MODULE II

NETWORK THEOREMS AND TRANSFORMERS

2.1.0 To study the network theorems

2.1.1To state and explain Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s law

2.1.2Superposition theorem, Thevenins theorem, Maximum power transfertheorem (Solve simple

problems)

2.2.0 To know the operations and uses of transformers

2.2.1To explain the working principle of transformer

2.2.2To illustrate the construction of transformer

2.2.3To illustrate the elementary theory of an ideal transformer

2.2.4To state voltage transformation ratio and rating of a transformer

2.2.5To derive the emf equation of transformer

2.2.6To explain types of losses in transformer

2.2.7To identify the different types and applications transformers

 2.2.1To explain the working principle of transformer
Working Principle:-Mutual Induction
Definition:-the production of an electromotive force in a circuit by a change in the current in an
adjacent circuit which is linked to the first by the flux lines of a magnetic field.
2.2.2To illustrate the construction of transformer

Basically a transformer consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and secondary winding.
The coils are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is produced around the
winding. The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the secondary winding.
Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as 'useful flux' or main
'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'. As
the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing), EMF gets induced in
the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction . This emf is called
'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf.
If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced current flows through it, and
hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).

2.2.3To illustrate the elementary theory of an ideal transformer

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e.its windings have no ohmic resistance, there is
no magnetic leakage and hence which has no I 2R and core losses. In other words, an ideal
transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core.

Consider an ideal transformer as shown above .Thesecondary is open and primary is connected to
sinusoidal alternating voltage V1. This potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in
the primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output (secondary being
open) the primary draws the magnetising current Iµ only. The function of this current is merely to
magnetise the core, it is small in magnitude and lags V1 by 90°. This alternating current Iµ
produces an alternating flux f which is, at all times, proportional to the current and hence, is in
phase with it. This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces self-induced e.m.f. in the primary. This self-induced e.m.f (also called back
emf ) E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V1.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced e.m.f E2 which is known as mutually
induced e.m.f. This e.m.f. is antiphase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.

2.2.4To state voltage transformation ratio and rating of a transformer

Voltage Transformation ratio:-

Rating:-maximum voltage and current that can be safely applied to transformer

2.2.5To derive the emf equation of transformer

Let
➢ϕm -maximum value of flux in Weberm -maximum value of flux in Weber
➢f -supply frequency in Hz
➢N1-is the number of turns in the primary winding
➢N2-is the number of turns in the secondary winding
➢Φ -is the flux per turn in Weber

Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕm -maximum value of flux in Weber

Since ϕm -maximum value of flux in Weber is due to AC supply ϕm -maximum value of flux in Weber = ϕm -maximum value of flux in WebermSinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πff

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of πf = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as

Similarly
 2.2.6 To explain types of losses in transformer
(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for
the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.
•Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the
transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of
magnetic reversals and value of flux density.
•Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced
emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy
current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.
(Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer
Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends on
the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.
2.2.7To identify the different types and applications transformers

Transformers Based on Voltage Levels

Depending upon the voltage ratios from primary to secondary windings, the transformers are
classified as step-up and step-down transformers.

Step-Up Transformer

As the name states that, the secondary voltage is stepped up with a ratio compared to primary
voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the number of windings in the secondary than the
primary windings

Step-Down Transformer

It used to step down the voltage level from lower to higher level at secondary side as shown below
so that it is called as a step-down transformer. The winding turns more on the primary side than the
secondary side.
Transformer Based on the Core Medium Used

Based on the medium placed between the primary and secondary winding the transformers are
classified as Air core and Iron core

Air Core Transformer

Both the primary and secondary windings are wound on a non-magnetic strip where the flux linkage
between primary and secondary windings is through the air.

Compared to iron core the mutual inductance is less in air core, i.e. the reluctance offered to the
generated flux is high in the air medium. But the hysteresis and eddy current losses are completely
eliminated in air-core type transformer.

Iron Core Transformer

Both the primary and secondary windings are wound on multiple iron plate bunch which provide a
perfect linkage path to the generated flux. It offers less reluctance to the linkage flux due to the
conductive and magnetic property of the iron. These are widely used transformers in which the
efficiency is high compared to the air core type transformer.
Transformers Based on Winding Arrangement
AutoTransformer

Standard transformers have primary and secondary windings placed in two different directions, but
in autotransformer windings, the primary and the secondary windings are connected to each other in
series both physically and magnetically as shown in the figure below.

Application of transformer
•Impedance matching.
•Isolate two circuits electrically.
•Increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.
•Used in voltmeter, ammeters, protective relay etc.
•Step up low voltage in case of measurement.
•Step down high voltage for safety.
•Used in rectifier.
•Used in voltage regulators, voltage stabilizers, power supplies etc.
 MODULE IV
ALTERNATORS AND AC MOTORS
4.1.0 To understand alternators
4.1.1 To explain the working principle of an alternator
4.1.2To derive the emf equation of an alternator
4.1.3To explain synchronous speed and the determination of frequency (Solve simple problems)
4.1.4To illustrate the open circuit characteristics of an alternator
4.2.0 To understand AC motors
4.2.1To explain the working principle and classification of AC motors
4.2.2To explain the working principle of stepper motor and its applications
4.2.3To explain the working principle universal motor and its applications
4.2.4To explain the working principle servo motor and its applications
4.2.5To explain the working principle of single phase and three phaseinduction motor and their
applications
 4.1.1 To explain the working principle of an alternator
Working Principle:Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic induction:-when the flux linking a
conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
An alternator or AC generator (dynamo) is a device which convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy.Here the magnet is rotated (rotor) around a stationary conductor (stator). The rotor winding
is energized from the DC exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor.When the
rotor is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors
are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the armature
conductors due to electromagnetic induction.The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles
of rotor alternately pass the armature conductors. The frequency of induced e.m.f is given by;
f = PN / 120
where N = speed of the rotor in r.p.m.
P = number of rotor poles

4.1.2To derive the emf equation of an alternator

Lets,

P= No. of poles
Z= No. of Conductors or Coil sides in series/phase
f= frequency of induced EMF in Hz
Φ= Flux per pole (Weber)
N= rotor speed (RPM)
In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut by a flux of ΦP Webers.

dΦ=ΦP and also dΦ= 60/N seconds

then induced e.m.f per conductor ( average) =

Since f is given by
f = PN / 120
or N= 120f/ P
Putting the value of N the emf equation we get

Average value of EMF per

conductor =

If there are Z conductors in series per phase,then average e.m.f per phase = 2fΦ Z Volts
 4.1.3To explain synchronous speed and the determination of frequency
Synchronous Speed
The synchronous speed is the speed of the revolution of the magnetic field in the stator winding of
the motor. It is the speed at which the electromotive force is produced by the alternating machine.
The Synchronous Speed (Ns)is given by the relation

f:-frequency of induced e.m.f

P:-number of field poles
From equation 1 the frequency of induced e.m.f is given by
f=PN/160

4.1.4To illustrate the open circuit characteristics of an alternator

With the armature terminals open, current through armature Ia=0.It is thus possible to construct a
plot of open circuit voltage E versus field curret I f graph. This plot is called open-circuit
characteristic (OCC) of a generator. With this characteristic, it is possible to find the internal
generated voltage of the generator for any given field current.

Initially OCC follows a straight-line relation with the field current as long as the magnetic circuit of
the synchronous generator does not saturate. This straight line is appropriately called the air-gap
line. Practically due to saturation induced emf bend from the straight line.
4.2.0 To understand AC motors
4.2.1To explain the working principle and classification of AC motors
Working Principle:Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic induction:-when the flux linking a
conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
The motor that converts the alternating current into mechanical power by using an electromagnetic
induction phenomenon is called an AC motor. This motor is driven by an alternating current. The
stator and the rotor are the two most important parts of the AC motors. The stator is the stationary
part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of the motor.
The AC motor is mainly classified into two types.
➢ Synchronous motor
➢ Induction motor

Synchronous Motor
The motor that converts the AC electrical power into mechanical power and is operated only at the
synchronous speed (speed of the revolution of the magnetic field in the stator winding of the
motor)is known as a synchronous motor.
The stator and rotor are the two main parts of the synchronous motor. The stator is the stationary
part, and the rotor is the rotating part of the machine. The three-phase AC supply is given to the
stator of the motor.The stator and rotor both are excited separately. The excitation is the process of
inducing the magnetic field on the parts of the motor with the help of an electric current.
When the three phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic field developed
between the stator and rotor gap.The field having moving polarities is known as the rotating
magnetic field. Because of the rotating magnetic field, the north and south poles develop on the
stator.
The rotor is excited by the DC supply. The DC supply induces the north and south poles on
the rotor. As the DC supply remains constant, the flux induces on the rotor remains same. Thus, the
flux has fixed polarity. The north pole develops on one end of the rotor, and the south pole develops
on another end.
The positive and negative half cycle of the AC wave develops the north and south pole on
the stator respectively.When the rotor and stator both have the same pole on the same side, they
repel each other. If they have opposite poles, they attract each other.

Induction Motor or Asynchronous Motor

The machine which converts the AC electric power into mechanical power by using an
electromagnetic induction phenomenon in called an induction motor.
The induction motor is mainly classified into two types., i.e., the single phase induction
motor and the three phase induction motors.
Working of a Single Phase Induction Motor

A Single Phase Induction Motor consists of a single phase winding which is mounted on the stator
of the motor and a cage winding placed on the rotor. A pulsating magnetic field is produced, when
the stator winding of the single-phase induction motor is energised by a single phase supply.
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the
alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current
produces an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors
and hence cut the rotor conductors.
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As the
rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor
current. This rotor current produces its flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is produced due to the
induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name as an induction motor. Now
there are two fluxes one is main flux, and another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes produce the
desired torque which is required by the motor to rotate.

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase
winding circuit which we connect with 3 phase AC source. We arrange the three-phase winding in
such a manner in the slots that they produce one rotating magnetic field when we switch on the
three-phase AC supply source.
The rotor of three phase induction motor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors.
When we connect the stator to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes rotating magnetic field
which rotates at the synchronous speed.According to Faraday’s law an emf is induced in any circuit
due to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an
induction motor are either closed through an external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and
cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor and due to this emf a current
flows through the rotor conductor.
Here the relative speed between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause of current
generation and hence the rotor will rotate.

Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motors

1.Single phase induction motors are simple in construction, reliable and economical for small power
rating as compared to three phase induction motors.
2.The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is low as compared to three phase
induction motors.
3.For the same size, the single-phase induction motors develop about 50% of the output as that of
three phase induction motors.
4.The starting torque is also low for single phase induction motor.
5.The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less compared to that of three phase induction
motors.

4.2.2To explain the working principle of stepper motor and its applications
Stepper Motor is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of electric pulses
applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined step-by-step mechanical shaft rotation.
The shaft of the motor rotates through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse.The angle through which
the stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step angle, which is generally
expressed in degrees.
The operation of permanent magnet stepper motor works on the principle that unlike poles attract
each other and like poles repel each other. When the stator windings are excited with a DC supply, it
produces magnetic flux and establishes the North and South poles. Due to the force of attraction
and repulsion between permanent magnet rotor poles and stator poles, the rotor starts moving up to
the position for which pulses are given to the stator.
Applications:
1.Industrial Machines– Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipments.
2.Security– new surveillance products for the security industry.
3.Medical– Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found inside
digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.
4.Consumer Electronics– Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and
zoom functions.

4.2.3To explain the working principle universal motor and its applications
An universal motor is a specially designed series wound motor, that operates approximately at the
same speed and torque, on either AC or DC voltage.
In a universal motor, both winding are connected in series with each other. When the motor
is supplied from ac or dc voltage source, magnetic fields are developed in the armature and field
winding both. They react on each other to produce an unidirectional torque.
Applications Of Universal Motor
•Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum cleaners, drink and
food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.
•The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders etc.

4.2.4To explain the working principle of servo motor and its applications
The Servo Motor basically consists of a DC Motor, a Gear system, a position sensor and a control
circuit.The DC motors get powered from a battery and run at high speed.The Gear and shaft
assembly connected to the DC motors lower this speed into sufficient speed and higher torque. The
position sensor senses the position of the shaft from its definite position and feeds the information
to the control circuit. The control circuit accordingly decodes the signals from the position sensor
and compares the actual position of the motors with the desired position and accordingly controls
the direction of rotation of the DC motor to get the required position. The Servo Motor generally
requires DC supply of 4.8V to 6 V.

Applications of Servo Motors

Servomotors are used in applications requiring rapid variations in speed without the motor getting
overheated.

•In Industries they are used in machine tools, packaging, factory automation, material handling,
printing converting, assembly lines, and many other demanding applications robotics, CNC
machinery or automated manufacturing.
•They are also used in radio controlled airplanes to control the positioning and movement of
elevators.
•They are used in robots because of their smooth switching on and off and accurate positioning.
•They are also used by aerospace industry to maintain hydraulic fluid in their hydraulic systems.
•They are used in many radio controlled toys.
•They are used in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue ray Disc players to extend or replay
the disc trays.
•They are also being used in automobiles to maintain the speed of vehicles.
 MODULE III
DC GENERATORS AND D C MOTORS
3.1.0 To understand DC generators
3.1.1To explain the working principle of DC generator
3.1.2To compare output waveforms of a DC generator and a pure DCwaveforms
3.1.3To list different types of DC generator
3.1.4To derive emf equation of a DC generator
3.1.5To explain the armature reaction and it’s effects
3.1.6To explain the no load characteristics of a DC generator
3.2.0 To understand DC motors
3.2.1To list the types of DC generators
3.2.2To explain the working principle of DC motor
3.2.3To illustrate the significance of back emf in DC motor
3.2.4To explain the necessity of starter in a DC motor
3.2.5To compare different types of DC motors with characteristics and speed
3.1.1To explain the working principle of DC generator
Working Principle-Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
This law states that when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of
force, which induces an electromagnetic force (EMF) in the conductor. The magnitude of this
induced EMF depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the
conductor. This EMF will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

A DC generator or direct current generator is one kind of electrical machine, and the main
function of this machine is to convert mechanical energy into DC (direct current) electricity.
In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are
rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature
conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.Let’s consider an
armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward. When the armature
completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to
downward. Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. But with
a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also gets reversed when the current
reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.
3.1.2To compare output waveforms of a DC generator and a pure Dcwaveforms

3.1.3To list different types of DC generator

1.Permanent Magnet DC Generators – Field coils excited by permanent magnets.

2.Separately Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by some external source.

3.Self Excited DC Generators– Field coils excited by the generator it

3.1.4To derive emf equation of a DC generator

Let,
•P– Number of poles of the machine
•ϕ– Flux per pole in Weber.
•Z– Total number of armature conductors.
•N– Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
•A– Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given by
the equation shown below.
3.1.5To explain the armature reaction and it’s effects
In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field flux'.
The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below

MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis along which no emf is generated in the
armature conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines.
GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the stator
field axis.
Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is energized
(as shown in the first figure of the above image). In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field poles
are uniform and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with
the 'Geometric Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).The second figure in the above image shows armature flux
lines due to the armature current. Field poles are de-energised.Now, when a DC machine is running,
both the fluxes (flux due to the armature conductors and flux due to the field winding) will be
present at a time. The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux and, hence, disturbs the
main field flux (as shown in third figure the of above image). This effect is called as armature
reaction in DC machines.
 3.1.6To explain the no load characteristics of a DC generator
In a DC generator generated emf is directly proportional to field flux ɸ(and hence, also directly
proportional to the field current If). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of
emf is generated (represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the
fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a
small initial emf is induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual
flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf.
Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated
and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the I f further, ɸ remains constant
and hence, Eg also remains constant.

3.2.0 To understand DC motors

3.2.1To list the types of DC motors
1.Permanent Magnet DC Motors
The permanent magnet motor uses a permanent magnet to create field flux.
2. Series DC Motors
In a series DC motor, the field winding is wound with a few turns of a large wire carrying the full
armature current.
3. Shunt DC Motors
In shunt DC motors the field winding is connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings.
4. Compound DC Motors
Compound DC motors, like shunt DC motors, have a separately excited shunt field.
 3.2.2To explain the working principle of DC motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by F = BIL Newton.

F is force measured in newtons (N)

B is flux density (the strength of a magnetic field I.e No. of magnetic lines of force from magnet per
unit area) measured in teslas (T, named after Nikola Tesla)
I is current measured in amperes (A)
L is the length of conductor in the magnetic field measured in metres(m)

The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature, connected to the
supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed in between north
pole and south pole of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.As soon as
we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due to the electromagnetic
effect of the magnet on armature conductors.

3.2.3To illustrate the significance of back emf in DC motor

When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the armature
conductors move through the magnetic field and hence emf is induced in them as in a generator.
The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as
Back EMF or Counter EMF (Eb).
Armature current (Ia),

Ra: Armature resistance

V:applied voltage
Eb:Back emf
When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the friction and
windage losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the back emf is nearly equal to the
applied voltage.If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow
down. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the field is reduced and
hence the back emf Eb falls.
The decreased back emf allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger current
means increased driving torque.Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows down. The
motor will stop slowing down when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the increased
torque required by the load.
If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily in excess of the requirement
so that armature is accelerated.
As the armature speed increases, the back emf also increases and causes the armature current Ia to
decrease. The motor will stopaccelerating when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the
reduced torque required by the load.Therefore, the back emf in a DC motor regulates the flow of
armature current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
3.2.4To explain the necessity of starter in a DC motor

Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high current and
torque during startup. They do this by providing external resistance to the motor, which is
connected in series to the motor’s armature winding and restricts the current to an acceptable level.
Voltage equation of a DC motor is given by

E = supply voltage
Eb= back EMF
Ia= armature current
Ra= armature resistance
Back EMF is directly proportional to the motor’s speed, so at startup, when motor speed is zero,
back EMF is also zero. Therefore, removing the Eb term and rearranging the voltage equation, we
can see that, at startup, armature current is inversely proportional to armature resistance.
For the best motor performance, armature resistance in DC motors is kept very low (typically less
than 1 ohm). This gives a starting current (Ia) much more than the rated current, and high enough to
damage the internal motor circuit.
To combat these problems, a motor starter adds external resistance (Rs) to the armature winding,
which reduces the armature current:
Ia=E/(Ra+Rs)
But this resistance doesn’t need to be present through the motor’s full operating speed range. As
motor speed increases, back EMF develops, which counters the supply voltage and also has the
effect of reducing armature current:

As the back EMF reaches its maximum, the starter progressively decreases the
external resistance, Rs, to zero.
3 point starter
A three-point starter is an electrical device, used for starting as well as maintaining the DC shunt
motor speed. The connection of resistance in this circuit is in series which decreases the initial high
current and guards the equipment against any electrical failures.
The handle of the 3 point starter can be moved from one stud to another stud (contact positions),
and this increases the speed of the motor till it gets the RUN position.There are three main points
are considered in this position which includes the following.
•The DC shunt motor gets the full speed
•The voltage supply in the circuit is straight across both the motor’s windings.
•The R-resistance is totally cut-out.
Drawbacks of a Three-Point Starter

•The main drawback of the 3 point starter is, it experiences from a major drawback of motors by
a huge difference of speed with a modification of the field rheostat.
•To amplify the motor speed, the field resistance must be amplified. So the flow of current
throughout the shunt field is decreased.
•Whenever adding high resistance to get a high speed will make the field current very low.
•When NVC (no volt trip coil) is associated in series by shunt field, then the minute current will
decrease the power of the electromagnet.
3.2.5To compare different types of DC motors with characteristics and speed