ANCIENT INDIAN CULTURE

 In the times of ancient India, the people used to wonder and this wonder to
understand the mysteries appeared to be satisfied by communal songs and
rituals which came as a result of the need to communicate with the
supernatural.

 This need led to the creation of art not for art's sake but as a way of meeting the spiritual
needs of the community.
 The role of this art is to act as a threshold between the world of gods and man.
 these images offered protection from the fickle spirit world
 Hindu ritual practice came as a result of the desire to propitiate, protect and secure wish
fulfilment from the gods.
RELIGION

 The best definition of religion that would appropriate to the Indian religion is it is a
particular system in which myths, rituals, sentiments and institutions are interconnected
for the purpose of more effectively reaching out to a divine authority that is believed to
regulate and control society, the environment and the Individuals within it.
 Mantras or prayers were written down in religious texts known as Vedas
 The Vedas were 4 and include: Rigveda, The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and The last
Artharva Veda
 Hinduism as a word refers to the inhabitants of the Hindustan which means the region
surrounding the Indus Valley.
 Its practise involves not only an emotional and/or intellectual response but also contains a
sensory dimension.
 It involves touch in the rubbing of oil

KEY CONCEPTS OF THE HINDU RELIGION

ATMAN-BRAHMAN

 It links the whole self to the rest of the universe.

 Atman means self or soul and Brahman means ultimate reality.
 It deals with the search for balance between oneself and the universe Brahman.

THE DIVINE TRINITY

 The divine trinity comprises of Vishnu the preserver, Siva the destroyer and Brahma a
depiction of the elemental forces.
THE VEDAS

 These are the corpus of hymns and prayers transmitted orally from sacred writing’s.

AHIMSA

 Deals with the respect of life and is linked with ideas of the unity of life symbolized by
Brahman.
 It shows itself in the avoidance of eating meat and the veneration of the cow and other
sacred animals

KARMA AND DHARMA

 Dharma refers to the concept of right living as per the laws and expectations.
 Karma on the other hand is the accumulation of past deeds that determine rebirth or
reincarnation.
 Karma and Dharma shapes the Hindu thinking to one simple concept, moksha, which
means liberation from the cycle of rebirth or samsara.
THE INDU DEITIES

SIVA

Siva, like a complex personality, can have many forms and

paradoxical characters.

Siva is associated with: a snake entwined around his neck, the

bull as his vehicle and the antelope mostly as a sacrificial victim.

Depictions of Shiva
Linga

 The most common symbol of Siva

 Symbolizes Siva’s ability to produce life itself.
Siva Nataraja

 Siva is depicted dancing in a ring of fire as a paradoxical change

of emotion from wild ecstasy to a controlled detached movement.
 The fire destroys ignorance while evoking creation with the sound of the double sided
drum
Dakshinamurti

 Siva is depicted as a wise and benevolent teacher

Bairava and Virabhadra

 Siva is depicted as an Ascetic, with wild hair, a staff and an erect penis.
 A skull is fixed to his hand (the 5th head of Bharma) and he wears a garland of skulls.

VISHNU

Despite his many manifestations, he is consistently seen as the preserver of harmony.

Aniconic forms and depictions of Vishnu
Saligramas

 Vishnu is depicted as round black stones which associate him to the sun
Creation

 He is depicted as the source of creation where he lays back on a snake Sesha and the
flowering lotus from his navel gives rise to creation
Legends Rama and Krishna
The boar

 In this depiction he uses the guise of a boar to kill a demon who had cast the world into
the depths of the ocean.
Narasimha

 Depicted as half man half lion.

 He takes this form to defeat an enemy insuperable by day or night, man or beast
The dwarf incarnation
Rama with an axe
Balarama
Krishna

 In this depiction he is associated with romantic love

 Wife or consort was Lakshmi
Brahma

 Initially had 5 heads one was beheaded by Bairava

THE GODDESS

A single powerful female deity exists, Mahadevi, who personifies thousands of local Devis as
well as Pan Indian goddesses.
Forms of Mahadevi include

 Parvati. Identified as a reincarnation of the goddess Sati

 Durga. A queen armed for battle created from the combined anger of several gods.
 Annapurna. Goddess of plenty
 Kali. Known as the black female one and is the most terrifying manifestation of the
goddess.
 Lakshmi. Consort of the god Vishnu and embodies auspiciousness, prosperity and
abundance.
 Sarasvati. Consort of Bharma.
 Sita. Goddesss associated with ploughing fields

SEXUAL DESIRES IN ANCIENT INDIA

 PROSTITUTION IN ANCIENT INDIA
 In the pre-colonial period, India experienced different forms of prostitution. These
included: religious prostitution or the devadasi system, where young girls entered in a
symbolic marriage with god, but were considered sexually available to men; and the
tawaif or courtesan system, where young girls were trained in classical dance and music
but also engaged in sexual services with their clients
 Divided into Devdasis or Mukhies and Courtesans.
 Devdasis were used in the temples while courtesans or tawaif were professionally trained
dancers and singers
 Different classes of Devdasis include: Duta, Hruta, Bikrita, Bhutya, Bhakta, Gopika and
Alankara

THE KAMASUTRA

 It is not only about lovemaking but also includes principals to help in living
 A sort of art of living well and taking care of your love life
FESTIVALS

 Diwali- Festival of light celebrated on the darkest night of kartik

 Holi- Colour festival
 Ratha Yatra
 Durga Purga
Forgotten festivals

Madana Troyodoshi- Festival of love

Alakshmi Puja- To celebrate Lakshi’s sister (death and fight)

ANCIENT INDIAN ARCHITECTURE - SYMBOLISM

Symbolism refers to the linking of different aspects of our surroundings to our belief systems and
ideologies. This means that symbolism is not tied only to specific things but is open to
everything. A stone, for example, could have meaning to someone and hence be a symbol
attached to their belief. Symbols could be found in almost anything, including numbers, trees,
clothes, weather e.t.c. This also leads to the idea that symbolism is not fixed, and is open to all
sorts of interpretation. In Indian culture, symbolism is sometimes used to refer to the religious
relationship between man and gods, which tends to explain the significance of the gods to the
belief systems of the Indian community.

Hindu temples are not just about the visual aspects and the mathematical processes involved in
their creation. They aim to go deeper, and invoke spirituality and meaning that surpasses what
we can only see with our bare eyes. In Hinduism, it is almost impossible to believe that any
activity or process can exist without divine intervention.
Hindu temples are considered to be very sacred, right from designing to the final use of the
temples. The idea that temples are divine, and that they are a representation of the universe,
influences the whole idea of temples. Thus, great attention is paid to the geometry and
symmetries in a way that reflects the Indian beliefs and in a way that is in unity with the cosmos.

In order that human beings perceive that which is not perceivable to the naked eye, it was
necessary to scale down or scale up aspects of the universe so as to be applicable to man.
Temples were therefore dedicated to rendering the world of the gods visible, and its sacred
images to speak for the gods themselves.
 Jagadambi Temple, Khajuraho

The temple has been the center of life for the Hindu community. It is therefore not only a place
of worship but acts as the central point for all aspects of culture, art and rules that govern the
entire Hindu community, ranging from laws governing morality, to marriage. The temple to the
Hindu community could be equated to the nucleus of the cell. The Vastushastras document is the
document that is widely used to understand the design principles of temples and how each and
every aspect relates to the human way of life and its interconnection to the gods and the universe.

(Eliade, 1985) says that sacred art aims to explain the visible by means of the invisible, which
proves to be particularly true. Her theory, that humans are interested in displaying and
embodying their God’s ‘form’ is greatly expressed in the Hindu temple, where the temple is not
only considered an abode of God, but also the form of God.
GEOMETRY

Hindu community believes that number is an expression of the structure of the universe and is
necessary to bring together the mind of the human, and the meaning and form of the structure. It
is therefore crucial for certain mathematical aspects to be implemented in the design of the
temple.

The basic plan of any temple is based on the Vastu Purush Mandala, which involves a square
representing the perfectness of life and death, order, and the completeness of endless life. The
circle represents movement and therefore time. Both of these
put together bring about the aspect of order and movement.
The Vastu Purush Mandala forms a huge part in the design of
Indian Temples in that, it is referred to the god of structures
and buildings.

Vastu Purusha Mandala

Indian Temples play a divine role to the Indian community. As such, temples are not only
designed for the purpose of worship, but also mimic the deity themselves, as stated earlier. For
this reason, temple design has been used to relate to the divine realm and thus bringing the
community closer to the gods and the universe.
FRACTAL GEOMETRY

Fractal geometry has been greatly used in the design of Indian temples. The fractal characteristic
brings about a variation of detail. For example, the level of detail being perceived as one views
the temple from outside differs from the level of detail experienced when one is inside the
temple. The fractal characteristic has been used to symbolise order and surprise. That there is
unity in infinity, as one progresses from the cosmic to the atomic aspects of life and the universe.
 Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

The design of the shikhara, as witnessed in the Khajuraho temples, follows such rules of fractal
geometry, for the comfort of the society as well as mathematical congruency with the universe. It
is important to note that numbers play a huge role in the temple architecture of India. Without
attention to the mathematical laws, then there would not be harmony between man and the
divinity.

Indian Temple architecture pays an immense deal of attention to detail, such that even the
smallest detail depicts some sort of divine purpose. The main aim of this is to provide a
consistent and definite path in which man and gods can connect, and that there exists an infinite
amount of knowledge and beauty that can hardly be perceived by the human eye. That the
temples may connect us to the gods in the best and most accurate way possible.

Functionality and Typologies

Temples were the residing places of the deities, brought into existence through the collective
effort of the people.

They were processional spaces that encouraged movement through the structures rather than
congregation in the buildings i.e. from shrine to shrine.

They were designed to hold small groups of people at a time.

Temples emphasised approach and destination rather than centre and periphery.

They were dynamic spaces that encouraged movement and the performance of rituals.

Pilgrimages to the temples brought about the need for rest houses for the pilgrims called
Chattirams.

They were designed based on certain architectural principles known as Shilpa Shastra enshrined
in the Hindu religion.

Main Spaces of an Indian Temple

 Jagati – a raised platform for sitting and praying. It is found in North Indian temples.
 Mandapa –
o the entrance to the temple, the hallway outside the inner sanctuary.
o Colonnaded hall that holds a large number of worshipers.
o Entertainment such as dance is performed here.
o They are of various sizes and are referred to as ardhamandapa, mandapa and
mahamandapa.
 Garbha Griya –
o It means the womb house
o It is the inner sanctuary where symbol of the main deity resides.
 Shikhara or virmana
 o The tallest tower of the temple and is located above the inner sanctuary. On a.
o Shikhara is found in northern Indian temples and virmana are found in southern Indian
temples.
 Amalaka – a stone disc structure at the top of the temple. They are found in North Indian
temples.
 Kalasha – the crowning element on top of the tower
 Ardha Mandapa – the exterior beyond the hallway.
 Sacred bathing ponds
 Wall enclosures
 Gateways

Typologies

Ancient Indian temples generally fall under 3 styles

1. Nagara - Northern India

2. Dravida – Southern India
3. Vesara – Mixed
Nagara

The main elements of Nagara temples;

i. They were constructed on a raised platform called Jagati.

ii. The main sanctuary where the main deity resided was called Garbha Griya.
iii. The tallest tower was located above the inner sanctuary and had a crowning element on
the top (Kalasa).
iv. There was a hallway outside the main sanctuary known as Mandapa.
v. There were no elaborate walls or gateways.
vi. There were usually no ponds.
vii. There passage ways around the main sanctuary called Pradakshina Patha were covered.
Nagara temples can be classified based on;

1. The design principles Shipla Shastra

2. Geography

1. Classification based on design principles

a. Latina type
These were simple, and the most common type. They have a square base with
sloping or curved walls that come to a point on the top.
The structure was used to house the inner sanctuary, though it became more
complex with time as more towers were added and clustered together, the tallest
one being at the center.

Latina type temple.britannica.com

b. Phamasana type
This was broader and shorter than the Latina temple. The roof comprised many
slabs that rose to a single point over the center of the building. The walls are
straight and slope upward.
This type is usually used as a hallway, while the inner sanctuary is housed in the
Latina type.

Phamasana type temple. Britannica.com

c. Valabhi Type
It was a rectangular building with a roof that rose to a vaulted chamber. Its form
was influenced by ancient building forms.
 Telika Temple in Madhya Pradesh

2. Classification based on Geography

a. Central India
The temples were north and east facing. They were highly decorated with erotic
sculptures.
They had 3 chambers; the inner sanctuary, the hallway, and the half open
pavilion.
Example; Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Khajuraho

Kandariya Mahadev Temple. Templepurohit.com

b. Western India/ Solanki School

 They were built using sandstone, black basalt and some with soft white marble.
Example; Sun Temple Modhera in Ghujarat

Sun Temple Modhera in Ghujarat. Gujarattousism.com

Sun Temple Modhera in Ghujarat. Gujarattousism.com

c. East India/ Kalinga/ Odisha School

They are found in the north east, Bengal and Odisha. The north east and Bengal
temples are difficult to study as they have undergone renovations using brick and
concrete.
Example; Black Pagoda, Odisha

Black Pagoda, Odisha . Flickr.com

Black Pagoda, Odisha . Flickr.com

 d. Hilly region

They developed in the hills of Kashmir where Buddhist and Hindu traditions
intermingle.

They were wooden buildings with pitched roofs.

The inner sanctuary and tower were Latina type, while the hallway was an older
form of wooden architecture.

Dravida

The style emerged in South India and Sri Lanka during the 7th century. The main elements are;

i. They were generally not built on platforms

ii. They were enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall had a gate.
iii. They were in the form of a stepped pyramid (Vimana) with a crowning element.
iv. There were sculptures of fierce door keepers guarding the temple.
v. There were ponds, or reservoirs within the complex.
 vi. There were subsidiary shrines that were incorporated within the main temple, and also
distinct beside the main temple.
vii. They were used as administrative centers to control lands.
viii. There were 3 variations with respect to layouts

Kuta- square

Gaja Prishta-elephant back

Vritta - circular

Types of Dravida styles

1. Pallavas style
 It was a style from ancient South Indian dynasty from the 2nd Century. Early buildings
were rock cut, while later buildings were structural.

Shore Temple, Mamallapuram, India (photo: KenWalker)

2. Cholas style
Cholas were a dynasty that ruled between 875 and 1175 AD. The early temples were
small. Later, due to royal support larger temples were constructed.
Example; The Rajarajesvara Temple is the largest and tallest Indian temple with a height
of 70 meters.
 Rajarajesvara temple (south), c. 1004–1010, Chola period, Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu (photo:
Emanuel DYAN, CC BY 2.0)

Vesara Style

The style became popular after mid-7th century. The temples have elements of Nagara and
Dravida temples. Some features are;

i. There is an emphasis on open passageways

 ii. The columns, doorways and ceilings were decorated with carvings.

The temples were developed by a number of dynasties which serves to categorise the temples.

1. Chalukyas
These temples are found in the southern part of India. The earlier temples took the form
of rock-cut caves, while the later temples were structural.

Ravan Phadi Cave at Aihole - http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in

Temples at Pattadakal
 Comprises 10 temples – 4 in Dravida style, 4 in Nagara style and 1 in Jain.

2. Rashtrakutas
This dynasty came into power from 750CE after the Chalukyas.
Their greatest achievement is the Kailashnath Temple at Ellora. This is a temple carved
out of a hill. It is a Dravida style building.

Images of Kailashnath Temple. mymodernmet.com

Images of Kailashnath Temple. greatbuildings.com

 3. Hoysalas
They rose to power in Southern India after the Rashtrakutas. The most important feature
of these temples is that they are complex with many projecting angles so that their floor
plans look like stars (stellate plans).

Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebid. indiantemple.net

KEY CONSIDERATION IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

DESIGN

The essence of Hindu temple design is developed from the idea that all things are one and are
connected. The four Indian philosophy that are also aim of human life (quest for artha- wealth
and prosperity, kam- sex and pleasure, dharma- moral life values and moksha- self-knowledge
and realization are all reflected in the Indian temple. This are seen in the artwork, mathematical
structured space, carved pillars and the structured statues in the temple. The Hindu temples
suggest contemplation, encouragement and further purification of mind.
SITE

The areas of Hindu temples sites are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies.
This is because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most suitable site for a Hindu temple is
one that is next to a water body and gardens with flowers blossom and a place animals can rest
without fear. This places exhibiting peace and tranquility are usually recommended for building
a temple for Indians believe that gods reside in such peaceful places. They tried to make the
temple as heaven would be. Even if the temple site is built far from a water body a pond with
water garden would be built in front of the Mandir or toward the left. They believed if one went
into the pond he/ she would be cured from any diseases.

LAYOUTS
Layout of the Indian architecture pursues a geometrical design known as vastu purusha-mandala(
vastu means place of dwelling, purusha means universal principle and mandala means circle) and
it states that a perfect building is that which is properly oriented and constructed with careful laid
out norms to protect it from evil forces of the nature. So, there is a belief, if you perform this
ritual whenever you build any structure on a vacant plot, you will be blessed by Devtas, but if
you don't serve this ritual, you may fall into the rage of Asuras and your life will be sorrowful.

According to vastuurushamandala the most sacred plce is the 8 by 8 grid. Each square inside the
main square represents an element that can be in the form of a deity, aspara or a spirit. The
innermost square is dedicated to Brahman and it is called brahma padas.
The mandir spire usually a tapering conical or pyramidal superstructure with a dome is
symmetric aligned excactly above the brahma pada or the central core of Mandir.

KEY PRINCIPLES

1) Symmetry and proportion- In Indian architecture the use of square and triangles as the
plan layout resulted in strictly symmetrical plans and layouts along axis which led to
simple structural systems and increased structural strength against seismic force.
 2) Structural plan density- This is the total are of all vertical structural members divided buy
the gross floor plan and the density of the structural element is very great in the indian

temple .

Proportion

Proportion and measure interacted in the evolution and construction of the Hindu temple from
the 5th through the 15th century AD, but, throughout this history, proportion dominated as the
tool to give the monument both validity and form. This review analyzes the ritual force of
proportion and its function in the planning of temples by architects. The diagrams that
accompany the article are the result of field research and the analysis of built structures.
Articulation

Articulation is a method of styling the joints in the formal elements of architectural design.
Through degrees of articulation, each part is united with the whole work by means of a joint in
such a way that the joined parts are put together in styles ranging from exceptionally distinct
jointing to the opposite of high articulation—fluidity and continuity of joining. In highly
articulated works, each part is defined precisely and stands out clearly. The articulation of a
building reveals how the parts fit into the whole by emphasizing each part separately.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy is defined as when an element is given more importance in comparison with the other
element. Hierarchy in architecture is usually given in building design and in construction to
create a meaning to the elements, to emphasize.

The hierarchy can be created by size, shape, color.

BUILDING MATERIAL AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES

MATERIALS

Hindu architecture evolved over the centuries from simple rock cut cave shrines to massive and
aesthetic temples.

In Indian architecture material pay a significant role on overall aesthetics, construction technique
and monumental character of the temple.
The common materials used were timber, mud, plaster, brick and stone.

Earlier temples were constructed with durable materials such as timber, brick or plaster hence
some have disappeared and others fragments remain like sites excavated in Vaishali and Bihai.

There was use of timbers in the temple of Himalayan valleys and the region of West Bengal and
Kerala.

The use of stone for temple construction was one of the prominent developments in Indian
architecture and this is still the primary material used in construction up to date. The construction
from stones evolved from rock cut sanctuaries to more complicated structure with ornate
carvings and sculpting.
Fine grained dark marble and soapy chloritic schist was used by Wester Chakulyas who
established themselves in the tenth century around Malkhed and Kaylani.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

The construction of a temple is an art, science and complictated creative study .

The South and North follow the same procedure leading to the construction of the temple and the
difference only came in in the use of material.

The procedure taken for an Indian temple to atand are

SELECTION OF THE TEAM

Various groups of architect, artisans and workmen were employed in various aspects of temple
construction and techniques of these association was passed on verbally and practically in the
same household. Today the association still exist and still function like they used to and can be
seen in various states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnatak and orissa.

There was the main person called the chief architect and every region had one

1) West- sompuras
2) East- mahaparatas
3) South- sthapatis

The architects of Indian architecture were divided to 4 classes

1) Sthapati- the chief arhitect and well versed in traditional science, mathematics
2) Sutragrahin- well versed in layouts propotion and measurment
3) Taksaka- cuts and carves the stone and do sabtle details
4) Vardhakin- the mason and carpenter who assembled all pieces together
PLANNING OF THE TEMPLE

1) Selection of the site

2) Inspection, insemination and levelling of the site
3) Orientation, measurment and layouts
4) Selection of material
5) Quarrying of stone
6) Transportation of materials

CARVING ON THE TEMPLE

This stage includes carving different parts of temple such as pillars, beams and brackets
and each stone to be used in construction is carved separately and assembled together.
The procedure is
1) Cutting and curving the stone where one team cut the stones into required sizes and
curved to required shape and the joinery system of each stone is pre-decided
2) Drawing in stone where the drawings were made by sharpened coal piece
3) Polishing the stone with stone bars.

BUILDING THE TEMPLE

1) Laying the foundation – the foundation is usually 2m deep and the foundation tip is
wider than the base of the temple then the stones are laid above the other without
mortar towards the structure
2) Assembly of elements- this is the most important stage for the construction of the
temple where the parts of the temples are first pre assembled to check for accuracy of
the joints and to avoid any mismatch.
3) Joinery system- the major joining systems used were different types of mortise and
Tenon joint joint on the lap joint.natural binders were used to unite the joints and steel
was prohibited for it rusted and aged the temple.
4) Plinth -was placed above the foundation stones and acted as retaining walls for the
rubble compacted earth. The stones of the plinth were 200mm by 300mm and were
placed over each for about 3 to 10 courses and was made stable by self weight.

5) Wall – average thickness of masonry wall varied from 800mm-1200mm and were
placed without motar and where motar was needed fine lime water was used.
6) Columns and beams- columns were monolithic and were interlocked by the mortise
and tenon joint. The top of the column have brackets.
 7) Mandapa- The mandapa of the temple may be flat roofed at the north and pyramidal
superstructur in the North. It is built with basic beam and slab construction method.
Octagonal patterns were then constructed by placing the triangular slabs across the

corners
8) Sikhara- This is the pyramidical structure built on the garbhagriha of the temple and
was hollow from inside or filled with rubble. Corbelling construction system is sude
in construction of sikhara.

Aesthetic of Indian Architecture

indian aesthetics is Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or
philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically.

Rasa; in Sanskrit mean essence or taste,” Indian concept of aesthetic flavour, an essential
element of any work of visual, literary, or performing art that can only be suggested, not
described.

Building Decoration (Ornamentation)

Ornaments in architecture is simply embellishment or additional details. Main purpose of

ornamentation ia to make structures look more interesting.
Ornamentation have become identity and distinguishing characteristics of the builders or ruling
dynasties. It tells us a great deal about the evolution of artistic inclination.

Ornamentation during different periods include;

1)Buddhism

Buddhism encompasses the earliest stone carvings . The most magnificent ones include ; stupas,
monolithic pillars, chambers and shrines.

Stupas

The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it
predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or
a receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone.

Monolithic pillars

They were erected to propagate the codes of law in such sites sacred to the Buddhist creed.

Buddhist art also have exotic Greek and Persian forms; honeysuckle, palmate motifs, festoon
moldings.
Jainism

Jain architecture include temple cities atop hills.

They have rich and elaborate style of temples most of which are carved from marble and
ornamented with statues of tirthankaras in the interior and carved pillars on exterior.
Chola sculptures

They exhibit opulent human figures and various animal motifs. Mainly found on south indian
temple art.

Temples at tanjore comprises of art with supreme qualities while gopurama comprises of simpler
and conventional decorations.

Examples;
Temples of vijaynagara

They consist of richest and most beautiful structures due to their high level of ornamentation.

Every stone is chiseled over with the most elaborate patterns, some with natural and mythical
motifs others with mural relief work.
Mughal monuments

Mughal architecture started with Persian influence blended into local traditional architecture.

Dado art ornamentation derives inspiration from nature as artists believed nature could help
people find new strength and art in life. They are done on prominent walls of castles, palaces and
mosques. They include; tile decorations, mosaic painting, stucco, inlay and marble carving.
Agra fort

It is built of red sandstone; a glorious example of amalgamation of Hindu and Islamic elements
in architecture.

Taj Mahal

It is well balanced and perfectly proportioned and in perfect harmony with constructive design.
Chambers are decorated with intricate calligraphic panels and dado with expensive inlay of
parchin kari work. Panels have stylized floral motifs of plants, trees, flowers and animals; all
highly polished and adorned with precious stones.
Key Leimotifs

Leimotifs are objects or ideas in architecture which occurs again and again.

Example;

Jalis

In India, the word ‘jali’ stems from the Sanskrit word for ‘net.’ The earliest development of the
jali in India were lattice-like windows in the Ladh Khan temple. Under Mughal rule, architecture
changed dramatically. Local Indian knowledge was fused with Muslim architecture, allowing the
birth of new ideas and innovations in local architecture.

European art had an impact on Mughal jali’s as well, as artisans began incorporating floral
designs and patterns into their carvings. Famous examples of buildings in India with beautiful
jali’s include the Red Fort, Amer Fort, and Hawa Mahal.

Jalis allow light and ventilation in the building and at the same time provides privacy. The
original purpose was to provide breathable visual barriers while in modern architecture they are
used to provide shade, as wind breakers and for decoration.
 References
1. Sakhiyani : Lesbian desire in ancient and modern india. (1996). Bloomsbury Publishing
Plc.
2. Singh, U. (2016). The idea of ancient india : Essays on religion, politics, and
archaeology. SAGE Publications India
3. Puṣpikā : Tracing ancient india through texts and traditions : contributions to current
research in indology, volume 3. (2015). Oxbow Books, Limited.
4. Elgood, H. (1998). Hinduism and the religious arts. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
322852250_Building_Science_of_Indian_Temple_Architecture
 https://www.academia.edu/44119335/
Hindu_Temple_CONSTRUCTION_MATERIALS_Part_I_MUD_Comes_to_LIFE
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
studystructural.wordpress.com/2012/12/23/a-survey-on-structural-plan-density/
%23:~:text%3DBasically%252C%2520it%2520is%2520the%2520ratio,of
%2520structural%2520efficiency%2520and
 %2520reliability.&ved=2ahUKEwiiz57bw-_6AhWJYPEDHXP-
AXsQFnoECAkQBQ&usg=AOvVaw3CA4fratis0q56T28Ct88u
 https://youtu.be/OWrciacV9XU
 https://www.opindia.com/2020/12/hindu-temple-symbolism-vastu-shastra/
#:~:text=East%20direction%20is%20sacred%20in,the%20same%20direction
%20as%20well
 https://youtu.be/Vr1D3PavxAA
 Aihole Cave or Ravana Phadi Cave. (n.d.). Retrieved 26 October 2022, from

http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/AiholeCaveorRavanaPhadiCave_2838.aspx

 Bharne, V., & Krusche, K. (2014). Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred

Architecture and Urbanism of India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

 Cartwright, M. (n.d.). Hindu Architecture. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 22

October 2022, from

 https://www.worldhistory.org/Hindu_Architecture/

 Drishti IAS : English (Director). (2021a, April 4). Temple Architecture: Nagara Style.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khNWzFncYrA

 Drishti IAS : English (Director). (2021b, July 11). Temple Architecture: Dravida or the

Southern Style. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJrusmq0AsI

 Drishti IAS : English (Director). (2021c, July 18). Temple Architecture: Deccan or

Vesara Style. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFTPtWJRoqc

 Hoysaleswara Temple Halebid—FAMOUS TEMPLES IN INDIA. (n.d.). Retrieved 26

October 2022, from https://indiatemple.net/temple/id/191/hoysaleswara-temple-halebid

 Kailasa Temple is an Incredible Feat of Indian Architecture and Engineering. (n.d.).

Retrieved 26 October 2022, from https://mymodernmet.com/kailasa-temple-ellora-caves/

 Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Madhya Pradesh—Info, Timings, Photos, History. (n.d.).

 Temple Purohit - Your Spiritual Destination | Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad. Retrieved

26 October 2022, from https://www.templepurohit.com/hindu-temple/kandariya-

mahadev-temple/

 Rajarajesvara temple, Tanjavur – Smarthistory. (n.d.). Retrieved 26 October 2022, from

https://smarthistory.org/temple-tanjavur/

 Ray, H. P., Kulshreshtha, S., & Suvrathan, U. (2022). The Routledge Handbook of Hindu

Temples: Materiality, Social History and Practice. Taylor & Francis.

 Sadhguru (Director). (2016, January 6). Why & How Indian Temples Were Created |

Sadhguru. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWrciacV9XU

 Shore Temple, Mamallapuram – Smarthistory. (n.d.). Retrieved 26 October 2022,

from https://smarthistory.org/shore-temple-mamallapuram/
 https://www.emis.de/journals/NNJ/N2002-Nathan.html
 https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v3i12/U1VCMTQzMjI=.pdf
 https://sreenivasaraos.com/2012/09/08/temple-architecture-devalaya-vastu-part-three-3-
of-7/

REFFERENCE

5. Sakhiyani : Lesbian desire in ancient and modern india. (1996). Bloomsbury Publishing
Plc.
6. Singh, U. (2016). The idea of ancient india : Essays on religion, politics, and
archaeology. SAGE Publications India
7. Puṣpikā : Tracing ancient india through texts and traditions : contributions to current
research in indology, volume 3. (2015). Oxbow Books, Limited.
8. Elgood, H. (1998). Hinduism and the religious arts. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.