexibility of design and installation, 2. compactness, 3. low initial
cost, 4. require small building space 5. require little cooling water.
6. The delivery and installation time for these power plants is much
less than for steam plants. 7. The gas turbines can be started quickly
and can be put to share full load within a few minutes. 8. Efficiency
can be improved considerably by using heat economy devices. 9.
Maintenance costs are lower than for diesel power plants. 10.
Petroleum distillate fuels are quite suitable though expensive. 11.
Natural gas is also a very suitable fuel and cheap as it is an ideal
source of power for gas turbines.
POWER€TATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS
of gas turbines in that

Disadvantages. 1. The main drawba ck
coal or heavy residual petroleum can not be easily used in the
combustion chamber and life ofthe chamber is considerably reduced
due to high temperature sodium-vanadium attack. 2. The fuel costs
in such plants are usually higher than in other plants.
It can be used for driving
Application of Gas Power Plants. (i)
generators and supplying peak loads in other types of power plants.
It can be used for supplying mechanical drive for auxiliaries
(ii)
(iii) It can be used for operating as combination plants with
conventional steam boilers.
A simple gas turbine
Elements of Simple Gas Turbine Plant.
plant consists of the reaction typenon-condensing turbine, a com-
pressor mounted on the same shaft or couped to the turbine, the
combustion chamber, generator coupled to turbine itself and
auxiliaries such as starting device, auxiliary lubrication pumps, oil
system, fuel system and the duct system etc. The air is sucked in
by the compressor from the atmosphere and discharges it at high
pressure and temperature into the combustion chamber and burns
in the stream of air supplied from the compressor outlet. A pal f
the air is delivered ahead of the burning fuel to cool the very hot
about 3,000° F) and brings
combustion products (at temperature of
' t 1350F which is allowed to enter
them to a temperature ofabou blades.
the turbine without causing damage to the first few rows of
The gases ensuing are then expanded in the turbine resulting in
motion of rotor and finally discharged to the atmosphere at a tern-
about 1000°F. The power developed, in the turbine dae
perature of
to expansion of gases is sufficient to drive the compressor, generator
and auxiliaries.
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
AIR
OUTLET
jUEL 4
OIL __-1 COUPLING
C3JP.-NG Lj
TO R
CCMPRESSOP TURBINE
Fig. 11.9. The system for Gas Turbine Cycle.

The overall efficiency of such plants is very low (about 20) as
c). However, by
compared to that ofa diesel engir.e plant (about 35 7
using regenerator, intercooler and reheater, the efficiency of the
plant can be improved.
334 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COMING
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POWER STATIONS AND S!JPST ' 335

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336
WIRING, ESTLMAT1NG8JW COSTING
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Regenerator is usually of shell and the tube construction. The

exhaust gases are made to flow inside the nest of tubes while air
flows outside the tubes in the shell in counterfiow and is heated up
by the heat given out b) the exhaust gases. Thus the regenerator
utilises the heat of exhaust gases to heat the compressed air before
it is sent to the combustion chamber which reduces the fuel
combustion of the plant and improves thermal efficiency of the cycle.
However, for short time operation such 'as peak loads, the cost of
regenerator may not justify its use in gas cycle. The inter cooler is
another heat exchanger which cools the partly compressed air to
reduce volume and increase density. Intercooling improves the
thermal efficiency, and reduces the size of turbine and compressor
for the given output. Reheater is used to reheat the gases after
partial expansion in the turbine so that its further expansion yields
more work.
Sub-Stations
1.Introduction. The sub-station maybe defined as assembly
of apparatus which transforms the characteristics of electrical
energy from one form to another, say for example, from alternating
current to direct current and from one voltage to another.
It has already been said that the a.c. electrical eiergy is gen-
erated at low voltage but for transmission the voltage is stepped up.
Similarly the consumers do not use high voltage and so the same
must be stepped down to low voltage. The stepping up and stepping
down of voltage is done in the sub-stations.
As already explained that it is economical to transmit electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. This form of energy is
converted into d.c. in the substation where required.
2. Classification of Substations. The substation can be
classified as follows:
(a) In accordance with the service. In accordance with the
service performed by them, the substations can be of following types:
(i) Static. In this type of substations static equipments to
change the characteristics of electrical energy are used. So in these
substations the voltage of the a.c. energy is changed.
(ii) Converting. In this type of substations the a.c. energy is
changed to d.c. form of energy.
(b) In accordance with the service voltage. Usually these
are alternating current substations. The various types are given
below:
(i) Extra high voltage transmission substation. In this subst-
338
ation, the voltage is transformed to extra-high voltage (above 66

1(V) for the purpose of transmission of electrical energy.
(ii) Distribution Substation. In this substation the voltage is
stepped down to low tension i.e. 400 volts for supplying the users.
(iii) Industrial Substation. The big industrial consumers, who
need bulk supply are fed at high voltage viz. 11 Ky
or 66 KV. The
voltage is stepped down at the substation installed in theirpremises.
These substations are known as industrial substations.
(iv) Substation for Power Factor Correction
. Due to line
inductance, the power factor at the end of the transmission line
decreases. To improve the power factor, it is necessary to install the
synchronous condensers at the end of the line. Sucii installations
are known as power factor correction substations.
(v) Frequency Changing Substation.
Sometimes for utilization
purposes, different frequencies are to be used than the normal
generation frequency. Such substations which convert frequency are
known as frequency changing substations
c) In accordance with mounting.
(i) Indoor Type Substations.
The substations consist ofa series
of open and enclosed chambers or compartments The main equip-
ments needed for this type of sub-station are arranged in these
compartments. The chamber space in which the equipment of any
one main bus bar connection is mounted, - as a whole, is called as a
cell, cubicle or compartment
Such Substations are usually erected for a voltage upto 11000

volts but can be erected for 33000 volts and 66000 volts. When the
surrounding atmosphere is contaminated with impurities suith as
metal corroding gases and fumes, conductive dust etc.
According to con struction, these types of sub-station are further
subdivided into:
(i) Substations of the integrally built type—In
which the
apparatus is installed on site. In these substations th2 cell struc-
tures are constructed with concrete or brick.
(ii) Substations of the composite built up t y
pe—In these sub-
stations, the assemblies and prefabricated parts are assembled on
site within a substations switchgear room. The compartments of
these sub station take form of metal cabinets or enclosures, each of
which contains the equipment of one main connection cell. Within
the cabinets or enclosures, an oil circuit breaker, a load interrupter
switch, one or more voltage transformers are mounted
POWER STATIOaAND SUBSTATIONS
339
(iii) Unit W factory fabricated substations and metal clad
switch Boards —in such type of substations, the equipments are
built in e l ectridengineei-jng workshops and are shifted to site of
installation fulpre-assembled. After in
stallation, only connections
to the incomingad outgoing power circuits are required to be made.
Cubicles for untype switch boards or substations take the form of
fully enclosed octal clad cabinets.
Metal clad wbicles designed with withdrawable trucks and
divided into nu,er of compartments are usually used.
/ND/CAT! pJ, )
ME Ti
& pR 'IAN/SM
CC MPA
MEN T
BUSBA PS
COMPARTMENT
'OMPAPTMENT
OR CURRENT T/R
NO CABLE SEALING
OXE$
11.I. The system of metal clad cubicles designed

with several compartrnets
The compartments in which the cubicle is divided are control
c ompartment indicating and metering instrument, protective
device cornparten, circuit, breaker and operating mechanjsni
compartment niri bus-bars compartment current transfcrmer3
cable sealing boxes compartment.
To prevent any possible opening or closing of the disconnecting
devices when the circuit breaker is closed, these cubicles are
designed with interlocks which prevent the truck from beingrolled
in or withdrawn when the circuit breaker is closed.
(ii) Out-doorSubstations
These are ofto types
(a) Pole . mJed Substations.
These types of substations are
erected for distribution of power in localities. Single stout poles or
H-pole and 4-pole structures with suitable platforms are used for
transformers of capacity upto 200 KVA. These substations are
cheapest, simple and smallest in size. All the equipment is of outdoor
type and mounted on the supporting structure of H.T. distribution
lines. Gang operating (G.O.) switch is used for switching "ON" and
'OFF of H.T. transmission line. H.T. fuse unit is installed for
protection of H.T. side. To control L.T. side iron clad low tension
switch with fuses of suitable capacity is installed. Lightning
arrestors are installed over the H.T. line to protectthe transformers
from the surges. The substations is earthed at two or more places.
The maintenance cost of substation is low and by using a large
number of such substations in a town, it is possible to lay the dis-
tributions at a lower cost. But owning to increase in number of
transformers, total KVA is increased, no-load losses increases and
the cost per KVA thus increased.
(b) Foundation Mounted Substation. These types of substa-
tions are used for primary and secondary transmission. Since
equipments required for such substations are veryheavy, therefore,
site selected for these substations must have a good access for heavy
tran2port. Owing to exposed bus-bars and other associated equip-
ment the clearances and the spacings are not only to be governed
by the operating voltage but also from the consideration of the
encroachment from outside.
The switchgear consists of circuit breakers of suitable type on
bo:h the-sides but now a days, the circuit breaker is dispersed on
the incoming side of the modem transformers from economy paint
of view. The isolating switches thus solve purpose.
3. Transformer. It is an essential part of a voltage conversion
substation. The transformer consists of two coils which are insulated
with each other and are placed on steel core. The steel core is made
of laminations. The steel cores with windings are placed in a con-
tainer. Insulating material viz, transformer oil is placed in the
container which provides insulation between the windings on the
core and the container. This oil also radiates out the heat of the
windings. For radiating the heat, tubes are provided along with two•
side of the container. The oil after heating expands and circulates
in the tubes and the container. When the hot oil is in the tubes, th
heat is radiated to the surroundings. The terminals of the windings
are brought out into porcelain-oil filled or condenser type bushings.
Transformer can be classified in various categories as below,
depending upon the type of core or type of cooling employed:
(a) In accordance with the type of core. Transformer can
POWER STATIONS AND SUBST T IONS 341
be of the following types in accordance with the type of core.

(i) Core-type transformer. In this type of transformer cylin-
drical coils wound on a rectangular core as shown in Fig. 11.11 are
USA
It will be seen that the low voltage winding is placed near the
cores, it is because of the fact that insulation between the core and
winding can be easily provided.
CORE
/1/6/I VOLTAGE
INSULATION
LOW VOL LOW VOLTAGE
FNS(/(A T/O,V
h?6H
VOL TAGE
Wit/DING
Fig. 11.11. Section of core-type transformer.

(ii) Shell-type transformer. In Fig. 11.12 the section of the core
and winding of a shell-type transformer is shown.
LOW VOL rAGE
81611 VOLTS
WINDING
SHELL TYPt
CORE
INSt/LA NON
Fig. 11.12. Section of a shell-type transformer.

(b) In accordance with type of cooling. Transformer can
beef the following types in accordance with type of cooling employed:
(i) Oil-filled Self-cooled. In this type of transformer, the
assembled windings after putting on the core are placed in the
coctainer. The container is filled with high quality insulating oil.
The oil radiates out heat to the surroundings. On its two sides pipes
C 42 - •-- • - s' . : S. SC
are provided to increase the dissipation area. Only this type ofcooling
is adopted for outdoor transformer.
(ii) Oil-filled Water-cooled. In this type of transformer, coils
through which cold water is circulated, are placed inside the con-
tainer in which oil is placed. The heat from oil is conveyed through
the water circulating in the coil.
(iii) Air Blast type. This type of cooling is adopted in high
voltage transformer of 33 KV or above. The transformer core and
windings are placed in a container which is open at two opposite
sides. The air is blown through it with the help of blower for cooling
purposes.
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Outdoor Substa-
tions as compared to Indoor Substations. The outdoor sub-
station has the following advantages:
(i) The constructional work needed is much smaller than the
indoor substation.
(ii) Less quantity of building material is needed.
(iii) Installation cost of switchgear is low.
(w) Adequate space betwe, r two adjoining equipment can be
-t
provided without incurring much cost.

(v) Erection can Le completed in much less time.
(i) Whole of the equipment can be viewed, which makes fault
location easier.
(vii) The extension of the scheme is easier, whenever needed.
Following are the disadvantages of the outdoor substations.
(i) The dirt and dust deposit on the contact switches and thus
the maintenance cost increases.
(ii) The chances of leakage increase during rainy and snow
falling seasons and thus the switching operation becomes
difficult.
(iii) The installation is not safe from unauthorised entry of a
person.
5. Design of Substation. When a substation is to be designed
the following procedure should be adopted
1. Prepare a single line diagram of main electric connections
showing bus-bar arrangement, circuit breakers and reactors.
2. Decide the layout of the switch gear keeping in view
capacity of substation, method of control, number of feeders, rei-
ability, safety, flexibility, simplicity, space needed and cost.
3. The individual circuit should be so designed that there is a

minimum amount of risk involved in its failure.
4. The layout should be such that it should be possible to
isolate any section during fault without affecting the service to the
healthy section.
5. It should be possible to have an easy and safe access for
maintenance and inspection for different equipments.
6. In order to avoid serious troubles fi em spreading one unit
to the other, partitions orbarriers should be provided between units.
7. Reactors may be used to limit the short circuit current, so
that rupturing capacity of the circuit breaker becomes adequate.
8. In order to avoid very large capacity circuit breakers, the
current per circuit should be limited to about 2,000 A-
9. An arrangement should be made for extinguishing fire.
10. The earth conductor should be of sufficient cross-sectional
area to carr y the fault current in severe conditions.
11. A proper and very efficient automatic electrical protective
gear should be used.
12. Power cables should b :eparated fro control coves.
switch room and
13. In order to avoid fire hazard, fire proof
cable room should be provided
oil ha.dl.ng
14. An adequate arrangement should he made for
6. Main Connection Schemes
In substations and switch gears, the electric power is rucelved
and distributd by means of main bus-bars to which the equipment
is connected according to some given main circuit scheme.
In the substations, special types of appiratus like isolators (or
disconnecting switches), circuit breakers, instrument transformers
etc. are used for interconnecting high voltage power line,;, (overhead
or cable), with the main bus-bars.
Connections may be divided as incoming (power feeder con-
nections), tie (lines interconnecting two substations or switchgear
installations, each of which is fed through its own incoming feeder
connection), outgoing (feeder connections for feeding other subse-
quent substations or switchgear installations), voltage transformers
(connections made in a given substation), voltage transformer
connections for control and metering).
The main connection diagram drawn for a substation shows the
arrangements of all the circuits with its main bus-bars.
344
For simplicity and to facilitate reading, all the electrical con-

nections of a substation can be shown byi s i
is understood ti I
ngle-line diagram. It
all Le phases are connected identically.
The main elements of the ins
tallations ; circuit breakers, iso-
lators, fuses, instrument transformers power transformers etc. are
shown by standard graphical sy
mbols on the single line diagrams,
7. Graphical S y
circuit elemen t s onmbols for various types of apparatus and
substation main co nnection diagram.
(a) Circuit Elements
Symbols
(i) Bus-bars
(ii) Electrical connection or bus-bars or wires. -

-
(iii) Earthing (connection to earth).
(iu) Apparatus terminal or terminal in

an instaflatjon /
(v) Cable termination
(vi) Current transformer with one core
(vii) Current transformer with two cores

(two secondary windings)
(t..'iji) Fuse
(ix) Fixed resistor
(x) Variable resistor with sliding contact

and no break in the circuit
(xi) Plug in connection in with
drawable contact
arrangements and in apparatus.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 3.45
Circuit Elements Symbols
(xii) Lightning arrestor (general Symbol)
(xiii) Valve type lightning arrestor
(xiv) Gap fuse arrestor
Position
(b) Switching Apparatus
open closed
(i) Isolator (disconnecting switch)
(ii) Load-interrupter switch incorporating

with arc extinguishing device
(iii) Air circuit breaker with over current trip )\ CB ACB>

or release
(iv) High voltage circuit breaker (oil, air blast,

hard gas pLc.)
(v) Isolator with earthing knife mechanical

interlock
(c) Electric Machines and Transformers

(i) Three phase squirrel-cage induction
motor
06
346
. U
(ii) Three phase slip ring induction motor
(iii) D.C. Gnerar
U
(iv) Three phase synchronous generator
(u) Three phase Sync

hronous generator,
simplified representation
(Li) Single phase steel core transformer
$
(vii) Three phase steel core transformer with
star-delta connected windings ind
brought out neutral
i
(viii) Three-phase steel-core auto-

transformer with star connected wind -
ing '
(ix) Two single phase Voltage transformers

in Open delta (V) connections
69
4110*
(x) Three-phase three winding potential
transformer having two star connected
windings, each with therieutral brought
out and earth, and one winding con-
nected as an open delta.
347
1 c •. iie arA-igcmeflts
of various typical connections and of the simplest substation
schemes.
(i) Connection with isolator and fuse -
(ii) Connection with load interrupter switch

and fuse
\
(iii) Connection with bus isolator, circuit

breaker and line isolator
(iv) Connection with bus isolator, circuit

breaker and a line isolator having earthing \c
knives, the main connection also in cor-
porating a valve type lightning arrestor
connected through an isolator.
\
348 WIRING, ESTrM\T!NG AND COSTING
() Connections of typical forms of pc, ,-:r

transformers (11 KV)
C . 10 2)0 c1-------1'
kw
-- .-
I -
For Transformer
of Lower Ratings
RELAY
'•
OUTGOING
FEEDERS
(vi) For Transformer ci Higher Ratings
ft®E
CC REL A
n
TIME LAG RELAY
OUTGOING FEEDER OUTGOING FEEDER

INCOMING FEEDEQ-NO. I NO.2
ftii) Fig. shows Complete Single Line Main Connection Didgram

of An 11 KVSubstation.

9. (i) Insulators. The porcelain insulators used in substations

are of the post and bushing (through) type. They serve as supports
and insulation of the bus-bars.
A post insulator consists of porcelain body, cast iron cap and
flanged cast iron base, as shown in Fig. 11.13.
The hole in the cap is threaded so CAST IRON CAP
that the bus-bars are either bolted to .
the cap directly or fixed by means of a
bus-bar clamp. Post insulators are
available with round, oval and square
flanged bases and used for fixing with - FLANGED
one, two or four bolts. Each base has CAST IRON BASE
also an earthing bolt. Fig. 11.13. The post insulation
A bushing or through
-ROD insulator consists of porcelain-
WASHER shell body, upper and lower
locating washers used for fixing
MOUNTING
the position of bus bar or rod in
FLANGE the shell, and mounting flange
with holes drilled for fixing
POPM
bolts and supplied with an
stoo earthing bolt, as shown in Fig.
11.14.
Fig. 11.14. Shows hushing. For current rating above

2,000 A, the bushings are designed to allow the main bus-bars to be
passed through them directly.
Each phase of the bus-bars is coated with paint according to a
fixed colour code-red, yellow and blue to identify the phase of the
main bus-bars.
(ii) Conductors. The substation buses can be of the following
types
(a) rigid buses of solid conducicr or tubing.
(b) strain buses of cables.
They can be of copper or aluminium. The rigid type of buses are
most commonly used, for small substations they may be of 410 hard
drawn solid copper conductor ; but with higher capacities copper
tubes may be used. -
For the last 5 to 10 years the use of aluminium as an electric
conductor has been greatly accelerated. The advantages of
aluminium over copper are well known higher conductivity on
weight basis, lower cost for equal current-carrying capacity,
excellent corrosion resistance and eare of formability, These

advantages have given aluminium undisput ' nc
transmission systems. For proper reliable elec.. .onnectjon in
cases of aluminium buses, they can be coated with silver.
(iii) Isolators. An isolator or disconnecting switch is used to open
some given part of a power circuit after switching off the load by
means of a circuit breaker.
Thus isolators serve only for preventing the voltage from being
applied to some given section of the busbar in a switchgear instal-
lation or to one or another piece of apparatus in the installation.
In some cases isolators are used as-a circuit breaking device but
their use for this purpose is strictly limited by definite conditions,
such as the power rating of the given circuit.
There are two types of isolators.
(1) Single pole isolators and (2) Three pole isolators.
(iv) Circuit Breakers. Circuit breakers are installed to perform
the following duties
(1) To carry the full load current continuously.
(ii) To open and close the circuit on no load.
(iii) To make and break the normal operating current.
(iv) To make and break the short circuit currents ofmagni-
tude up to which it is designed for.
Circuit brokers of various types have been discussed in this
chapter ahead.
(v) Load-Interrupter Switches. The switches are designed and
used to close and open high voltage circuits under normal working
conditions (at normal load). The arc extinguishing device of the load
interrupter is made in the form of a split, moulded plastic chute
fitted with organic glass inserts. This chute surrounds the moving
knife of the arc extinguishing system. The stationary arcing contact
is located in the lower part of the chute.
When the switch is opened, the are drawn between the working
contact i t-. separated and acted upon by the high temperature of arc,
the walis of the organic material inserts generated gasses (mainly
hydrogen), which create a longitudinal blast serving to extinguish
the arc. Lever-arm manually operating mechanism are used for
closing and opening the load-interrupter switches.
(vi) Power Transformers. Power' transformers are used for
stepping up the voltage for transmission at generating stations and
for stepping down the voltage for further distribution at main step
down transformer substations. Usually naturally cooled, oil
immersed, known as ON type, two windings three phase trans-
formers are used 'ip to the rating of 10 MVA The transformers of
rating higher than 10 MVA are usually air blast cooled. For very
high rating, the forced oil, water cooling and air blast cooling are
used. The transformers used are provided with on load tap changer
for regulating the voltage.
The transformers are generally installed upon lengths of rails
fixed on concrete slabs having foundation 1 to I metres deep.
(vii) (a) Current Transformers (C.Ts). These instrument

transformers are connected in a.c. power circuits to feed the current
coils of indicating and metering instruments (ammeters, watt-
meters, watt-hour meters) and protective relays. Thus the CTs
broaden the limits of measurements and maintain a watch over the
curents flowing in the circuits and over the power loads. In high
voltage installations, CTs, also isolate the indicating and metering
instruments from high voltage. The current transformer basically
consists of an iron core on which the primary winding is usually
single turn winding and the number of turns on secondary winding
depending upon the power circuit current to be measured. The
primary is directly inserted in the power circuit (the circuit in which
current is to be measured) and to the secondary windingor windings,
the indicating and metering instruments and relays are connected.
When the rated current of CT flows through its primary winding a
current of amperes will appear in its secondary winding. The larger
the current to be measured, more the number of turns on secondary.
The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as
transformation ratio of the CT.
The current transformers are rated for rated voltage of the
insulation, the rated currents of the primary and secondary wind-
ings and the accuracy class. The accuracy class indicates the limit
ofthe error in percentage of the rated turns ratio of the given current
transformer. Current transformers are available in the accuracy
classes 0.5 ; 1; 3 and 10.
(b) Potential Transformers (PT's). The poterial transformers
are used for voltages above 380 volts to feed the potential coils of
indicating and metering instruments (volt meters, wattmeters,
watt-hour meters) and relays. These transformers make the ordi-
nary low vo1ge instruments suitable for measurement of high
voltage and isolate them from highvoltage.
14
The primary winding of the potential transformers is connected to

the main bus-bars of the swich gear in all' the secorr
windings is connected to various indicating and metering instru-
ments and relays also.
When the rated high voltage is applied to the primary of
P. T., the voltage of 110 volts appears across the secondary winding.
The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary voltage
is known as turns or transformation ratio.
The potential transformers are rated for primary and secondary
rated voltages accuracy class, number of phases, system of cooling.
(viii) Indicating and Metering Instruments. (ammeters, volt-
metres, wattmetres, kWh metres) are installed in the substations
to control and maintain a watch over the currents flowing in the
circuits and over the power loads.
(ix) Carrier-Current Equipment. Such equipment is installed in
the substation for communication, relaying, telemetering or for
supervisory control. This equipment is suitably mounted in a room
known as carrier room and connected to the high voltage power
circuit. Sometimes the communication equipment is installed
adjacent to the breaker and connected above the breaker termins.
(x) Control Cables. The control cables and conduit system is
required for affecting automatic controls. The control system gen-
erally operates at 110 V or 220 V and the cables employed for this
purpose are multi-core cables having 10 or 37 or 61 conductors
according to requirement. For laying these cables, generally duct
are run from control room basement to centrally located junction
boths from where the conduits are run to the required points.
(xi) Air Break and Disconnect Switches. They are generally
manually operated, but can also be motorized if they are to be of
remote controlled type. The modern trend is to have automatic
sectionalizing switches.
The disconnect switches for 46 KV and below are generally of
single pale and have hook-stick operated mechanism, but they can
also be of group-operated mechanism. The 110 KV and higher
voltage disconnect switches are group-operated i.e. all the six poles
are operated with one handle.
However, it may be pointed that these air-break switches are
opened only after the circuit breaker had rnczde the circuit dead.
(xii) Protective Fuses and Relays. The fuses are very commonly
providedon the high voltage side alongwith the other protective
devices. It serves to protect the transformer from the system or it
can also be said that the fuse protects the system from transformer.
The relays are also used to protect the power system equipment
from damage against fault at any point en route.
(Xiii) Switch Boards. The switch board consists of meters, relay
and control equipment as illustrated in Fig. 11.15(a). The essential
meters are placed at the bottom. The control equipment is generally
half-way between top and bottom, so as to facilitate the operation
A control desk may also be provided as shown in Fig. 11.15 cbs.
CONTROL
OESA
SWITCH BOARD S,VIrCHBOA.RO

WITH CONTROL ogsx
(a)
Fig. 11.15
'the materials generally used tot switchboard panels are slate
and asbestos ebon y , although all steel switch boards can also b€
used only where voltage is not more than 11 KV.
(xiv) Control Room. All equipments such as switchboard, carrier
current equipment, batteries etc. are housed in the control room,
which generally also has a basementhatch way (2 m 1.5 m approx.)
left in the floor for facilitating the installation. Below the switch
board, a slot of about 10 cm. may be provided for control cables etc.
'Fig. 11.16 represents layout of the control room, which is about 10
cmx 7 m.The basement maybe used as a battery room, or for storage
etc.
10. Substation Auxiliaries Supply. In small unattended
substations only a small amount of power for electric lighting during
regular periods of inspection, maintenance and repair is reqdired.
In regional substations, the electric power is required for the
auxiliaries--the lighting circuits, air blast fans of power trans-
forme:s, battery charging sets, oil servicing facilities, compressor
units in case of air blast circuit breakers, ventilating fans of the
substation buildings, water supply and heating system equipmer.L
etc.

WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTING
In substations, incorporating synchronous condensers. t'h

supply is also required for the operation of auxilia,
the synchronous condensers.
In large substations it is wide practice to connect two trans-
formers to the 11 KV main bus-bars for supply of the auxiliaries at
a voltage of 400/230 V.
10,77
----
L:.IIriiiL I
CARRIER CURRi,v7
EQUIPMENT El
FUTURE
,-FUTURE
::::::
CONTRO4
SwIrCH ' ,Qa.SOT
STA/L TO
8ASEI4EI.T CABLES i
Fig. 11.16. Layout of the control room.

11. Complete Bus Bar Arrangements on High and Low
Voltage Side for a Substation. The static transformers can be
further subdivided into primary substations and substations of local
significance. The primary substation may form a part of national
Rid, it may operate at 400, or 220, or 110, or 66 KV on the H. T.
side, while it ma y have 66 or 33 or 11 KV on the L. T. side. The
sub-station of local significance may convert the 66 or 33 or I XV
voltage to 0.410.23 KV for local consumers.
In order to have thorough understanding, first single line dia-
grams are given for both high and low voltage sides (for two-phases
only) and in the next articles the bus bar arrangements are dealt
with in general.
Fig. 11.17 represents most simple connections for primary
substation having two step down transformers which are fed
through two sections of single bar, similarly there are two secons
oflow voltage bus bar. The two sections (both on high and low voltage
sides) can be connected together through sectionalizing circuit
breakers SCB 1 and SCB 2 ; in which case both the transformers can

POWER STATIONS AND LUBSTATIONS 355
be operated in paralleftr independently. The advantage of operating

the transformers independently is that in case of fault, the fault
current will be smaller.
/NCO/IiNG LINES
C B.
CIRCUIT SPEAKER
(SCS,) flO OR
ItO *Y
&IS BAR
C li
i Y)
STEP DOP/tv
TRANS
.1
Sc2 ' c3kif.
SVS BAR
J —/
CM.
1
[J(1
Fig. 11.17. Single bus-bar arrangement of primary substation.
As the primary substations have key position. in a national

supply system, so, it is most important to ensure reliability ofsupply,
during normal as well as during severe weather conditions etc. Both
low and high voltage sides are provided with double bus bars as
shown in Fig. 11.18. Bus coupler breakers BC, and BC2 are used in
order to transfer the load from one bus to other. With the help of
sectional izing circuit breakers SCB I and SCB 2 , the two transformers
can be operated in parallel, if required.

C,
(1$ COUPLE,'
r.'EAKEp
70 02 761 , c 8U&4,
LrJ
Cli.
STEP t'O.'/N
TRANSORME.'
'C2 C3.
--: • i_cd,
I I i 1 •••'—--'' 4 4 I
Ct_ 4tI ;i:'
C
Fig. 11.18. Double bus arrangement of primary substation.
12. Ring Main System. In this s y stem two or more power
houe.s are connected in a fashion as so'.-i in Fi g .11.19. The gen-
erateu supply at 400 V is taken to step-up substations.
The voltage is stepped up to 11 KV in these substations. Two

step-up substations are connected to various distribution (step
down) substations as shown in Fig. 11.19 through a ring main
system. The distribution and step-up substations are provided with
ring main T. off switch. The ring main T. off switch can be connected
to any of the two power houses and thus increase the reliability.
Even if there is a fault at any point in the cable, the distribution
substations can be fed. For example let there be a fault at points C
and D shown in Fig. 11.19. Distribution sub-station No. 1 and No.
2 can be fed from step-up substation B and distribution, substation
No. 3 can be fed from step-up sub-station A.
. 2<
I.- , Lu
..
II
11.19. 11 XV Ring main system

13. Circuit Breaker. Circuit breaker has the following
essential components
(a) Circuit breaker contacts, (c) Busbars and conductors,
(b) Bushings, (d) Instrument transf:rrners.
Busbars, conductors and instrument transformers have already
been discussed in art. 11 and 9. Circuit breaker contacts and
bushings are discussed in the following articles.
11. CircuT" 77., .
are required to carry normal as well as short circuit current. The
normal current should be carriedhy without any rise in temperature
of contacts and drop in voltage. To ensure that temperature does
not rise, the contacts are placed in oil, lithe contacts are place] in
o i l, the breaker is known as oil circuit breaker wherwise i is
known as air circuit breaker. Various types of contacts are shown
in Fig. 11.20.
MOVING CONTACT
E5L/.R
/ 7 -
->-: ffl'1' f_
&,ifT ST47I0WARY
& CONTACT .
Butt type contact RETAINING LEAF

CONTACT SLJ.Rc(s DEVICE SPRING
- FOR NORMAL LOADS
CONTACT
FIXED -=---'"TE) G
CONTACTS.. CONUCT
Tulip type contact Finger and weoge type contact

Pig. 11.20
15. Bushings. Bushings are used as an insulating material
around a high voltage conductor when the conductor is passed
through the metal sheath or the plate of the tank of the circuit
III
FL A 5/i -\ ¼ PLJNC TLjR.

1.
CONDUC T
(a) l.ridcor EuahingB

POWER STAT1OS AND SUBSTATIONS 359
TOP CAP
FILLER PLUG
OI L LEVEL
tN 3, CA TUR
FL EXIBLE
CONNEC TION
riq
SPLIT
(LA KP5
4
•1 BüH/C16
FLANGE
J: \
(b) Outdoor Bushings

Fig. 11.21
breaker. Most common types ofbushings used for indoor and outdoor
purposes are shown in Fig. 11.21
16. Oil Circuit Breaker. In this type, contacts are placed in
oil. The oil prevents restriking of the arc after the current reaches
zero point of the cyclè.The oil moves into the zone of arc after the
current reaches zero point by the following actions:
:o
WIRING, EST' {ATING ANT)
-41..
orking on this priiple is
breaker. cU
(2)
By the pressure caused by the natural head ofthe oil,
breaker working on this p circuit
breaker. rinciple is known as self blast circuit
(3) By p
ressure earthed by the external forces, circuit
working on this principle are known as breakers
breakers Forced blast circuit
F ollowing are the advantages and
cuit breaker. disadv antages of the oil cir-
Advantages:
1.
The oil used (such as transformer oil) is a very good insulator
conductor, smaller clearance between live conductors and earth
and allows
2.
The cold oil is capable of entering into arc space and act as
an insulator when the arc current goes to zero.
3. The oil has a high dielectric strength.
4.
It absorbs
dissipating the heat energy of the arc as the oil has great heat
properties
5. The gases so formed by
deco mpos j t ;
energy have good Cooling properties on of oil caused by arc
Disadvantages:
1. It is inflammable
CURREJVTj
IN
TERMINAL ,'. OUT
ATE
LEVER
- X- V--
(a)
Fig. 11.22. Single break oil circuit breaker for
indoo r purposes.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATiONS
3€ 1
TOP.CP *140 CONNECTION

?- P I
ORCELA N NSUt.J.TO
c cc o --
CONDENSER ULATO.f/(
MO AP
ARRESTER
(LIGHTNING CO1O I
PT ECTION)
( . MAIN OPRATGl
OPPtA1i
OIL I.
CO7*I M
PUtL ROD I
FIXED COPI(C_j_T.__IL__ l\\ I

MOVIN(, CONTACT I \ \ I
rUNSOLATOR IH
TANK LINING
U I
-= ---
Fig. 11.22. (b) Single break outdoor type circuit breaker
VE CRA/
yE ARM
hR CUSHON
OIL LEVEL
7== 7.- FIX, CONTACT

ARC
GAS BUBBLE
CONTC
I -EI---EE-Ei-I---Ei-- frioVIN
OIL TANK
Fig. 1123 (a). Double break oil circuit breaker for indoor purposes.
362
ESTIM'rmra A.ND COSTING
(b)
Fig. 11.23. Double break outdoor type circuit breaker.
2. It forms an explosive mixture with air.
3. Due to composition etc., the oil has to be kept clear and
requires maintenance
1 7 .Description of Oil Circuit
Breaker. In this type ofcircujt
breaker, a system of levers, toggles and rollers is utilised to close
the circuit breaker by raising the moving contacts against the action
of strong spring which open the contacts when the circuit breaker
is tripped mechanically or by action of relays and current trans-
formers.
These type :ircuit breaker have high rupturing capacity aiid

are designed for remote action by employing a solenoid coil or
pneumatic gear. The automatic losing gear is the best possible for
mineral oil free from alkali, acid and moisture.
Fig. 11.22 and 11.23(o) and (b) represent the various important.
parts of single break oil circuit breaker and double break oil circuit
breaker.
IAICOMIA,' CABLE EiVO
BOX P05/1/ON __
ME TER
VOL rME TEP
Two SWITCHES
FOR AMMETER
NO VOLTMETER
CALt
BOX
aliT-
6OING
Fig. 11.21. Side view of H.T. ii KV, 3-phase 3-wire oil circuit breaker.
Fig. 11.24 represents the general outlook of H.T. 11 KV oil
circuiL breaker. In Fig. 11.25 general outlook of H.T. 11 KV, HRC
fuse switch is represented.
feeder panel having
in Fig. 11.26, the general outlook of an L.T.
draw-out type incoming O.C.B. and many outgoing switches panel
has been shown.
364
CIO
-a
zo
Lu -
-J C
I.-.

-. b

Key Diagrams of Typical 33 K Substations.

The key diagramsof typical 33KV substations are given in Figs.
below
LJL.
L
= . >
'-a
1 •-• .0
0 •fl 7)
q 7)
0 S' nb
- JOfft
0
C Lj
—<=------
'
A
cr.
—& —4,--1
2
zc 0- 0 >
-'
Ni -'--o-->4-
- -4
-4
r.i Type orfuse Copper tinned or lead or aluminium.

(b) Capacity in amperes :3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or
amos or 50 amos or 100 amps.

366
•33vV0 SWITCH WITH -

33Kv
,--- 33KV u.O. S TH
33Kv FUSE WilT

33KVFL)SE UNIT
11
33111KV 5 M4/A
NO 1 TT?ANSFORMER
NO 2
/1KV 9US BNR NO I 11KV OUS8AP NO 2 2MVA CAP4C/,ORS
54 1 5 50t
NO.1234
NI.256 769
O(JTGQWG FEEDERS OUTGOING rEEDEPS
Fig. 11.29. The Key Diagram of Typical 33KV, 10 MVA Substation.

- 7''N7'i -----------------
N .IC
1- •-O- >--'.---,- 2
9N 9 L %
--------- -- -
—---------------------------
- -
H
cc
L • - --- --- . :
Lo
0
L_-- -
N ;
0
cl
IL

POWER STATONS AND SUBSTATIONS
TPPIh& .IP.E
I HYIZONT4.?U,4Tl
r4 FORMATION
1
T _
JUMPERS w-
r
:t 34kgJT
p41L 10-97,71
H
-
763,'
Ji -
JUMPERS
TR A N SFORMER
s q
H
=1i;5 , r "-^_
Fig. 11-31 -
25
:368
OUT GO ii
CABLE i CABLE FO
L.T. Line 3
No. I 2
55 Grin
Jumpers
I
Fig 11.32
POWER STATIONS AND SIJBSTATIO' 36
arm
27
W7 1 1 Iu1vI
-IMMIM112M. am.
I
H171
I,
IOperorg rod -
25mm Goh,pipe
j'
'ondl -rn Ioc.k'P9
orranqemehr
Steel pole
Fig. 1133
370
VIEWAT
STEAK
A RN
BARE
JUMPERS
WrTH
BEADS
NNEL
/NSUL4 75
JUMPERS
2134
'I
ANGLE -V
L
\f.
IRON
SP4ING I
--
LL
Fig. 11.34
371
POWER STATIONS ANDJBSTAT1ONS
.iPICAL QUESTIONS
I. What are differet types of power stations? Write the advantages
and disadvantages of each type of power stat;Ofl.
circuits, a modern coal fed power plant can be
2. In how many rr.zin
divided? Explain abouteach circuit and give the schematic arrangement
of the same.
3. What are the fxtors which influence the choice of site for thermal
plants and give the layout diagram?
constituents of steam power station.
4. Explain about the
5. Ex p lain about the Hydro-electric Power station and what are the
factors u ..,. onsidereA for the location of hydro-electric power station?
6. What are the ements of hydro-electric plant? Explain about them.

7. What are the tpes of water turbines? Explain about them.
S. Flow are the Hydroelectric plait classified ? Explain them with
diagrams.
9. What auxiliaries are used with a Hdru-electric plan:
i
?
r elements
10. Explain aboul the Diesel power station nod the
. Explain ai,t the nucleat power station and what are the basic
I'
requirements for the.ocation of a nuclear power station?
12 Explain abo' the characteristics of a Nuclear power plant.
13 Explain nbou the gas turbine power plant and their elments
14.Give the comarison chrt of each power plant.
Its
15. What do yøi understand by oil circuit brealcer.
description with the help of sketches?
What are theadvantages and disadvantages of oil circuit brea-r?
16.
17 Give the key diagram of two 11 K substations connected to
distribution substations through a nag man system. Poir,t ut vnnJ
equi p ment used in all substations connected through nag maln
18. Why ring main system is used?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the uutdsr sub-
19.
stations as compared to indoor substation?
20. What are thepoints to be considered while designing the substa-
tions?
Describe thevarious equipments required for (a) indoor substation
21.
and (h) outdoor substation.
pes of substations.
22. What are the various t y
23. Describe with sketch the arrangement of bus bar on high and low
voltage scale of sutation.
24. Explain the various parts of a circuit Breaker.
372
WIRrNG, ESTP{ATING AND COSTING
25. Explain about the connection scheme of substation.

26. D€scrjbe about the indoor and outdoor substations
27. Draw the diagrams for the following.
(a') Connection with isolator and fuse.
(b) Connection with bus-isolator, circuit breaker and line isolator.
(c) Con p ection of 11 KY power transformer.
(d) Single line diagram of 11 NV substation.
28. Explain about the design of substation.
29. What do you understand by tub-station auxiliaries supply?
30. Draw the main connections
(a) For Auxiliaries supply in 132/11 NV step down sub-station.
(b) Key diagram of typical 33KV, 3MVA'10 MVA substation.
(c) Lay out of a typical 66 K substation.
12
General Specifications
1. Introduction. 2. Generating act (diesel engine driven) 3. witches and O.C.B. 4.

L.T. O.C.B. indoor type with time limits fuse. 5. FIT. 11KV switch with fl.R.C.Fu5C3.
switch. 7. H.T. Feeder panel. 8. L.T. Feeder panel. 9.Tran301-IDer.
6. Ring main T. off
10. SpeciflcatiOfls for items of overhead lines 11. Poles or struts. 12. Pin Irulatcrs.
type Insulators. 15. Stay assembly 16. Stay wire. 17.
13. Shackle 1nslators. 14. Disc
Aluminium Conductor steel reinforced. 18. G.I. wire. 19. Specifications for items of
internal wiring. 20. V.I.R. Cable.21.Weather proof Cable. 22. Cord flexible.23.V.1
LC. Cable. 24. P.V.C. Cable. 25. T.R S. wire. 26. Fuse Board distribution. 27.Ener'
Meter. 28. Fuse wire. 29. Fuse Carrier. 30. Conduits. 31. Conduits Boxes. 32.ScreWs.
33. Tumbler Switch. 34. Water-' : -h'
6 Swatch. 35. Scckt outlet. 36. Metal Shades.
4). Main Switch. 41.
37. Glass Shades. 38. Lamp Holder. 39. Ceiling Resc.
Underground Cable (low tension). 42.
1 Introduction, It is voy es6entia1 to specify the items

requird correctly as otherse there is going to he confusfl while
commencing the work on completion of the initial fonnalities of
estimating and costing. In addition, until alLd unless the specifi-
drawn correctly, it is not possible to assess its correct
cations are
price.
Diesel engine
2. Generating sets (diesel engine driven).
driven generating sets are available with automatic excitation and
required automatic voltage
as well as with shunt field regulator. If
regulator is also provided for automatic control ofvoltage or, variOus
loads after the initial excitation is given by hand on no load. The
general specification of diesel engine generating sets are as under:
(1) Diesel Engine.

(a) B.H.P.-191 at 1,000 r.p.m.
Overload capacity: 12% for one hour after every 12 hours
(b)
working.
(c) No of cylinders 6
(d) No of strokes : 6
(e) Rotation : Anticlockwise
374
(J) Method of starting : Battery or Pneumatic

(ii) Alternator
(a) Rating: 160 RVA at 1,000 rpm. at 0.8 p.1
(b) Voltage :420 ± 5%
(C) No of phases : 3-phase 4-wire
(d) Cycles : 50
(e) Type of excitation : Hand excited
(J) Requirement of parallel operation : To be provided with
damper windings
(g) Coupling: Flexible coupling or Rigid coupling
The diesel engine and alternator as specified above are to be
mounted on a common base pla:e. The base plate supplied is to be
fabticated out of sheet steel and angle iron for the engine and
alternator. SuLEable foundation bolts for keeping the base plate in
posj'ion on the fu:ndation are to be pro L'ided. Furthersu itable engiae
alternator and coupling bolts to tight them on,fhe base plate should
-R- F' prooH-'L
(iii) Alterrator control paneL
(a) Totally et.:iosed sheet cubical type with door at the back
(b) Rus bars : Copper or aluminium of sufficient rating for the
above set
(c) Circuit breaker : Air circuit breaker complete with overload
and short circuit release
(d) Working voltage : 500 V
(e) Voltmeter: 0-500 V (moving iron.)
(I) Ammeter: 0-300 A (moving iron.)
(g) Other meter : kWh meter, KW meter, frequency meter,
power factor meter, moving coil ammeter for
exciter.
(e) Arrangement for synchronising and excitation : Set of
synchronising sockets and plug to be provided for parallel
operation of sets. Shunt field regulator with hand wheel
for varying the excitation also is to be provided.
S. Switches and 0. C. B. Specifications for various switches
and O.C.B. are given below:
375
GENERALSFIONS
4. L.T. G.J.2.
Indoor type with time limit Switch. L.T.
400 amps enclosed oil circuit breaker fitted with
(a) S. P. neutral link.
ib) 5 amps overload trips calibrated 1001200%.
(c) Time limit fuse totally enclosed.
(d) C.T. of rating 400/5 amps.
(e) Mechanical on and off handle with indicator.
. paper insulated
(I). Cable box suitable for 3core, 150 sq. mm
lead covered underground cable.
(g) 3 Nos. 500-Amp copper or aluminium bus-bars placed in a
metal clad enclosures.
5. H.T. 11KV Switch with H.R.C. Fuses. 11 KV A.C. metal
clad extensible automatic manually operated indoor oil fuse switch
unit of the tripping all phase type and breaking capacity 300 M.V.A.
with the following attachment
(a) Withdrawal fuse carrier complete with 3 Nos, 11KV suit
g capacity) oil tight striker-ablP.rtedHRC(ighupn
pin cartridges fuses.
(bi 3-300 Amps bus bars copper or aluminium, placed in a
metal clad chamber filled with compound.
(c) Mechanical off and on handle with indicator and padlocking
arrangement.
(d) Suitable oil level indicator.
. H.T. underground
(e) Two cable boxes for 3 core 25 sq. mm
PILCADSTA cable.
6. Ring Main T. off Switch. It should have the following
specifications.
H. T. 11 KV extensible type ring main T. off switch indoor type
comprises of one transformer control panel and 2 Nos. isolator panel
each fitted with:
(A) Transformer Control Panel. Consists of Automatic
manually operated oil fuse switch unit 300 Amps capacity having
following parts
(a) Withdra:al fuse carrier complete with 3 Nos H.R.C. oil
tight striker pin cartridges fuses.
(b) Three, 500 Amp bus bars, copper aluminium placed in a
metal clad chamber filled with compound.
376
WIRING E STIMATING AND COST!NG
(c) Mechanical on and off handle with
in dicator and padlocking
arrangement.
(d) Suitable oil level indicator.
(e) Two cable boxes each suitable for 25 mm
2 PILCADST
HT underground cable.
(B) Isolator pannel 2 Nog . for each unit.
of the following: It should comprise
(a) Metal clad non automatic type load breaking, fault making
oil immersed isolator assisted with spring.
(b) Three 500 Amp bus bars of copper or aluminium placed in
a metal clad chamber filled with compound
(c) Mechanical o p erati ng h andle
devices to bring it in the
positions—On Off, Earth and Test.
(d) One no. cable box suitable for 25 mm2
underground cable.
P1L CADSTA, H.T.
7. H.T. Feeder Panel. It can be specified as under:
(a) Type : Indoor.
(b) System :..l I KV, 50 cycles, 3-phase ;
3-vrire.
(c) Incoming panel with following accessories attachment
(i) Vertical dropdown drawout free handle mechanism oil
circuit breaker capacity 40 amps.
(ii) 3 Nos. of 5 amps. overload trips calibrated 100/200%.
(iii) 3 Nos. of time limit fuses.
(iv) 3 Nos. of cur-rent transformer ratio 40/5 amps accuracy.
(v) Voltmeter: 0-15 KY.
(vi) Ammeter: 0-40 amps.
(vii) Rotary selector switch.
(viii) 3-phase draw-out type oil immersed potential transformer
ratio 1 1,000V/110v with H.V. and L.V. fuses.
(ix) Cable Box indoor type suitable for 3-core PILCADSTA 50
sq. mm U/G cable.
(x) Metal clad air insulated 3 Nos. bus bars suitable for working
voltage 11 KY, capacity 50 amps.
(d) 3 Nos. outgoing panne] each with following accessories
attachment.
(1) Vertical dropdown drawout free handle mechanism oil
circuit breaker, capacity 40 amp.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS 377
(ii) 3 Nos. of 5 amps. overload trips calibrated 100/200%.

(iii) 3 Nos. of time limit fuses.
(iv) 3 Nos. of current transformer ratio 40/5 amps accuracy.
(v) Ammeter 0-44 amps.
(vi) Rotary selector switch.
(vii) Cable box indoor type suitable, for 3-core PILCADSTA 25
sq. mm U/G cable.
(viii) Metal clad air insulated 3 Nos. bus-bars suitable for
working voltage 11 KV, capacity 50 amps.
8. L.T. Feeder Panel. It can be specified as under:
Metal clad indoor floor mounting type L. T. distribution board
su it able for operation on 3-phase, 4-wire 50 cls 400/440 volts. The
panel should be equipped with the following
a) Bus bars. It should consist of:
(i) 3 Nos. bas-bars capacity 200 amps and mounted on porce-
lain support. -
(ii) 1 No. bus bar capacity 100 amps and mounted on porcelain
sup t.
(b) Incoming. It should consist of:
G) 200 amps, 4001440 volts tripple pole, trip fuse, horizontal
draw-out type oil circuit breaker with rupturing capacity
as 10 MVA.
(ii) 3 Nos. of current transformers operated oil dash pot time
lags system for over load trips.
(iii) 1 No. of neutral link.
(w) 1 No. of under-voltage release.
(v) 1 No. mechanical on-off indicator.
(vi) 1 No. trip lever for emergency.
(vii) 1 No. ammeter 0-300 amps with selector switch.
(viii) 3 Ns. of current transformers ratio 200/5 Amps.
(ix) 1 No. voltmeter 0-500 V with selector switch and protective
fuse.
(x) 1 cable box indoor type suitable for PILC 3core 75 sq. mm
underground cable.
(c) 3 Nos. outgoing. Each should consists of:

378 \VTN' T S'l Y i" AD CO
(i) 3 Nos. ofironclad tripple pole and neutral link H. R. C.

use switch units, complete with H. R. C. fuse.
(ii) 1 No. ammeter 0-200 Amps with selector switch.
(iii) 3 Nos. of current transformers ratio 100/5 Amps.
(iv) 1 Cable box indoor type suitable for PILC, 3 core 185 sq.,
mm underground cable.
9. Transformers. The step-up transformer is used for step-
ping up the voltage after generation for the purpose of transmission
upto the distribution substation. At the distribution substation, the
voltage is again stepped down to 400 V. The step-up transformer
can be specified as udner
Capacity :300 KVA.
(a) Type of transformer : Indoor or outdoor.
(b) Type of cooling: Natural oil cooled, or oil-filled water cooled
or air Blast type (for 33 KV or above).
(c) Type of core : Shell or core.
Y) Type of wiring: Double wound or autowound
(e) No. of phases and neutral.
- (i) L. V. Side : 3 phases with neutral'; for step-down trans-
former or 3-phase only for step-up transforpe
(ii) H. V. Side :3 phases only.
(.1) Voltage: between phases on
(i) H. V. Side :11 Ky.
(ii) L. V. Side : 0.4 Ky.
(g) Vector Group : Dy-11
(h) Tapping on H. V. side or on L.V. side
depending upon if the transformer 2%, ±5%, ±7% is
step-up or stepdown
(j) Permissible temp. side of the core: 50°C
k) Permissible temp. side of the oil :45°C
(in) Efficiency at 0.8 p.f.
(i) At full load = 99% or 98.2%
(ii) At I load = 99.2% or 98.4%

379
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
(n) Iron losses : 700 watts.

(o) Copper loss at full load : 4050 watts.
(p) Regulation at 0.8 p.f. 3.88%
(q) Cable joints an H. V. side : Should be in a position to
accommodate PIILCAIJSTA H. T. U/G cable 25 sq. mm .
(r) Cable joint on L. V. Side : Should be in a position to
accommodate L. T. U/G PILC cable 150 sq. mm .
10. Specifications for Items of Overhead Lines. Various
items specified below
11. Poles or struts. The poles can be of wood, R.C.C. or steel
tubular. The length of the struts should be 8.55 metres.
These can be specified as under:
(A) Wooden Poles or Struts
() Girth of butt: 61 cm. or 76 cm.
(b) Girth of tip : 38 cm. or 53 cm.
(c) Length : 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
(B) Reinforced Concerte Pole Struts.
(a) Section at bottom :22.86cm. x22.86 cm. or 30.50 cm 30.50
cm.
tb) Length: 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
(C) Steel Tubular Poles/Struts The steel tubular po!e'struts
should be of cast iron one piece with base flanges and bolts and nuts,
the length should be 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
12. Pin Insulators. The pin insulators should be made of
porcelain vitreous, white or brown with mild steel galvanized
spindle, with galvanized iron nut and washer. Its dimensions for
various voltages should be as shown in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1
Size of galvanised
Working I In.sulatr size in m'v'- mild steel spindle in
Voltage
Maxim urn Dia. of Top
Height dia. Dia. ofgroou€ shankcordon
Ithread
Side Top
500 V 63.50 57.15 9.52 15.885 15,885
1100 V 82.55 69.85 15.885 15.885 35.885 15.885
3,300 V 8255 8552 15.885 15885 28.575 19.05
6,600 V 131.70 1).85 19.05 19.05 22.575 19.05
1.000 V 168.5 146.06 19.05 19.05 22.515 19.05

380 WIRING, E STIMATING AND COSTING
13. Shackle Insulators. The shackle insulator Should be

made of porcelain vitreous, white or brown including galv
anised
mild steel straps (2 Nos.) and bolt. Its dimensions for various
voltages should be as shown in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2
Working Size of shackle insulator7
Pressure Size ofgaluani3ed steel
Urapsand bolts in mm.
Height
Maxiazurn Dia.of
dia. !groove for
Section of
s:rQp
fño
bolt
I
conductor
500 V 5239 6350 635
1,100 V 25.40 x 1.60 9.52
78.21 14-29 31.75 x 3.18
3,300 V 106.36 I 25.40 12.70
6,600 V 41.36 x 4.80 19.05
139.70 127.00 I 12.70
11,000 V 152.40 J 127.00 I 16.00
38.10 x 4.80
38.10 x 4.80
19.05
19.05
14. Disc type Insulators. Disc type insulators are made of
porcelain, vitreous white or brown in colour and each disc of size
152.40 mm dia. should be in a position to withstand 11,000 volts.
The no. of disc used depends upon the working voltage. These car
be specified as tinder
Working voltage: 11 KV or 33 KIV
Dia. of disc 152.40 mm
No. of discs : 1 or 3
Other fittings : Equipped with tension clamps.
15. Stay Assembly. It can be Specified as under:
(a) Stay bow.
Dia. of rod :15 mm
(j )
(ii) Length :37.5 cm.
(b) Stay plate.
(i) Cross-section : 22.5 cm x 22.5 cm or 30 cm x 30 cm
(ii) Thickness of the plate :6.5 mm
(c) Stay or Anchor rcxl
(i) Dia. of rod: 16 mm or 19 mm
(ii) Length :60 cm.
One end of the stay rod should be threaded and have a suitable
bolt and the other end should be joined with the stay plate by means
of forged head as shown in Fig. 8.18.

(d) Stay Insulator. It should be made of porcelain viterous

white or brown and should be specified as follows
(a) Size :7.62 cm. x 3.81 cm. or 10.8 cm. x 5.72 cm.
(b) Working load : 900 kg. or 1360 kg.
16. Stay Wire. The stay wire should be ofgalvanied iron and
should have 7 strands either 61 G.I wire 8 S. W. G. or of 10 S. W.G.
17. Aluminium Conductor Steel Rod. The aluminium
conductor is to be specifed by number of aluminium and steel
strands and their diameter in mm. The various sizes are indicated
inTable8.3. These condu.ors also have trade name. Few important
sizes and trade names are given in Ta'jle 12 3.
Table 12.3
Method of Method ofspec.
Stranding no. and were dia. ecifving by fyig 5y trd
size I narre
Alumnum I - Steel
No. a. Tho
Rim inch I No. MM. L,.cl.
Squirrel
0 2.11 0. C S3 1 2.11 0.083 6/1 x .083
6/1 x .102 Weasel.
6 2.59 0.102 I 2.59 0.102
6 3.00 0.118 1 3.00 0.118 6/1 x .118 Fer,ot
6 3.35 0.132 1 3.35 0.132 6/1 x .132 Rabbit
6 3.66 0.144 1 3.66 0.144 6/1 x .144 Mink
6 3.99 0.157 1 3.99 0.157 6/1 x .157 Beaver
Other
6 4.19 0.166 1 4.19 0.166 6/1 x .166
26 2.54 0.100 1 2.54 0.100 26/7 x .100 Coyote
30 3.00 0.118 7 3.00 0.118 3017 x .118 Panther
18. G. 1. Wire. G.I. wire SWG No. 8 or 10 are used in overhead

transmission and distribution lines for earth wire. This can be
specified as under:
Gauge SWG 8 or 10
Weight per 100 metre length: 11.40 kg. or 6.00 kg.
19. Specifications for items of Internal Wiring. Various
items of internal wiring are specified as under:
20. V.I.R. Wires. V.L.R. wires have high conductivity con
ductor, single strand of aluminium, irsulated %'.th vulcanised
rubber, tappcd. braided and compounded to conform I.S.I.
specifications. These wires can be specified as under
(a) Type ofinsulatiot'i : V.I.R.
382
WJiNO, JSTfMAT]N .4) COSTING
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V or 660 V

(c) No. of cores Single or twin core.
(d) Metal : Aluminium
(e) Size : 1 sq. mm, 1.5 sq mm, 2 sq mm, or 3 sq mm or 4 sq.
mm or 6 sq. mm or 10 sq. mm or 15 sq. mm or 20 sq. mm
or 25 sq. mm .
21. Weather Proof Cables. Weather proof cables have high
conductivity, single strand of'aluminium conductor, insulated with
vulcanised rubber tapped, braided and weather resisted com-
pounded.
These cables are either twin core or single core and are ofvarious
sizes. 'These can be specified as under
(a) Type of insulation : V.I.R.
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V or 660 V.
(c) No. of cores : Single or twin.
( Metal : Aluminium
k t, Size: 1 sq. mm or 1.5 sq. mm or 2 sq. mm 3 sq mm or
sq. lnrri or 6 sq... 0; or 10 s. mm or 15 sq. mm or 20
s... Him.
22. Cord Flexible. Flexible cords,
have hif onductivitv
strns- copper wire insulated with vulcanjs rubber and
shs.cth tough rubber.These Cords are avaiahle in twin core.
These cords can be specified as under
(a) Type of insulation : Flexible.
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V.
(c) No. of cores : twin.
(di Metal : aluminium/Copper
(e) Size : 0.4 sq, mm or 0.6 sq. mm , 1 sq. mm
2 sq. mm , 3
SQ. mm
or 4 sq. mm .
23. V.I.R. L. C. Cable. These cabes have high conductivity
conductor, single strand of aluminium insulated with vulcanised
rubber, tapped, braided and covered with lead. These are twin core
cables 50 v or 660 V grade and various sizes available are as for
w,res These wires can be specified in similar fashion as V.I.R.
wire except for insulation.
24. P.V.C. Cable. The alumiHum conductors ofs;;ch cable are
covered by polyven )-1 compounded insulation. These are available
in 25() V or 660 V grade and are either single or twin core. The
-, r \7.I.R. wires. These wires can be

specified in similar fashion as VI.R. wires except for insulation.
25. T.R.S. Wires. These cables have high conductivity single
strand of aluminium conductor, insulated with vulcanised rubber
tapped, braided and weather and sheathed with tough rubber.
These cables are either twin core or single core and are of various
sizes as for V.I.R. wires. Except for insulation, these wires can be
specified in a similar fashion as V.I.R. wires.
26. Fuse Board Distribution. The fuseboard should be made
of hardwood or metal clad with hinged front vitreous fuse bases and
carriers mounted on frame. It can be specified as follows
(a) Rating: 15 amps or 20 amps or 25 amps etc.
(b) No. of phases: Single pole or double pole or three pole.
(c) Arrangement of neutral : Neutral link.
(d) Nos. of circuits: 2-way or 3-way or 4-way or 6-wa y or 8-way.
(e) Working voltage : 250 . V or 500 V.
(f, Tpe of fittings : Flame proof or wooden.
27. Energy Meter: A.C. ere-' meter can e induction tyc.
single-phase, three-phase or three-phase 4-wire. These can be
specifled as follows
(a) Working voltage : 230 V or 400 V or 6.6 KV or 11 KV.
(b) No. of phases : Single phase or three-phase, three-wire or
three-phase four-wire.
(c) R.P.M. : 450 or 600 or 900 or 1000 or 1200 etc.
(d) Rating: 5 amps or 10 amps or 20 amps or 25 amps or 50
amps or 100 amps or 500 amps.
(e) Any other attachment
(i) P.T. of suitable size for high voltage energy meter.
(ii) C.T. for suitable size meters having rating more than
100 amps. -
28. Fuse Wire. The fuse wire to be inserted should be in
accordance with I.E. Regulations. It may be of copper tinned, lead
oi aluminium. The fuse wire has been already ois,.ussd in a sep-
arate chapter in details. The fuse wire is to be specified as under
(a) Type of fuse: Copper-tinned or lead or aluminium.
(b) Ca-)ac in amperes : 3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or 20
amps or 50 amps or 100 amps.
-26
3c4
29. Fuse .Jamer. .me fuse carrier has ai eadyeen discussed

in a separate chapter. It is made of ceramic which is ignitable under
normal condition. The fuse carrier may be specified as under:
(a) Working voltage : 3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or 20 amps
or 50 amps. or 100 amps.
30. Conduits. The conduit should be black or silver enamelled
or galvanised with screwed from right hand thread. The conduit
can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Welded or solid drawn steel.
(b) Type of painting: Black or silver enamelled or galvanised.
(c) Size :15 mmor2Qmmor25mmor3Ommor35mm
(d) Gauge: 16 S.W.G.
.31. Conduit Boxes. These should be of malleable cast iron and
draw in-type. These can be specified as under:
(a) Size : Suitable for conduit size 15 mm or 20 mm or 25 mm
or 30 mm or 35 mm.
(b) Material : Malleable cast iron.
(c) Size of tapping: 31.75 mm.
32. Screws. The screws of any size should be of brass.
33. Tumbler Switch. Can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Backelite.
(b) Capacity : 5 amps or 15 amps.
(c) Working voltage : 250 V.
(d) Other important requirements:
(i) The holes at the base of switch should he filled with
hygroscopic insulating compound. This compound
should remain hard even at 75°C.
(ii) Switch cover should comply with I.S. 1087 of 1957.
(iii) Operating dollies should be made orinsulating material
• and of sufficient strength.
34. Water-tight Switch. This can be specified as under:
(a) Capacity : 5 amps or 15 amps.
(b) Base : The base should be of galvanised cast iron or mal-
leable iron.
(c) Cover: Should be of cast iron or malleable iron and should
be provided with rubber washer.
(d) Working voltage : 250 V.

35. Socket Outlet. It can be specified as under:

(a) Capacity: 5 amps or 15 amps.
(b) Working voltage: 250 V.
(c) Bottom material : The bottom should be made o'f white.
(d) Well glazed, non-absorbent vitreous porcelain with
recessed back for proper seating.
(e) Contacts : The contacts should be made of brass.
(1) Cover: The cover should be ofbackelite having minium 3.2
mm thickness.
36. Metal Shades. These can be specified as under:
(a) Shape : Conical
(b) Metal: Enamelled iron.
(c) Dia. or holes : (i) 28.58 mm. (ii) 254 mm or 300 mm.
37. Glass Shades. These can be specified as under
(ci) Shape : Conical
(b) Metal : Opal glass
(c) Dia. of holes (i) 28.58 min (ii) 254 mm.
38. Lamp holders. These can be specified as under:
(ci) Type : Pendent or Bracket or Batten.
(b) Material : Brass or Backelite.
39. Ceiling R_-se. These can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Backelite.
(b) Material of terminals : Brass, the contact should be sepa-
rated with porcelain or backelite.
(c) Type : 2-way or 3-way.
40. Main Switch. These can be specified as under:
(a) Capacity : 15 amps or 30 amps or 60 amps or 100 amps or
200 amps.
(b) Working voltage: 230 V or 400 V.
(c) No. or phases : Single phase or three-phase four-wire.
(d) Arrangement of neutral : Neutral link.
(e) Operating handle : Should be of sufficient strength and
controlled by spring.
(1) Fuse base or carrier : The base should be of high grade
vitreous porcelain.
386 fliN" iSTIMATING AND COSTING
41. Underground Cables (Low Tension.) These cables

should confirm to I.S. 692-1957 and these can be specified as
Insulator and Conductor : Paper insulated lead alloy sheathed
and served with aluminium conductor.
Grading : 660 Ats or 1,100 volts
No. of Cores : Two or three or four or three and half cores.
Size: 25 sq. mm . or 35 sq. mm , 50 sq. mm , 95 sq. mm or 185
sq. mm or 300 sq. mm or 500 sq. mm .
Note :-It should be noted that three and half-core cables are not
being manufactured for sLes below 50 sq. mm., therefore for cables
below 50 sq. mm four-core c.ablesare used. Three and half-core cables
are used for sizes above 50 sq. m;n.
42. Underground Cable (High Tension). These cables
should confirm to IS-692-1957 and these can be specified as udner:
Insulation : Paper insulated lead alloy sheathed dcuble steel
tape armoured and served with aluminium conductor.
Grading: 6.6 KV or 11 KV or 33 KV.
No. of Cores : Three.
Size : 25 sq. mm or 35 sq. mm or 56 sq. mm or 185 so. mm or
225 sq. mm or 300 sq mm.
42. BOxes, Cable Jointing (Low and-Medium and High
Tension): Cables boxes are of various types as given below:
(i) End dividing
(a) Indoor
(b) Outdoor
(ii) Straight through type
(iii) Tee type.
The cable bo.es should be specified as under:
Type : End, dividing (indoor or outdoor) or straight through or Tee
type.
Working voltage: 400 Volts or 6.6 KV or 11 K y, or 33 Ky
Size, insulation and : Suitable for PILC or PILCADSTA three or
cores of cable three and half or four-core cables of required
size.

GENERAL SPECWICATIONS 381
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term specifications'?
2. What are the various £quipments used in a substation ? Specify
any of the equipment.
3. Draw out the specifications of a 0.4111 KV transformer 300 KVA
capacity.
4. Draw out the specifications of a diesel generating set.
5. It is required to procure a L.T. feeder panel, capacity 400 Amp.
for four outgoing feeders each ofcapcity 200 Amps. Chalk out the
specifications for the same.
6. Chalk out the specifications for L.T. and H.T. underground cable.
7. How would you specify (a) stay assembly and (b) A.C.S.R.
8. Write down the specifications of a main switch to control consumer
two-wire mains for his connected light and fan load of 1kW at
230 V.
9. Write down briefspecifications ofa switch for controlling 100 watts
230 volts lamp in cleat wiring.
10. How would you specify (a) Energy Meter (5) Fuse wire (c) Cond.nt
(d) Metal shades.
11. Write down brief specifications of the following material
(a) Earth plate required for earthing LI. lines.
(b) 5 Amp plug used in concealed conduit.
(c) 500 Amp 3-phase A.C. kWh meter 400 volts for use in a fac-
tory.
(d) V.I.R. wire used in domestic purposes.
12. Wrte down brief specifications for
(a) Insulator for 11KV.
(b) Stay rod.
13. Write down brief specifications for
(i) Tansfbrmer.
(ii) Generator.
(iii) Energy meter for domestic use.
(iv) Switch.
14. Writedown brief specifications for:
(a) Earthing material for grounding a small workshop.
(b) Stay Insulator for L.T. lines.
(c) Insulator for 11 KV line.
(d) Lighting arrestors for 11 KV line.
(e) Circuit breaker for L.T. line.

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Internal Wiring Systems and Lamp Circuits: After The Main

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I. Introduction. 2. Wiring Systems. 3. Looping in System. 4. Wiring ofa building. 5.

i. Introduction. During these days aitenin urent i

(a) Step-down Substations

These systems have been dealt with in details in

3. Looping in System. The looping at the wires can be done

Looping in system with switches and ceiling roses

Looping in system with switch and holder

Virj wir tw'j -rra n-d one coflflcto'

cc Looping out from Ceiling Rose. In this sst,em specin

single phase supply

PHA 1 TO 6RJNt P.CQR

Wiring of a building with three-phase four-wire supply.

5. Trce System. !n this system from the main switch rising

st3 144/PI BOARD

Wiring of building by 'Free system

switch and the other should be a pendant type, suspended from a

2Wcy'fchN.. 2 2ylc7,v S., fch Ac I

Re presenting the lighted lamp

Starcase wiring with the help of T.R.S. Wire

Conversion to 2-way sw: circuit w-, t to icp of a

Alternative ner-.-. cf c' a of injie-way switch

(e) Corridor Lighting Circuits. Let the corridor have a number

S1 S, S2 S21 S3 S3 and S4 S. respectively.

n the circuit shown the lamp L

and L2 are connected in series for dim lighting.

4cy S.v.c/, S.i Woy 5*-7

INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 195

Circuit for lamps in series.

Alternative position of 2-way switches for operation of lamps in parallel.

Sy/e Woy S'z /ch

Fig. 7.22 represents a circuit for 3 lamps being independently

Master control on circuit with three two-way switches and

Fig. 7.23 represents a circuit for two corridor lamps being

2$v5f4 Pis/er ,q,/ch J me'wjfr Svj/c4

Fig. 7.24 Master off circuj

Alternate Posiin Off

Master off circuit

Variable master control

by their switches while the two single-way switches, M 1 and ''2 ac

Replacing two single-way switches in

5.7 0C, re.- /71

Ordinary Marvel Switch

R—e versing Switch

6. Use of Marvel Switch. Fig. 7.34 (a) represents a 2-1amp

(d)i M. S 1 is down, while M. S 2 is in

Position No. 5—Fig. 7.34 (e)

J'1.S 2 Cenfrc/ (5 Centro'

MS2 (en/rot 15; Cei/rc/

15 Fig. 7.35 (a) Two lamps in parallel

MS2 UP Fig. 7.35 (h) M.S2 DOWN

MS 2 are in the up-position ; but in between these two switches is

The alternative method of controlling the lamps is as shown in

Whole circuit is lighted

Part of the circuit is lighted

Controlling of a lamp from more than two points

Controlling of a lamp from four poin

Controlling of a lamp from four points

15. Use of Parallel or Series Switch.