Module 1

Title: Direct Current Generator

Title of the Lesson: Generation of Voltage
Duration: 6 hrs
Introduction: This module is design for students of Electrical Engineering enrolled in
the subject EE 302 (Electrical machines) to give knowledge about direct current
generator. It makes learning easier but challenging for the students to become
independent and resourceful. Every topic contains sample problem and activity for
them to think and analyzed.
It covers the principles of a generator, the different parts and functions of a
generator, the types and advantages of armature winding. The Generator Voltage
equation, is also discussed in this module.
To fully understand this module, set aside other task that may disturb you
while doing this module. Read and understand the lesson carefully. Analyzed the
sample problems and answer all the activities including the self-evaluation test to
gauge how well you understand the lesson. For problem solving, read the problem
carefully, write down what are the given and the unknown, draw the circuit and
analyze, formulate the equation that fits with the unknown so that you can check
what is missing based on the given, solve the problem step by step until you reach
the final answer.

Objectives:
After thoroughly studying this module the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the principle of generator

2. Explain the function of various parts of dc generator.
3. Know the types and importance of armature winding
4. Prepare winding scheme for the armature winding.
5. Calculate the generated voltage and other parameters in the voltage equation.

Pretest:
Answer the following questions in at least one sentence.
1. What is a generator?
2. Name at least 4 parts of a DC generator.
3. What is armature winding?
4. What is a generated voltage?

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Lesson Proper:
I. Overview

The electrical engineering study mainly includes the analysis of the energy
transfer from one form to another. An electrical machine, deals with the transfer of
energy either from mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice versa. This
process is called eletromechanical energy conversion.
A machine that converts mechanical energy to an electrical energy is called
an electric generator. While a machine that converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy is called an electric motor.
Electrical machines may be associated to an electrical energy of an
alternating type called a.c. machine or may be associated to an electrical energy of
direct type called d.c. machines
DC generators and Dc motors are the classifications of DC machines. Their
construction are identical whether it is a generator or a motor.

Fig. 1.1 Conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice versa.

I. Generator Principle

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or

power) into electrical energy.
The principle of energy transformation is based on the production of
dynamically (or motionally) induced emf. According to Faradays’s law of
electromagnetic induction, each time a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically
induced emf is produced. This emf will push the current to flow if the conductor
circuit is closed.
Faraday’s Law states that:

2
 The magnitude of the generated voltage is directly proportional to the rate
which a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force.

Fig. 1.2

In short the principle of generator action involves:

1. the existence of magnetic lines of force
2. the motion of conductor cutting the flux
3. then voltage is generated

Fig. 1.3 Generation of voltage

II. Parts of a DC Generator

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 Fig. 1.4 Parts of the generator

Magnetic Frame or Yoke

 It is the outermost cover of the dc machine to protect the insulating

materials from harmful atmospheric elements like dust, moisture and
various gases etc.
 It offers mechanical support to the poles.
 Is a part of magnetic circuit, it provides a path of low reluctance for
magnetic flux. This path is necessary to avoid wastage of power to
provide same flux. If the path has high reluctance, large current and
hence power is important to produce the same flux.

Choice of material: To provide low reluctance path, it is made up of some magnetic

material. In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main
consideration, yokes are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel
or rolled steel or silicon steel is employed which provide high permeability, i.e. low
reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
1. Poles
Each pole is consist of two parts namely: (a) pole core and (b) pole shoe

Fig. 1.5 Pole core and pole shoes

 The pole cores and pole shoes carries the field winding which is
essential in producing the flux
 It leads the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the
next pole
 They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of large cross-
section lessen the reluctance of the magnetic path.

Choice of material: The pole shoe is laminated and is attached to the pole face by
means of counter sunk screws, the pole core itself maybe a solid piece made out of
whichever cast iron or cast steel. Now a days the complete pole cores are built of

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thin laminations of annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic
pressure. The thickness of laminations varies from 1mm to 0.25mm
2. Field Winding

The field winding are made up with field coils (copper wire) twisted over the
slots of the pole shoes in such a way that when field current flows through it, then
adjacent poles have opposite polarity are produced. The field winding basically form
an electromagnet, that produces field flux within which the rotor armature of the DC
generator rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.
3. Armature core
It is the rotor of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature
winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing
eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.

Fig. 1.6 Armature core

4. Armature winding
It is the heart of the dynamo, it is where the voltage is generated in the generator
or where the torque is developed in the motor. The conductors are placed in the
armature slots which are lined with durable insulating material.

Fig. 1.7 Armature winding

5. Commutator
The purpose of the commutator is to permit collection of current from the
armature conductor. It rectifies (convert) the alternating current in the external
load circuit. It is cylindrical structure and is built up wedge shape segments of
high conductivity hard-drawn copper. These segments are insulated from each
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 other by thin layer of mica. The number of segments is equal to the number of
armature coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of a copper lug or strip (riser). To avoid them from flying out
under the action of centrifugal forces, the segment have V-grooves, these
grooves are being shielded by conical micanite rings.

6. Brushes and Bearings

The function of the brushes is to collect current from commutator, It is usually
made up of carbon or graphite and are in shape of a rectangular block. These
brushes are stored in a brush holders usually of the box type variety. The
brushes are made to be adjusted by changing the position of lever in the notches.
A flexible copper pigtail mounted on the top of the brush conveys current from the
brushes to the holder. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the
magnitude of the current to be collected from the commutator.
.

III. Coil and Winding Element

With reference to Fig. 1.10, the two conductors AB and CD along with their
end connections constitute one coil of the armature winding. The coil maybe single
turn coil (Fig. 1.10a) or multi-turn coil (Fig 1.10b). A single turn coil will have two
conductors. But a multi-turn coil may have many conductors per coil slide. In fig.
1.10a, for example, each coil side has 2 conductors. The group of wires or
conductors constituting a coil side of a multi-turn coil is wrapped with tape as a unit
(Fig. 1.10c) and is placed in the armature slot. It may be noted that since the

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beginning and end of each coil must be connected to a commutator bar. There are
as many commutator bars as coils for both lap and wave windings.
The coil side of a coil (1-turn or multi-turn) is called a winding element. Apparently
the number of winding element is double the number of coils.

IV. Types of Armature Winding

There are two methods used in armature winding of a Dc machine
1. lap winding 
2.  wave winding.

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding,
the two ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments.

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 Fig.1.13 Complete winding diagram of a 20 slots, 4 pole simplex lap winding

In wave winding, the coil ends are connected to the commutator segments
very nearly, but never exactly equal to the distance between poles of the same
polarity, that is, alternate poles. Since one cycle always occurs in distance covered
by a pair of poles, this distance is arbitrarily called 360 electrical degrees

Fig. 1.15 Complete winding diagram of a 21 slots, 4 pole simplex wave winding

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 The difference between these two is simply due to the end connections and
commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is
done, it is essential to know the following terminologies –

A. Coil Span or Coil Pitch (Ys) - It is the distance between the two sides of a coil
measured in terms of armature slots.
S
Y s = −K
P
Where:
Ys = coil pitch in slots
S = total number of armature slots
P = number of poles
K = any number of S / P, that is subtracted to make Ys an integer

Problem 1.1]
Calculate the coil pitches and indicate the slots into which the first coil should be
placed for the following armature windings.

a) 20 slots, 4 poles
20
Y S = =5 slot 1 to a slot 6 ( see Fig. 1.13)
4
b) 58 slots, 4 poles
58 2
Y S = − =14 slot 1 to slot 15
4 4

Activity No.1
Calculate the coil pitches and indicate the slots into which the first coil should be
placed for the following armature windings.
a) 62 slots, 6 poles
b ¿140 slots, 8 poles
c ¿290 slots, 10 poles
d ¿240 slots, 12 poles

B. Commutator Pitch (Yc)

The distance between the two segments to which the two ends of the coil are
connected. For lap winding, Yc is equal to the number of plex. For wave winding Yc
is equal to;

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 C ±m
Y c=
P
2
Where:
Yc = commutator pitch
C = number of commutator segments
P = number of poles
m = number or plex
Note: If Y c is not an integer, then wave winding is not possible.

Problem 1.2]
Calculate the commutator pitches for the following pole and commutator segment
combination.

a.) 4 poles, 21 segments, simplex wave

b.) 6 poles, 34 segments simplex wave
In each case trace the winding around the commutator once; start at segment 1 and
show that after one trip around the commutator, a segment is reach that is m behind
or m ahead of the starting segment.
Solution:
21 ±1
Y C= =11 /10
a. 4
2
Tracing Y C =10
1+10=11+10=21 therefore:
1---------11-----------21 (see Figure 1.15)
1 segment behind segment 1

Tracing Y C =11
1+11=12+11=23 Since there is no segment 23 therefore;
1----------12------------2
1 segment ahead segment 1

34±1
Y C= =11 / 11 .66
6
(b). 2

Tracing
Y C =11

1---------12--------23---------34
1 segment behind segment 1

ForY C =11.66 , wave winding is impossible

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Activity No. 2
a) Calculate the commutator pitches for the following pole and commutator
segment combination.
a.1) 4 poles, 120 segments duplex wave
a.2) 6 pole, 126 segments triplex wave
In each case trace the winding around the commutator once; start at segment 1 and show
that after one trip around the commutator, a segment is reach that is m behind or m ahead of
the starting segment.

b) A commutator has 456 segments. Indicate whether or not the following

windings are possible:
simplex-wave for six poles
b.1) triplex-wave for six poles
b.2) duplex-wave for eight poles
b.3) simplex wave for ten poles
If possible trace the winding around the commutator once starting at segment
1 and show that after one trip around the commutator, a segment is reached
that is m segments behind or ahead of the starting segment.

C. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors,

between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next
coil. OR it is the distance between two coil sides that are connected to the same
commutator segment. 
D. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the
armature is called as back pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature
conductors.
E. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between
the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant
pitch of the coil.

F. Full Pitched
The pole span or coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch. It means that the coil
span is 180 electrical degrees. In this case, the coil sides lie under opposite poles,
hence the induced emf in them are additive. Therefore maximum emf is induced in
the coil as a whole, it is being the sum of the emfs induced in the two coil sides.
G. Fractional Pitched
The coil span is less than the pole pitch. In this case there is phase difference
between the emfs in the two sides of the coil. Therefore, the total emf around the coil
which is vector sum of emfs in the two sides is less in this case as compared to that
35 3
in the first case. If the number of slots is 35, then Y S = − =8, because it is
4 4
customary to subtract fractions..
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35 / 4 = 8 means that coils will occupy slots 1 and 9, slots 2 and 10, slots 3 and 11,
etc.
H. Degree of Reentrancy of an Armature Winding
A winding is said to be singly re-entrant if on tracing through it once, all
armature conductors are included on returning to the starting point. It is doubly
reentrant if only half the conductors are included in tracing the winding once and so
on. Or the degree of reentrancy of lap winding is equal to the highest common factor
between the number of commutator segments and the “plex” of the winding.
Problem.3]
Determine the commutator pitches Yc and the degree of reentrancy for the
following windings:
(1). simplex-lap, 27 segments
Solution:
For lap winding Yc is equal to the number of plex therefore .for simplex lap
winding Y C =1
Degree of reentrancy, 27 segments is divisible by 1, therefore:
D R=1
(2). duplex-lap, 35 segments
Solution:
Y C =2 , Since the winding is duplex
Degree of reentrancy, 35 is not divisible by 2 but divisible by 1, therefore
D R=1
(3). duplex-lap, 40 segments
Solution:
Y C =2
Degree of reentrancy, 40 segments is divisible by 2 which is the highest
common factor between the number of segments and the plex of the
winding,therefore:
D R=2
(4). triplex-lap, 53 segments
Solution:
Y C =3 , Since the winding is triplex
Degree of reentrancy, 53 is not divisible by 3 or 2 but divisible by 1, therefore:
D R=1
(5). triplex-lap, 54 segments
Y C =3 , Since the winding is triplex
Degree of reentrancy, 54 is divisible by 3, therefore:
D R=3
(6). quadruplex-lap, 382 segments
Solution:
Y C =4 ,, Since the winding is quadruplex

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 Degree of reentrancy, 382 is not divisible by 4 or 3 but divisible by 2, therefore
2 is the highest common factor between the number of segments and the plex
of the winding,
D R=2
(7). triplex-lap, 123 segments
Solution:
Y C =3 since the winding is triplex
Degree of reentrancy, 123 is divisible by 3, therefore:
D R=3

I. Multiplex Winding
Multiplex winding is use to limit the current per path, because as the number
of plex increases the number of parallel paths in lap winding also increases.
Number of parallel path:
Lap winding¿ plex × pole
Wave winding¿ 2 × plex
Multiplex lap winding are mostly limited to low voltage, high current machines
because practically speaking, it is desirable to limit the current per path to
values no greater than 250 to 300 amperes. When the current per path is in
excess of these general practical limits, commutation becomes difficult.

For example, a machine with 100 Kw, 50 V, 4 pole would have an armature
current of :
100 x 103
=2000 Amp
50

If we are going to use simplex lap winding,

2000
the current per path ¿ =500 Amp . Almost double the limit;
4

if we used duplex lap winding

2000
the current / path ¿ =250 Amp . This describes the persistence of multiplex lap
8
winding.

Activity No. 3
1. What type of lap winding is used for a 90 KW, 30 volt, four pole machine to
avoid difficulty in commutation process, show your solution to support your
answer.

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 J. Dummy or Idle Coils
Dummy element is used to provide mechanical balance for the armature. It is
a wire that is similar to the other coils but it is not connected to the commutator so
that it does not affect the electrical characteristics of the winding.
It is used when the combination of slots and segments is like this, 15 slots and
29 segments. The usual is 15 slots and 30 segments for a double element wave
winding. If we use 15 slots and 29 segments, one element on the fifteenth slot will be
open, so the armature will become unbalance. Therefore dummy element is used
when the number of segments is one minus 2 times the number of slots, or even 3,4
5, etc. times the number of slots

Fig. 1.16 Winding diagram for four pole simplex wave armature with dummy element.

K. Equalizer Ring
It is used to avoid unequal distribution of current at the brushes, in so doing,
aiding to become sparkless commutation. It is a copper conductor in the form of ring
that is connected to the armature conductor so that the circulating current due to
slight difference in the emfs of several parallel paths, passes over these equalizer
rings instead of passing through the brushes.
In lap winding all conductors in any parallel path lie under one pair of poles.
If fluxes from all poles are exactly similar, then emf induced in each parallel path
is the same and each carries the same current. However some inequalities in
flux unavoidably occur due either to minor variations in air – gap length or in the
magnetic properties of steel. Hence, there is continually slight imbalance of emf
in various parallel paths. The effect is that conductors under stronger poles
generate greater emf and hence carry larger current. The current circulation at
the brushes becomes unequal. Some brushes are overloaded, or carry more
than their normal current whereas others carry less. Overloaded brushes spark

14
 badly whatever their position may be. This results in poor commutation and may
even limit the output of the machine.
By joining together a number of symmetrical points on armature winding
which would be at the same potential if the pole fluxes were equal, the
difference in brush currents is reduced. This requires that should be a whole
number of slots per pair of poles so that for example, if there is a slot under the
center of N-pole, at some instant, then there would be one slot under the center
of every other N-pole, at some instant, then there would be one slot under the
center of every other N-pole. The equalizing conductors.

Fig. 1.17 Sketch showing two equalizer connections in a six pole lap type armature winding.

. Maximum number of equalizer rings is equal to the number of conductors

under one pair of poles. Hence:
Number of Conductors
Number of rings=
Number of Pair of Poles

To achieve 100% equalization, all coils must be properly connected.

Problem. 4]
Determine the number of equalizer connections at the commutator of 36
segments, six pole armature for 100% equalization and make a table showing those
that are joined together at each one.

Solution:

36
=12
Number of Equalizer = 3
1-----13-----25 7-----19-----31
15
 2-----14-----26 8-----20-----32
3-----15-----27 9-----21-----33
4-----16-----28 10----22-----34
5-----17-----29 11----23-----35
6-----18-----30 12----24-----36

Activity No 4.
How many equalizers are there in a six pole 25% equalized armature in which there
are 72 segments? Make a table showing those that are joined together at each one.

L. Advantages of Lap and Wave Windings

For wave winding:


It gives more emf, so that wave winding is used for high voltage low
current machine.
 It is not required to use equalizer ring because each path contains
conductor which lie under all poles.
For lap winding:
 It gives more parallel paths so that it is suitable for high current low
voltage machine

V. DC Generator Voltage Equation

Remembering that the voltage generated depends upon the rate at which flux
is cut and that 1 volt results from the cutting of 10 8 lines of force / seconds, the
following analysis will lead to a very useful fundamental equation.

Each one of Z conductor cuts   P lines of force / revolution, where Ǿ is the

flux supplied by each of the pole P. If the speed of the armature is represented by
rpm, the speed in rev / sec is rpm / 60. Assuming a parallel paths, the number of
Z
conductor in series / path will therefore be a

Now then, if ( φ×P ) is multiplied by rpm / 60 the product would represent the

flux cut by each conductor / seconds. Finally, multiplying

(φ×P×rpm 60) by
Z
a would give the generated voltage equation. ( Electrical Machines; C. Siskind

16
 φ×P×RPM ×Z
Eg= volts
a×60

where: Eg = total generated voltage

Ǿ = flux / pole in weber
P = number of poles, an even number
Rpm = speed of armature, rev/min
Z = total number of armature conductor effectively used to add to
resulting voltage
a = number of armature paths connected in parallel (determined by the
type of armature winding)

Problem 5]

A four pole generator having wave wound armature winding has 62 slots, each
having 20 conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine when
driven at 1500 rpm assuming flux per pole to be 8 mWb.
Solution:

(8 × 103) ( 1500 ) ( 4 )( 62 ×20 )

E g= =496 V
2× 60

Activity No. 5

1. A six pole, wave wound armature has 640 conductors. If the flux per pole is
16 mWb, at what speed must be driven in order to generate 256 volts.

2. A six pole wave wound armature has 250 conductors when driven at 400
rpm, the emf generated is 260 volt . What is the useful flux per pole.

3. A 4 pole, lap wound armature when driven at 600 rpm generates 120V. If
the flux per pole is 25 mWb, find the number of armature conductors.
4. The induced voltage of a wave connected generator is 200 volts and the
flux per pole is 0.02 Wb. The number of conductors of the generator is 500.
The generator is driven at a speed of 600 rpm. Determine the number of
poles of generator.

5. The armature of a 4 pole dc generator is required to generate an emf of

520 V on open circuit when revolving at a speed off 660 rpm. Calculate the
magnetic flux per pole required if the armature has 144 slots with 2 coil
sides per slot, each coil consisting of three turns. The armature is wave.
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 Analysis:
What particular number in the Activities 1 to 5:
a. You are sure with your solution? Why?
b. You did not solve? Why?
c. You are not sure with your solution? Why?

The Assignment/Course Requirement Guide will give the student a clear

direction upon his/her completion for the listed learning activities that can be found in
each of the provided modules or study guides. Aside from the instructions provided,
this course requirement guide will intend to specify the rubrics on grading the
activities and also the guidelines for both the schedule and means of submission if in
case the student will not be able to submit his/her assignment via online platforms.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

For Problem Solving Type Item in a Quiz, assignment or Examination:

Criteria Point(s)
per Item Rating
(Weight) 10 8 5 3 0

Given and Complete Incomplete No given

Unknown given and given and and
in the unknown unknown unknown
problem

Written Correct Correct

Solution Answer Answer Wrong Wrong No
and with with Answer but Answer and Answer
Answer to Correct Correct with Wrong and No
Problem Solution Solution Correct Solution Solution
and but no Solution
units(s) units(s)

Total Point (for 1 Item) 15

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Guidelines for Submission and Evaluation
1. For those students who choose either synchronous (SL) or asynchronous online
learning (AOL) as the mode of learning that is suited for them, all activities must
be submitted online (Google Classroom, Google Mail, or Messenger). Otherwise
if the student prefers for remote print learning mode (RPL), the instructor will give
two (2) weeks for them to accomplish and submit a printed/hand-written copy of
their output.
2. Feedback for the submitted outputs will be through e-mail (for SL or AOL) or will
be returned on the students directly in the next schedule of submission
(applicable for RPL).
3. Submission and return (for RPL) of materials may be located outside the gate of
the University or in the designated area of the LGU in the student’s municipality.

Module Summary:
 A generator is machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 The principle of generator action involves, the existence of
magnetic lines of force. motion of conductor cutting the flux, then
voltage is generated.
 Faraday’s Law states that “The magnitude of the generated voltage
is directly proportional to the rate which a conductor cuts magnetic
lines of force”.
 The parts of the generator are magnetic frame or yoke, poles, field
winding, armature core, armature winding, commutator and brushes
and bearings.
 The coil side of a coil (1-turn or multi-turn) is called a winding
element
 Lap and wave winding are the two types of winding element.
S
 Coil Span or Coil Pitch (Ys)¿ −K
P
(C ± m )
¿
 Commutator Pitch (Yc) P
2
 Degree of reentrancy of an armature winding is equal to the highest
common factor between the number of commutator segments and
the “plex” of the winding
 In multiplex winding the number of parallel paths for lap winding is
equal to plex times pole while in wave winding equals to two times
plex.
 Dummy element is used to provide mechanical balance for the
armature
 It is used to avoid unequal distribution of current at the brushes, in
so doing, aiding to become sparkless commutation.
φ×P×RPM ×Z
Eg= volts
 The generated voltage equation. a×60

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References:

Fundamentals of Electrical Machines, (2012, January 30) M.A. Salam, Alpha

Science International Ltd. Oxford U.K., https://www.amazon.com/Fundamentals-
Electrical-Machines-Second-Salam/dp/1842657046
Electrical Machines and Automatic Controller . , Technical Publications., 2014
Electrical Machines., S.K. Bhattacharya, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
Electric Machinery., P. F. Ryff., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Electric Machinery; S.D. Umans., McGraw-Hill Inc., 2014
Electrical Technology ;BL Theraja : Vol.
Introduction to Electrical Engineering; M.S. Naidu S. Kamakshaiah
Electrical Machines, Siskind. McGrawhill, 1979

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