A

abdomen - The middle section of the body, between the chest and the pelvis.

abdominal cavity - The body cavity between the chest and the pelvis.

abdominocentesis - Surgical procedure in which a needle is inserted into the abdomen to withdraw
fluid.

abortion - The end of a pregnancy before the expelled fetus can survive independently, either by
spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) or by a medical termination of pregnancy.

abscess - A pocket of pus, usually caused by a bacterial infection.

acariasis - Disease caused by a mite of the order Acarina.

acaricide - A chemical agent used to kill mites.

ACE inhibitor - Any of a class of drugs intended to lower blood pressure by widening blood vessels. ACE
stands for angiotensin-converting enzyme.

acidic - A liquid that has a pH lower than 7.

acquired - Conditions that are not inborn and that develop during the animal's life.

acromegaly - A disorder of excessive growth hormone secretion by the pituitary gland, resulting in
excessive growth of bones in the legs.

actinobacillosis - Disease caused by bacteria of the genus Actinobacillus.

actinomycosis - A bacterial infection in humans, swine, and cattle that causes hard masses to form in the
mouth and jaw.

acupuncture - A procedure adapted from Chinese medical practice in which specific body areas are
pierced with fine needles for therapeutic purposes.

acute - A condition that has a brief or short course; signs often develop suddenly and may be severe.

acute pain - The short-term sharp, throbbing, aching, or burning sensation in response to a stimulus
(twisting, crushing, or burning) or tissue injury (bruises, wounds, and surgical incisions).

Addison's disease - A deficiency of adrenal gland hormones.

adenocarcinoma - A malignant tumor formed in the epithelium, or covering tissue, of an organ.

adenoma - A benign tumor formed in glandular tissue.

adenovirus - A virus of the family Adenoviridae.

adrenal gland - A small, paired gland located near the kidneys that produces cortisol, epinephrine, and
other hormones.

aerosol - A suspension of particles dissolved in liquid and dispersed in a fine mist.

aflatoxicosis - Poisoning caused by consumption of foods contaminated with a toxin produced by the
fungus Aspergillus flavus.

African horse sickness - An equine viral disease that is widespread in Africa. It is characterized by signs of
lung and blood system impairment, and is most frequently transmitted by midges or mosquitoes.

agalactia - Partial or complete lack of milk flow from the mammary gland.

agent - Anything that produces an effect. For example, viruses and bacteria are agents that cause
disease.

aggression - Behavior that is related to conflict between individuals; includes both threats and attacks.

agonist - A drug or other chemical that can bind to a receptor or cell to trigger a response typical of a
naturally occurring substance.

agouti - A mottled coat color in rodents, characterized by fur with bands of different colors.

airway - Passage for air from the nose or mouth to the lungs.

algal poisoning - A toxic and often deadly condition caused by heavy growths of blue-green algae in
drinking water.

alkaline - A substance with a pH higher than 7; also referred to as basic.

alkaloidosis - Poisoning by alkaloids, plant toxins that damage the liver.

allergy - An abnormally high sensitivity to certain substances, such as pollens, foods, or microorganisms.

alloimmune reaction - A type of immune reaction that occurs when the body produces antibodies
against the tissues of another animal. This may occur, for example, when one animal receives a blood
transfusion from another animal of the same species but with a different blood type.

alopecia - A partial or complete loss of hair in areas where it is usually found.

alternative therapy - Therapy used instead of conventional treatments (for example, homeopathic
treatment).

alveoli - Plural form of the word alveolus.

alveolus - Tiny air-holding sac formed at the end of air passageways in the lungs, where the barrier
between the air and the blood is a thin membrane.
amino acid - A chemical compound that forms the basic building block of proteins.

amoeba - A type of protozoa, or single-celled organism. Some are parasitic and can cause infection in
animals.

amphetamine - A class of drugs that stimulates the central nervous system and the cardiovascular
system.

amphibian - A class of cold-blooded animals that spends at least part of their life cycle living in water.

amputation - The removal of a limb or other part of the body.

amyloid - A type of abnormally folded protein that may collect in various body tissues and interfere with
their function.

amyloidosis - Disease characterized by accumulation of abnormal protein deposits.

anabolic - Pertaining to a metabolic process in which complex molecules are created from simpler ones.

analgesia - Treatment given to control pain; a deadening or absence of the sense of pain without loss of
consciousness.

analgesic - A class of drugs that relieve pain.

anaphylactic shock - A rare, life-threatening, immediate allergic reaction to something that has entered
the body, such as food, an injection, or an insect sting. Also called anaphylaxis.

anemia - An abnormally low red blood cell count caused by insufficient intake of iron in the diet, blood
loss, or other medical conditions.

anesthesia - A lack of all sensation, particularly sensitivity to pain. It can be induced medically or result
from trauma, and it can be limited to a small area (local anesthesia) or affect the entire body (general
anesthesia).

anesthetic - An agent used to induce anesthesia, including injectable drugs and inhaled gases.

anestrus - An interval of sexual inactivity between 2 periods of estrus in female mammals that breed
cyclically.

aneurysm - A dilation or bulging of a blood vessel caused by a weakening of its walls.

animal-assisted therapy - Using animals as therapy for the sick or elderly in nursing or other
rehabilitation centers because of the positive effect such visits have on residents and patients.

animal welfare - Human efforts to reduce and prevent pain and suffering and promote well-being in
animals.

anorexia - A lack or loss of appetite.

anoxia - Lack of oxygen in the blood or body tissues.

antacid - A medication that neutralizes acidity, especially in the stomach.

antagonist - A drug or substance that nullifies the effect of another substance.

anterior - Located toward the head or the front end of the body.

anterior uvea - Part of the front portion of the eye, including the iris and ciliary body.

anthelmintic - A class of drugs used to treat infection with parasitic worms.

anthrax - An often-fatal infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria that may infect all warm-
blooded animals, including humans.

antibacterial - Destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacteria.

antibiotic - A class of drugs used to destroy bacteria while remaining safe for the human or animal being
treated.

antibiotic resistance - Ability of a microorganism (such as bacteria) to resist the effects of an antibiotic
drug.

antibody - A molecule produced by the immune system that attacks a particular foreign substance
(antigen) in the body.

anticholinergic - A class of drugs that block acetylcholine receptors in nerves.

anticoagulant - A substance that stops blood from clotting.

anticonvulsant - A class of drugs used to prevent or relieve convulsions.

antidepressant - A class of drugs designed to relieve depression in humans; may also be used to help
control behavior problems in pets.

antidote - A substance that counteracts the effect of a poison or toxin.

antiemetic - One of a group of drugs used to retard or stop vomiting.

antifungal - A class of drugs that destroy or prevent the growth of fungi.

antigen - Any substance that can stimulate an immune response.

antihistamine - A class of drugs used to relieve allergy signs by blocking the inflammatory action of
histamines.

anti-inflammatory - Medication that prevents or reduces inflammation.

antimicrobial - A large group of drugs used to fight infections caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
antineoplastic - A group of chemical agents or drugs used to combat cancer.

antioxidant - A substance that inhibits oxidation of other compounds.

antiparasitic - Any of a group of drugs used to combat infestation with parasites.

antiseptic solution - A solution of a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microbes.

antitoxin - A compound that neutralizes a specific toxin.

antivenin - An antidote to a particular venom; a serum that counteracts venom.

antiviral - Compound that kills or inhibits the growth of viruses.

anus - The opening at the end of the intestinal tract where solid wastes are pushed out of a body.

aorta - The largest artery in the body. It carries blood away from the heart on its way to distribute
oxygen to all body tissues except the lungs.

aortic arch - The curved portion between the ascending and descending portions of the aorta.

aortic valve - A heart valve comprising 3 flaps that controls the flow of blood from the left ventricle into
the aorta.

aplasia - Incomplete or incorrect development of a body part.

aquatic - Describes organisms that live in water.

arboreal - Describes species that spend most or all of their lives in trees.

arrhythmia - An abnormal pattern of contraction of the heart, caused by a disturbance in conduction of

the normal electrical impulses within the heart.

arsenical - A substance (a drug or insecticide) containing arsenic.

arterial dilator - A drug that dilates the small arteries, making it easier for the heart to pump blood away
from itself.

artery - Blood vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart and toward the body's tissues.

arthritis - Inflammation of a joint; often characterized by swelling, pain, and redness.

arthroscopy - Examination of the interior of a joint, such as the knee, using a type of endoscope that is
inserted into the joint through a small incision.

artificial insemination - Introduction (with a syringe or other device) of semen into the uterus without
sexual contact.

ascarid - A class of roundworms whose larvae can cause disease.

ascites - A condition in which fluid collects in the abdomen.

as-needed dosing - Administering pain medication only when the animal shows recognizable signs of
pain.

aspergillosis - A fungal infection caused by several species of Aspergillus fungi.

asphyxiation - A severe lack of oxygen resulting from inability to breathe.

aspiration - The use of a suction device to withdraw fluid from the body.

aspiration pneumonia - Inflammation caused by inhalation of food particles or fluids into the lungs.

asthma - A respiratory condition marked by recurring episodes of labored breathing, wheezing, and
coughing, triggered by oversensitivity to environmental conditions.

astringent - A substance that causes tissues, such as mucous membranes, to shrink or dry out.

atherosclerosis - A hardening of an artery caused by deposits made of cholesterol, other fatty

substances, or cellular debris that accumulates inside the artery.

atopy - Allergy characterized by itching and redness of the skin; may also include discharges from the
eyes or nose.

atria - Plural form of the word atrium.

atrial fibrillation - Irregular contraction of the atria (upper heart chambers) caused by abnormal
electrical activity in the heart.

atrial standstill - A failure of the electrical impulses in the upper chambers of the heart, which results in
a lack of contraction of those chambers.

atrial thrombosis - A heart condition caused by a blood clot in the atrium of the heart.

atrioventricular valve - The valve between the upper (atrial) and lower (ventricular) chambers of the
heart.

atrium - The upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and pushes it into the
ventricle.

aural plaque - In horses, a white growth caused by a virus that develops in and around the ears.

autoimmune - An immune response that is developed against the animal's own tissues.

autonomic nervous system - Specialized set of neurons controlling and regulating basic, unconscious
bodily functions such as breathing and heart beat.
avian tuberculosis - A slowly spreading, chronic infection of birds caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium
avium and characterized by gradual weight loss.

awn - A slender, bristle-like appendage found on the spikelets of many grasses.

axon - Extensions of neurons that transmit electrical charges away from the cell body.

B cell - A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies.

bacteremia - The presence of bacteria in the bloodstream.

bacteria - The plural form of the word bacterium.

bacterial disease - Disease caused by invading bacteria or an overgrowth of usually harmless bacteria.

bacterium - A microscopic, single-celled organism that may cause disease or may be a harmless, or even
helpful, part of an animal's normal internal or external environment.

barbering - Excessive chewing of hair or feathers that leads to bald patches of skin.

baroreceptors - Nerve endings in blood vessels that are sensitive to blood pressure changes.

basal cells - Cells at the base of the top layer of the skin.

basking - The behavior of a cold-blooded animal lying in the sun to increase its body temperature.

basophil - A type of white blood cell that releases histamine as part of the body's allergic response.

benign - Something that is nonharmful or noncancerous.

besnoitiosis - Infectious disease caused by protozoa of the genus Besnoitia, transmitted by certain biting
flies and ticks, found in Africa, France, and Mexico.

beta cells - Cells in the pancreas that produce insulin.

biceps brachii tendon - Tendon of the biceps brachii, a major muscle of the upper front leg that acts to
bend the elbow joint.

biopsy - The removal of a small sample of tissue or fluid for examination. A sample is obtained in a way
suited to the type of tissue and its location; it might be drawn out with a hollow needle and syringe,
scraped with a curette, or cut away with a scalpel.

bladder - A stretchable, membranous sac-like structure in the body that holds fluids; the term is used
most often to refer to the urinary bladder.
blastoma - A tumor composed of previously healthy young cells that never mature normally, but mutate
into a cancer.

blastomycosis - A disease caused by Blastomyces fungi that can affect several species of animals or
humans; infection may occur in the skin, lungs, or other body organs.

blepharitis - Inflammation of the eyelids.

blind spot - The small circular area, insensitive to light, where the optic nerve enters the eye. See also
optic disk.

blister - A fluid-filled bump on the skin.

blood cell count - The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood.
Also called a complete blood count (CBC).

blood cells - Any of the cells contained in blood. See also erythrocyte, leukoctye, platelet.

blood clot - A mass of blood cells, protein, and platelets, also known as a thrombus, that forms
whenever there is a break or tear in a blood vessel.

blood poisoning - A disorder, also known as septicemia, in which bacteria or their toxins circulate in the
bloodstream.

blood pressure - The force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels, especially the
arteries.

blood transfusion - A procedure in which another animal's blood is introduced into the body to
counteract blood loss, anemia, or other conditions.

blood typing - The identification of blood groups in order to match donor blood with the recipient's
blood for a blood transfusion.

bloodborne - Carried by or transmitted through blood.

bloodstream - The flow of blood through the circulatory system of an organism.

body cavity - An enclosed space in the body that contains organs, such as the cranial, spinal, thoracic,
and abdominal cavities.

boid snakes - Snakes related to boa constrictors. The group includes pythons.

bone marrow - A soft tissue filling the spaces of the spongy tissue found at the ends of long bones. It
produces red blood cells, most types of white blood cells, and platelets.

borreliosis - Disease caused by bacteria of the genus Borrelia. See Lyme disease.
botulism - Infection caused by ingesting food or dead flesh containing toxins produced by the bacterium
Clostridium botulinum, or by absorbing toxins in the gastrointestinal tract. It results in rapid paralysis
and death.

brachycephalic - Short-headed or broad-headed.

brachygnathia - Abnormal shortness or recession of the lower jaw.

brachytherapy - A cancer treatment that involves internal radiation therapy.

brackish - Water that is a mixture of fresh and salt water.

bradycardia - A slower than normal heart rate.

brain - The controlling center of the nervous system in vertebrates, connected to the spinal cord and
enclosed in the cranium.

brain stem - One of the 3 main sections of the brain; it controls many basic life functions.

brain stem auditory evoked response (BAER) - Records electrical activity in the pathway from the sound
receptors in the ear to the brain stem and cerebrum.

breed - A group of animals or organisms having common ancestors and certain distinguishable
characteristics.

breeding - Sexual reproduction of animals, either spontaneously or planned and supervised by human
beings.

broad-spectrum antibiotics - Antibiotics that are effective against a wide range of bacteria.

bronchial - Relating to the bronchi, the bronchial tubes, or the bronchioles, the body's airways.

bronchitis - Inflammation of the bronchial airways.

bronchoscopy - Interior examination of the airways with an endoscope.

buck - The male of certain mammal species, such as rabbits, antelope, and deer.

budgerigar - A small Australian parrot commonly kept as a pet; also called a budgie or parakeet.

bumblefoot - A foot abscess in sheep, guinea pigs, or birds caused by a localized bacterial infection.

bursa - A fluid-filled body sac located between a tendon and a bone or at points of friction.

calcification - The abnormal hardening or stiffening of a body part caused by deposits of calcium.
calcinosis - The abnormal depositing of calcium salts contributing to hardening of a part or tissue of the
body.

calcinosis cutis - A condition in which calcium deposits form in the skin; they can appear as small,
thickened, “dots” on the abdomen.

calcitonin - Hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that regulates levels of calcium in the
bloodstream.

calcium deficiency - A lack of calcium in the body that can result from insufficient calcium or vitamin D in
the diet and can cause bone deformities.

caloric - Relating to heat or calories.

cancer - A malignant tumor or growth that destroys healthy tissue.

cancer pain - Pain resulting from primary tumor growth, a spreading cancerous disease, or the toxic
effects of chemotherapy or radiation.

candidiasis - A fungal disease caused by Candida albicans that affects the mucous membranes and the
skin.

Canidae - Scientific name for dogs, foxes, and wolves.

canine - Relating to animals of the Canidae family, primarily dogs.

canine distemper (hardpad disease) - A highly contagious, usually fatal viral disease of dogs, ferrets,
mink, raccoons, and other mammals.

canine herpesviral infection - A severe, often fatal, viral disease of puppies, sometimes referred to as
fading or sudden-death syndrome. In adult dogs, it may be associated with upper respiratory infection
or an inflammation of the vagina marked by pain and a pus-filled discharge (in females) or inflammation
of the foreskin of the penis (in males).

canine thrombopathia - A hereditary disorder of blood platelets that causes bleeding from the nose and
gums, and tiny purple or red bruises as a result of bleeding under the skin.

canine tooth - Long, pointed tooth used primarily for holding food in place in order to tear it.

cannibalism - The act of eating a member of an animal's own species.

capillary - The smallest type of blood vessel, which connects small blood vessels that branch off from
arteries and veins.

capsule - A medication consisting of an active ingredient and fillers, enclosed in a cylindrical coating
usually made of gelatin; designed to be taken by mouth.

carcass - The dead body of an animal.

carcinogen - A cancer-causing substance or agent.

carcinoma - An invasive, malignant tumor derived from epithelial tissues (tissues that make up the skin,
glands, mucous membranes, and organ linings).

cardiac - Of or relating to the heart.

cardiac output - The amount of blood pumped from the heart during a specified period of time.

cardiac shunts - Abnormal openings between chambers of the left and right sides of the heart.

cardiac tamponade - A buildup of fluid in the sac around the heart, which increases pressure on the
heart and gradually interferes with its ability to pump blood.

cardiomyopathy - A disease in which the heart muscle is weakened.

cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) - An emergency procedure, often employed after cardiac arrest, in
which massage of the heart, artificial respiration, and drugs are used to maintain the circulation of
oxygenated blood to the body. Also called cardiopulmonary-cerebral resuscitation (CPCR).

cardiovascular system - The body system that consists of the heart and the blood vessels (veins and
arteries).

carnivore - A flesh-eating animal.

carpal - Relating to bones in the wrist; a wrist bone.

carpal joint - Any of the joints between the carpal bones.

carrier - An animal that, without becoming ill, harbors or spreads disease-causing microorganisms.

cartilage - A somewhat elastic connective tissue that is found at the ends of bones and helps reduce
friction as joints move.

castration - Most often refers to surgical removal of the testicles; less commonly may refer to removal of
the ovaries.

cataract - Condition in which the lens of the eye progressively loses transparency, which often results in
loss of vision.

cathartic - A drug given to increase the passage of gastrointestinal contents, to cleanse the bowel before
radiography or endoscopy, to eliminate toxins from the gastrointestinal tract, and to soften feces after
intestinal or anal surgery.

catheter - A thin flexible tube that is inserted into a body cavity, duct, or vessel to allow passage of
fluids.
cationic - A substance or class of detergents that are locally corrosive, causing skin, eye, and mucous
membrane injury similar to that of alkaline corrosive agents.

ceiling effect - Situation in which an increased dose of a pain-relieving drug provides incrementally
smaller gains in pain relief.

cell - The smallest functioning unit in the structure of an organism.

cell body - The center portion of a neuron.

cellular infiltrates - Gas, fluid, or dissolved matter that enters cells or tissue.

centesis - Procedure in which a needle is inserted into a structure (for example, the chest or urinary
bladder) of an animal to remove fluid or air.

central nervous system - The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

cercariae - Parasitic larvae of trematode worms.

cerebellar hypoplasia - Lack of development of the cerebellum, the section of the brain that controls
motor function.

cerebellum - The cauliflower-shaped brain structure located just behind the cerebrum and above the
brain stem.

cerebrospinal fluid - The fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

cerebrum - One of 3 main sections of the brain; area where sensory and motor nerve activity is
coordinated.

cesarean section - A surgical procedure in which the abdomen and uterus are cut open and the young
are delivered through the abdomen.

cestode - Intestinal parasitic worm of the class Cestoda, with a flat, segmented body; tapeworms.

chelonians - Tortoises and turtles.

chemotherapy - The use of chemical agents to treat diseases, especially cancer.

cherry eye - Swelling and inflammation of the third eyelid, especially in dogs.

chlamydiosis - Infection with a bacteria of the genus Chlamydia.

Chlamydophila - Bacteria that cause serious respiratory infections in birds.

cholesteatomas - Cysts on the eardrum that may extend into the middle ear.

chondrosarcoma - A malignant tumor of cartilage.

chordae tendineae - Strands of connective tissue in the heart that connect the valves to the papillary
muscles of the heart's ventricles.

choroid - A membrane between the retina and sclera of the eye.

chromosome - Dense strands of material in the cell nucleus that carry the individual's genetic material
(DNA).

chronic - A condition that persists over a long period of time, often months or longer.

chronic pain - Pain that persists for longer than the expected time frame for healing, or pain associated
with progressive, noncancerous disease, such as osteoarthritis.

cilia - Tiny, hairlike projections that line the outer part of cells in some tissues, including the lower
respiratory tract.

cilia-associated respiratory Bacillus - Bacteria that can cause chronic respiratory disease in rats and mice;
transmitted by direct contact.

ciliary muscles - The muscles in the eye that change the shape of the lens in order to keep vision in
focus.

cleft palate - A congenital abnormality that creates a gap along the center of the roof of the mouth.

cloaca - In amphibians, fish, birds, and reptiles, an opening through which the digestive, urinary, and
reproductive tracts exit the body.

cloacal prolapse - A condition in which the cloaca protrudes outside the body.

cloacitis - Inflammation of an animal's cloaca. See cloaca.

clostridia - Bacteria that can cause severe intestinal disease or spread toxins through the bloodstream.

clot - A collection of red blood cells, white cells, and platelets, bound together by protein fibers, that
plugs holes in blood vessels.

coagulation - The process by which liquid blood is transformed into a clot.

cobalt therapy - A type of radiation therapy that uses radioactive cobalt to treat cancer.

Coccidia - A group of protozoan parasites (small, single-celled organisms) that infect the intestinal tract
of animals.

coccidioidomycosis - A dustborne, noncontagious infection caused by inhalation of fungal spores.

coccidiosis - A serious disease in cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, poultry, and rabbits, and less serious in dogs,
cats, and horses. It is caused by protozoans (Coccidia) that invade and may destroy the lining of the
intestines.
cochlea - A snail-shaped cavity in the inner ear, containing the organs of hearing.

coelomitis - Inflammation of the coelom, or abdomen, in retiles.

cognitive dysfunction - Senility; similar to Alzheimer's disease in people.

cold-blooded - Animals that do not maintain a constant internal body temperature; instead, their
temperature is greatly influenced by their environment.

colibacillosis - A form of diarrhea caused by Escherichia coli bacteria.

colic - Severe abdominal pain caused by spasm, obstruction, or distention of the intestines; there are
many possible causes.

colitis - Inflammation of the colon.

collagen - A fibrous protein that forms tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue; also found in skin,
bone, and cartilage.

colon - The large intestine.

colonoscopy - Examination of the inside surface of the colon using a tube inserted through the rectum.

colony - A group of organisms of one species that live and interact closely with each other in an
organized fashion.

colostrum - The watery fluid rich in antibodies and nutrients that is produced by a mother after giving
birth and before producing true milk.

colt - A young male horse.

combination chemotherapy - Using a combination of drugs that target different sites or that employ
different mechanisms to maximize destruction of cancer cells.

companion animal - Any animal kept by humans for companionship or pleasure rather than for utility; a
pet.

compensatory mechanism - Any one of several specific responses the body uses in combating heart
disease to maintain normal circulation.

complementary therapy - Therapy used in addition to conventional treatments.

compulsive behavior - Otherwise normal behaviors that occur out of context or so often that they
interfere with normal activity.

computed tomography (CT) - A computer-enhanced x-ray procedure used to detect abnormalities in

various body organs.
conduction - Passage of the electrical impulses that govern the pumping of the heart.

conformation - The structure or outline of an item or entity, determined by the arrangement of its parts.

congenital defect - An abnormality that is present at birth, as a result of either heredity or

environmental influence such as a toxin or infection.

congestion - An abnormal buildup of fluid in an organ or area of the body.

congestive heart failure - A condition marked by weakness, shortness of breath, or an excessive buildup
of fluid in the tissues or body cavities when the heart fails to maintain adequate blood circulation.

conjunctiva - The mucous membrane lining the inside of the eyelids.

conjunctivitis - Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the inside of the eyelid. Also called pink
eye.

constipation - Difficulty in passing bowel movements; incomplete or infrequent passing of hard stools.

constricted toe syndrome - A condition in newly hatched birds in which a tough ring of tissue forms
around a toe joint, partially cutting off circulation.

contagious - Describes a condition that can spread from one organism to another.

contaminated - Unclean or polluted because of contact with harmful substances.

contraction - Pumping action of the heart muscle or other muscles.

contrast procedure - Specialized x-ray technique in which the animal is given a dye that shows up on the
x-ray film to help provide more detailed images of body organs.

convulsion - See seizure.

coprophagia - Eating feces.

cornea - The transparent outer part of the eye that covers the iris and pupil and admits light into the
eyeball.

coronavirus - A family of viruses that chiefly cause respiratory infections.

corticosteroid - Any of the steroid hormones made by the adrenal gland or their synthetic equivalents;
commonly used to reduce inflammation.

cortisol - A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal gland that regulates carbohydrate metabolism and
maintains blood pressure.

counterconditioning - A method for reducing unwanted behavior by teaching a pet to replace it with a
more favorable behavior.
counterirritant - A substance that, when applied, irritates the skin and thereby reduces the inflammation
of underlying tissue.

counterpressure - Pressure applied to reduce bleeding.

cranial - Relating to the skull, or cranium; toward the head end of the body.

cranium - The portion of the skull enclosing the brain.

cream - A semisolid mixture made for application to the skin or mucous membranes.

crop - In many birds, a pouch in the gullet where food is stored and sometimes partially digested before
passing to the stomach.

cross matching - Blood typing test done to ensure that a blood donor and recipient have compatible
blood types.

crotalids - Snakes of the genus Crotalidae, including pit vipers (rattlesnakes, for example).

cryptococcosis - A fungal disease that may affect the respiratory tract (especially the nasal cavity),
central nervous system, eyes, and skin (particularly of the face and neck of cats).

cryptorchidism - A developmental defect marked by the failure of one or both testes to descend into the
scrotum.

cryptosporidiosis - Intestinal infection with Cryptosporidium parasites, the primary sign of which is
diarrhea.

Cryptosporidium - A genus of single-celled protozoal parasites that causes intestinal infection in several
species, including humans.

CT scan - See computed tomography.

culture - A method of encouraging a microorganism to grow in a laboratory in order to identify specific

bacteria or viruses that may be present.

Cushing's disease - A hormonal disease characterized by overproduction of cortisol from the adrenal
gland; most often caused by a tumor of the pituitary gland in the brain.

cutaneous - Of or relating to the skin.

cyst - A closed, fluid-filled growth in otherwise normal tissue.

cystitis - Inflammation of the bladder.

cystocentesis - Extraction of a sample of urine directly from the bladder using a needle and syringe.

cytokine - A protein secreted by cells of the immune system that helps regulate inflammatory responses.
cytology - The study of the structure and function of individual cells.

cytotoxic - Substance that is poisonous to cells.

debilitated - Having greatly decreased energy and strength.

debulking - A surgery done to remove part of a cancer or tumor.

decongestant - A medication that reduces mucosal congestion.

defecate - To expel feces from the intestinal tract.

defibrillation - A process of shocking the heart in a specific way to restore a coordinated heart beat and
a pulse.

deficiency - A lack of something that is required for normal body function.

degeneration - A condition that causes a gradual deterioration in the structure or function of a body
part.

degenerative joint disease - A form of arthritis characterized by gradual loss of cartilage of the joints.
Also called osteoarthritis.

dehydration - A lack of sufficient water within the body.

dendrite - Extension of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons and transmits electrical
charges to the cell body.

dental abscess - An infected cavity in a tooth, soft tissue surrounding the teeth, or bone of the jaw.

dental malocclusion - A misalignment of the teeth in which the upper and lower surfaces fail to come
together properly.

depression - In animals, this usually refers to lowered activity and lack of interest in surroundings.

dermatitis - Inflammation of the skin.

dermatologist - A specialist in the treatment of skin disorders.

dermatophytosis - A fungal infection of the skin. Also known as ringworm.

dermis - The middle layer of the 3 layers of the skin.

descending aorta - The part of the aorta that passes through the chest and into the abdomen, supplying
blood to the trunk and rear legs.
desensitization - A way to gradually teach a pet to tolerate a situation by carefully exposing it to that
situation in small steps.

detergent - A cleansing substance, especially a liquid soap.

dewlap - Loose skin on the underside of an animal's neck; this is normal in many species.

diabetes insipidus - A metabolic disorder caused by a lack of antidiuretic hormone, which leads to
production of large amounts of dilute urine and excessive thirst.

diabetes mellitus - A metabolic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the hormone insulin and an
accompanying inability to properly digest sugars; signs include excessive urination, too much sugar in
the blood, thirst, hunger, and weight loss.

See also insulin.

diagnosis - The identification of a disease based on its signs, physical examination, and appropriate tests.

diaphragm - A thin muscle that separates the abdominal and thoracic cavities and expands the chest
during respiration.

diarrhea - The abnormally frequent discharge of soft or liquid feces.

diastole - The first half of a heartbeat, during which the upper chambers of the heart (atria) contract and
send blood into the lower chambers (ventricles).

diestrus - A short period of sexual inactivity between 2 estrus periods, during which the uterus is
prepared for a fertilized egg.

dietary indiscretion - Unhealthy eating, as of trash, large amounts of table scraps, or other inappropriate
food.

digestion - The process by which an animal processes food and absorbs nutrients.

digestive tract - The system of organs responsible for digestion.

dilate - To widen or enlarge.

dilated cardiomyopathy - A heart disease in which the heart is enlarged and the heart muscle is
weakened.

direct life cycle - A pattern in which a parasite needs only 1 host in which to grow, breed, and reproduce
itself.

discharge - Any fluid that emerges from a sore or infection.

disinfectant - A chemical used to kill germs.

dislocation - Displacement of a body part, especially of a bone, from its usual fitting in a joint.

displacement activity - The resolution of a behavior conflict by performing a seemingly unrelated activity
such as grooming or sleeping.

disseminated intravascular coagulation - A condition in which small blood clots develop throughout the
bloodstream, blocking small blood vessels and destroying the platelets and clotting factors needed to
control bleeding.

dissemination - The spread of a disease-causing organism throughout the body, causing signs in multiple
parts of the body.

distemper - An airborne viral disease of dogs and some related animals such as raccoons; signs include
fever, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, dehydration, tremors, weakness, and incoordination.

distended - Swollen or expanded, as by pressure from within; dilated.

distillation - The evaporation and subsequent collection of a liquid by condensation as a means of

purification.

diuretic - A medicine usually prescribed to reduce fluid overload; increases urine production.

DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid; the molecule that encodes genetic information in the nucleus of cells and
is capable of self-replication.

doe - A female of any of several species, including rabbits and deer.

dormant - Existing in a temporarily inactive form or state, or biological rest.

duodenum - The first and smallest portion of the small intestine, beginning at the stomach.

dustborne - Carried by exterior or interior dusts, often used to describe bacteria transmitted in this way.

dysecdysis - Improper or incomplete shedding of the skin in reptiles.

dysplasia - Abnormal growth, development, or placement of body parts.

dystocia - Abnormal or difficult birth.

dystrophy - A degenerative condition caused by a nutritional defect or disorder.

ear canal - The tube connecting the external ear with the eardrum.

ear mites - Tiny organisms resembling ticks that can infect the ear canal of animals, especially dogs and
cats.
eardrum - The membrane at the end of the ear canal that transmits sound waves to the middle ear.

ecdysis - The act of molting, or shedding, an outer skin layer.

echocardiography - A type of ultrasonography used to examine the heart.

eclampsia - A condition marked by a sudden drop in blood calcium levels, caused by the production of
milk after giving birth; often leads to convulsions and coma.

ecosystem - A community of interdependent living organisms and the environment they inhabit.

ectoparasite - A parasite that lives on its host's skin, hair, or feathers, such as fleas and ticks.

ectotherm - An animal that cannot regulate its own body temperature and is instead dependent on the
temperature of its surroundings (for example, reptiles and amphibians); commonly referred to as
cold-blooded.

ectropion - A slack eyelid edge that is turned outward.

edema - The abnormal accumulation of fluid in a tissue.

egg binding - A condition in birds and reptiles in which the female is unable to lay a developed or
partially developed egg.

ehrlichiosis - A tickborne bacterial infection that affects white blood cells.

elapid - A member of a family of venomous snakes with hollow fangs, such as cobras.

electrocardiogram (EKG) - A recording of the heart's electrical activity made by attaching a set of
electrodes to the skin.

electrocardiography - Recording of the electrical activity of the heart.

electrolytes - Ions, or salts, such as sodium and potassium, that are present in blood and other bodily
fluids and help regulate various metabolic processes.

electromyography - An electrical recording of muscle activity that aids in the diagnosis of diseases
affecting muscles and peripheral nerves.

ELISA - An abbreviation for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a test used to detect a disease-causing
agent such as a virus.

Elokomin fluke fever - An infectious disease of dogs acquired by eating raw fish infected with flukes that
carry the disease-causing bacteria.

emaciation - A condition in which the animal is abnormally thin, generally as the result of malnutrition or
disease.
embolism - Obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot that breaks off from its point of origin and
lodges elsewhere.

embolus - Portion of a blood clot that breaks free and travels through the cardiovascular system.

embryo - The earliest stage of development of an animal in the womb, before any of the major body
organs have formed.

emphysema - Abnormal accumulation of air in tissues; often affects the lungs and causes breathing
difficulties.

emulsifier - A chemical agent used to bind together substances that normally do not bind.

emulsion - A suspension of one liquid in another with which the first will not mix (for example, oil and
water).

encephalitis - Inflammation of the brain; often caused by an infection.

encephalitozoonosis - A protozoal infection of rabbits and occasionally of mice, guinea pigs, rats, and
dogs that affects multiple organs; also called nosematosis.

encysted - Enclosed in a cyst, sac, bladder, or vesicle (for example, an encysted tumor).

endocarditis - Inflammation of the membranes lining the heart cavity.

endocrine - Related to glands that deliver hormones into the bloodstream.

endoparasite - A parasite that lives inside its host, such as a heartworm.

endoscope - An instrument for examining visually the interior of a bodily canal or a hollow organ such as
the colon, bladder, or stomach.

endoscopic gastric biopsy - A sample of stomach tissue taken with an endoscope, a long, flexible tube
equipped with a camera and other instruments that is inserted through the mouth into the stomach.

endoscopy - A procedure in which a tube called an endoscope is inserted into a hollow organ. The tube
generally has a camera for maneuvering and frequently has tools such as forceps or scissors attached.

endotoxin - A substance found in the cell walls of some bacteria that causes toxic shock, fever, and
inflammation in mammals.

endotracheal tube - Tube inserted into the trachea to deliver oxygen or anesthetic gas.

engorge - To fill with blood.

enterolith - A hard mass composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals that forms around a
foreign object (such as a stone or nail) in the large intestine, most commonly in horses.
enterotoxemia - The presence of bacterial toxins in the bloodstream.

entropion - A turned-in edge of the eyelid, which leads to irritation of the eyeball from the eyelashes.

enzootic - A disease that is continually present in a particular location.

enzyme - A protein that speeds up a biological process such as digestion.

eosinopenia - A decrease in the number of eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) in the bloodstream.

eosinophil - A type of white blood cell that plays a role in the immune response by ingesting bacteria
and other foreign cells, immobilizing and killing parasites, and participating in allergic reactions.

eosinophilia - An increase in the number of eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) in the bloodstream.

epidemic - An outbreak of a contagious disease that spreads rapidly and widely.

epidermis - The outer layer of the 3 layers of the skin.

epidural anesthesia - Injection of pain-relieving or numbing drugs into the space surrounding the spinal
cord to decrease sensation in parts of the body below that portion of the spinal cord; often used to
provide anesthesia for surgery.

epilepsy - An inherited disease that causes seizures; generally requires treatment with anticonvulsants.

epithelial - Having to do with the skin (epithelium).

epizootic lymphangitis - A fungal disease that affects the skin, lymph vessels, and lymph nodes of the
limbs and neck of horses.

equine - Related to or having to do with horses.

equine granulocytic ehrlichiosis - An infectious disease of horses caused by a bacterium found in the
bloodstream and transmitted by ticks.

equine infectious anemia - An incurable, viral bloodborne infection of horses transmitted by blood-
sucking insects.

equine morbillivirus pneumonia - A short-term, often fatal, viral respiratory infection of horses caused
by the Hendra virus.

equine protozoal myeloencephalitis - Protozoal infection of the nervous system of horses.

equine sarcoid - See sarcoid.

equine viral arteritis - A short-term, contagious, viral disease of the horse family that affects multiple
body systems.

erosion - A shallow or superficial ulcer or sore, typically on the skin.

erythrocyte - A red blood cell.

erythropoiesis - The formation and production of red blood cells.

erythropoietin - A hormone secreted by the kidneys that triggers the production of red blood cells in
bone marrow.

esophagus - The muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach.

estrous - Of, relating to, or being in heat (estrus).

estrous cycle - The recurring physiological and behavioral changes that take place from one period of
estrus (heat) to another.

estrus - A recurring period of increased sexual desire during which a female mammal will allow sexual
activity and is capable of conceiving.

euthanasia - The deliberate, painless killing of an incurably ill or injured animal; also called putting to
sleep or putting down.

excretion - The process for removing waste matter from the blood, tissues, or organs.

exertional rhabdomyolysis - A metabolic disorder caused by intense exercise in which toxins from
muscle injury can damage other tissues, especially the kidneys.

exoskeleton - A skeletal structure outside the body, as in insects.

exotic pets - Nontraditional pets; animals that are not domesticated.

expectorant - A medicine that thins airway secretions, making them easier for the animal to cough up.

exposure - Contact with or proximity to some environmental condition, toxin, or infectious agent.

eyelid atresia - A congenital condition in which the eye opening is reduced or closed entirely over
otherwise normal eyes.

failing heart - Any heart with a reduced ability to contract.

farcy - A contagious, incurable bacterial infection of horses that may affect the skin or lungs. Also called
glanders.

farrier - A person who makes and fits horseshoes.

fasting - Withholding food from an animal for a certain length of time.

fatal - Causing or capable of causing death.

fatty acid - One of the major components of fat, used by the body to supply energy and build tissues.

fecal - Relating to or consisting of feces.

feces - The solid waste from an animal.

feed hopper - A simple device that uses gravity to keep a trough or bowl filled with food as animals eat.

feline - Of or having to do with cats.

feline distemper - See feline panleukopenia.

feline infectious enteritis - See feline panleukopenia.

feline infectious peritonitis - A progressive viral infection of cats that affects multiple body systems and
causes a variety of signs.

feline leukemia virus - A cancer-causing virus of cats that infects cells of the immune system and
frequently results in death.

feline lymphoma - A tumor of the immune system that is the most frequently diagnosed cancer of cats.

feline panleukopenia - A viral infection of cats that affects multiple body systems; most infections cause
no signs, but if signs are present the infection is serious and usually fatal.

femur - The large bone of the upper hind limb; also known as the thigh bone.

fertility - The ability to produce offspring.

fertilization - The combination of a sperm cell and an egg cell into a developing organism.

fetal - Having to do with a fetus or its development.

fetal membranes - The thin layers of tissue that surround the embryo during its development. Also
called amniotic sac.

fetus - A developing animal from the stage at which the major organs form until birth. See also embryo.

fever - Abnormally high body temperature.

fibrocartilage - A type of strong, relatively inelastic connective tissue.

fibroma - A benign tumor formed in fibrous or connective tissue.

fibromatosis - A thickening and invasive growth in tendon sheaths.

fibropapillomatosis - A condition characterized by the presence of abnormal growths of tissue (fibrous
papillomas) in both the epidermal and dermal skin layers.

fibrosarcoma - A malignant tumor that arises from cells that produce connective tissue, predominantly
found in the area around bones or in soft tissue.

fibrosis - The formation of excessive, dense, tough connective tissue.

fibrous osteodystrophy - Generalized loss of mineral salts throughout the skeleton due to an increased
rate of bone destruction resulting from hyperparathyroidism (excess parathyroid hormone secretion).
Also known as osteitis fibrosa cystica.

fibrous tissue - Tissue consisting primarily of high-strength fibers, such as ligaments and tendons.

filly - A young female horse.

filtration - The process of removing waste and particulate matter from water.

first aid - Emergency medical treatment given until more thorough, professional veterinary treatment
can be obtained.

fistulous withers - A condition in which connective tissue in a horse's withers region becomes infected
and inflamed.

flagellate - A single-celled organism with one or more flagella, whip-like appendages used for
locomotion.

flashing - Scratching (as pertains to fish).

flea - A small, wingless insect that lives on the skin of mammals or birds and feeds on their blood.

flexor tendons - Any of several tendons that act to bend a joint.

flora - Bacteria that normally live in a part of the body, such as the intestines.

fluke - Any of almost 6,000 species of parasitic flatworms.

fluorescein staining - A test that uses orange dye (fluorescein) and a specialized light to detect foreign
bodies or scratches in the eye.

fly strike - A condition in which flies lay their eggs on wounds, dead skin, or skin covered with feces. The
maggots that hatch can destroy large areas of skin. Also called cutaneous myiasis.

foal - The offspring of a horse or other equid, up to the age of 1 year.

forceps - A surgical instrument used to grasp and hold tissue.

forebrain - The front segment of the brain that includes the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
foreskin - The loose fold of skin that covers the glans of the penis. Also called prepuce.

fossorial species - An animal that is specially adapted for digging.

fracture - The partial or complete break of a bone.

frostbite - Tissue damage caused by freezing temperatures, which can result in tissue death if exposure
is extensive.

fry - Newly hatched fish.

fungal - Caused by, or related to, a fungus.

fungus - A classification of living things that are immobile but cannot gain energy from sunlight, as plants
can; some cause infections in animals and people.

fur mite - External parasites that live on the skin and fur and cause itching.

fur slip - A condition in chinchillas in which patches of fur are lost due to rough handling or fighting.

gait - The manner of walking or moving.

gastrin - A hormone that prompts the release of gastric acid in the stomach, usually secreted by the
stomach and small intestine.

gastrinoma - A tumor of the pancreatic islet cells.

gastroenteritis - Inflammation of the stomach and intestine, often resulting in diarrhea, vomiting, and
cramps.

gastrointestinal - Having to do with the stomach and intestines.

gastrointestinal system - The internal organs responsible for digestion, including the stomach and the
intestines.

gastrostomy - Insertion of a tube directly into the stomach for the purpose of providing nutrition.

genetic - Having to do with genes or heredity.

genitalia - External sex organs.

geotrichosis - A rare fungal infection caused by Geotrichum candidum, a fungus found in soil, decaying
organic matter, and contaminated food.

gestation - The period of development of an animal inside its mother's womb.

Giardia - A water-dwelling, single-celled microorganism that causes diarrhea in many species, including
humans.

giardiasis - A gastrointestinal disorder caused by infection with Giardia microorganisms, characterized by

diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting.

gingivitis - Inflammation of the gums.

glanders - A contagious, incurable, slowly progressive bacterial infection of horses that may affect the
skin or lungs. Also called farcy.

glaucoma - An eye disorder marked by increased pressure within the eye, which can damage the interior
of the eye and lead to blindness.

gliding membrane - A flap of skin which allows an animal to glide but not fly, as is found in sugar gliders
and flying squirrels. Also called a patagium.

globin - A globular protein that combines with heme to form hemoglobin. See hemoglobin.

glomerulonephritis - Inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidney.

glomerulonephrosis - A common disease of older rats involving inflammation of the blood vessels in the
kidney.

glomerulus - Structure in the kidney made up of special blood vessels that help filter blood; each kidney
contains thousands of these.

glossitis - Inflammation of the tongue.

glucagon - A hormone that helps convert stored carbohydrates into glucose (sugar) so they can be used
as energy.

glucocorticoid - A type of corticosteroid (see corticosteroid) that is involved with metabolism of

carbohydrates, protein, and fat. They are frequently used in medicine for their anti-inflammatory and
immuno-suppressive properties.

glucose - A simple sugar that is one of the body's main sources of energy.

glucosuria - The presence of glucose, a sugar, in the urine.

gnat - A small, 2-winged biting fly.

goiter - An enlarged thyroid, often caused by iodine deficiency.

goitrogen - A goiter-producing substance.

gonads - The sex organs that produce reproductive cells (sperm and eggs). In the male, these are the
testes; in the female, the ovaries.
gout - A painful inflammation of joints, often in the foot, that is most often caused by a buildup of uric
acid and salts.

granule - A small grain or particle; or a compound of powder particles that have been formed into larger
pieces.

granulocyte - A specialized type of white blood cell, produced in the bone marrow, that plays a role in
immune responses to invading microorganisms.

gray patch disease - A herpesviral infection of the skin that affects turtles, characterized by sores that
spread across the turtle's body.

growth plate - Zone of cartilage near the ends of long bones where new bone is formed.

gut loading - The process of feeding prey animals highly nutritious food in order to pass the nutrients on
to animals that eat them.

guttural pouch - Areas of the eustachian tubes that form a bag or pouch, located under the base of the
skull in horses.

habituation - A simple form of learning that involves the ending of, or decrease in, a reaction to a
situation as a result of repeated or prolonged exposure to that situation.

halogenated - Combined or treated with a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine).

hardpad disease - See canine distemper.

head tilt - A condition in which the head is kept tipped to one side; can be caused by many different
diseases, including inner ear infection and neurological problems.

heart disease - Any structural or functional abnormality of the heart that impairs its normal functioning.

heart failure - Any heart abnormality that results in failure of the heart to pump enough blood to meet
the body's needs.

heat - See estrus.

heat exhaustion - A condition caused by overexertion in high temperatures or overexposure to the sun.

heat stroke - A collapse brought on by prolonged periods of heat stress or heat exhaustion. Signs include
cessation of sweating or panting, extremely high body temperature, and unconsciousness.

helminth - A general term for a group of parasitic worms.

hemangiosarcoma - A rare, rapidly growing, highly invasive cancer that originates from cells that line
blood vessels (endothelial cells).

hematology - The study of blood, its chemistry and components.

hematoma - A mass of blood, generally clotted, that forms in an organ or body cavity due to a ruptured
blood vessel.

hematopoiesis - The formation and development of the various blood cells.

heme - A complex molecule containing iron that combines with globin to form hemoglobin.

hemoglobin - The iron-rich compound in blood that carries oxygen throughout the body.

hemolysis - A condition in which red blood cells are ruptured.

hemorrhage - Bleeding; escape of blood from a broken blood vessel.

hemostasis - A process that stops blood flow, particularly clot formation.

hemostatic - A compound that inhibits bleeding.

hepatic - Related to or affecting the liver.

hepatic encephalopathy - A syndrome that occurs as a result of liver disease; signs include circling, head
pressing, aimless wandering, weakness, poor coordination, blindness, excessive drooling, aggression,
dementia, seizures, and coma.

hepatitis - Inflammation of the liver.

hepatopathy - General scientific term for liver disease.

herbicide - One of a group of chemicals used to destroy weeds.

herbivores - Animals, such as rabbits or horses, that eat only plants.

hereditary - Transmitted genetically from parent to offspring.

hernia - The protrusion of a body part through the lining that normally encloses it.

herpesvirus - Any of a group of viruses that cause disease in humans and animals. Herpesviruses often
cause sores or rashes and generally remain in the body even when not causing signs.

hibernation - A state of inactivity and unconsciousness, generally during the winter months.

histiocytoma - A soft tissue giant cell tumor.

histology - The anatomical study of the microscopic structure of tissue.

histoplasmosis - A noncontagious infection caused by a soil fungus, occurring when airborne spores are
inhaled.

hives - The least severe type of anaphylactic (allergic) reaction. Small bumps occur on the skin. The hair
may stand up over these swellings and sometimes they itch.

hock - The ankle joint of rabbits, horses, and other 4-legged animals that walk on the same bones that
form the toes in humans.

hormone - A compound produced by a gland in the body that stimulates other parts of the body and
controls their activity.

host - A living animal or plant on or in which a parasite lives. See parasite.

hot packing - A supportive treatment that involves application of moist heat to reduce inflammation.

human-animal bond - The emotional relationship existing between humans and companion animals.

husbandry - The care provided to maintain domestic animals.

hutch - A pen or coop for a small animal, such as a rabbit.

hutch burn - A disease caused by wet and dirty hutch floors in which the area surrounding the anus and
genital region becomes inflamed and chapped, and then infected with disease-causing bacteria.

hydration - The process of providing an adequate amount of fluids to body tissues.

hydrocephalus - A condition in which excess fluid accumulates within the skull because of a blockage in
the normal channels that allow it to flow out of the skull.

hygiene - Actions taken to maintain cleanliness and health.

hygroma - A cyst or sac filled with fluid.

hyper- - Prefix meaning over, above, too much, too high, excessive.

hyperadrenocorticism - A disease caused by production of too much cortisol. Also called Cushing's
disease.

hypercalcemia - Abnormally high levels of calcium in the blood, characterized by weakness, nausea,
confusion, and lethargy.

hyperextension - Extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion.

hyperlipemia - Excessive levels of fat in the blood.

hyperparathyroidism - An excess of parathyroid hormone in the blood.

hyperplasia - An abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue with consequent
enlargement.

hypertension - An increase in the body's blood pressure.

hyperthermia - Abnormally high body temperature.

hyperthyroidism - A disorder caused by an excess of the thyroid hormones.

hypertrichosis - A common endocrine disorder resulting from chronic excess of the hormone cortisol
(Cushing's disease). Signs include development of an abnormally long or heavy hair coat, excessive thirst
and urination, increased appetite and weight, an enlarged abdomen, and bulging eyes.

hypertrophy - Enlargement of an organ or tissue.

hyperuricemia - Abnormally high levels of uric acid in the blood, caused by excessive production or
insufficient excretion of the compound.

hypo- - Prefix meaning below, less than normal, deficient, too little, too low.

hypoadrenocorticism - A deficiency of adrenal gland hormones. Also called Addison's disease.

hypocalcemia - Abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood.

hypoglycemia - Abnormally low levels of glucose in the blood, often caused by a deficiency of insulin,
characterized by trembling, weakness, hunger, confusion, unconsciousness, and in severe cases, death.

hypoparathyroidism - Disorder characterized by low calcium levels, high phosphate levels, and either
temporary or permanent insufficiency of parathyroid hormone.

hypoplasia - A condition of abnormal development in which a body part remains small, immature, or
underdeveloped.

hypoproteinemia - Abnormally low levels of protein in the blood.

hypothalamus - The part of the brain below the thalamus that functions to regulate bodily temperature
and certain metabolic processes.

hypothermia - Abnormally low body temperature.

hypothyroidism - A deficiency of thyroid hormone, which can cause weight gain, constipation, and cold
sensitivity.

hypoxia - Condition in which the level of oxygen in the blood is too low; anoxia.

I
idiopathic - Used to describe a disorder or disease that has no apparent cause.

immersion - A method of administering medication to or treating fish by placing them in a tank

containing the medication.

immune - Resistant to infection or disease.

immune response - The body's reaction to an infectious agent or other foreign “invader.” This includes
recognition of the invader and development of a protective defense.

immune system - The system within an animal that recognizes an infectious agent or other foreign
“invader” and mounts an immune response. The immune system includes various organs, such as the
thymus gland, spleen, and lymph nodes, as well as specialized cells found throughout the body.

immune-mediated - Describes a process initiated or controlled by the immune system.

immunization - The process of making an individual immune to a given disease, generally through
vaccination.

immunized - Rendered resistant to toxins or infectious agents, especially by injection or vaccination.

immunodeficiency - An inability of the immune system to produce a normal immune response.

immunoglobulin - Protein antibodies produced by the body to fight a disease.

immunomodulator - A drug that helps regulate the immune system's activity.

immunostimulant - A drug or agent that increases an immune response.

immunosuppressed - A state in which the immune system is inhibited by medications during the
treatment of other disorders, or by stress or infection.

immunosuppression - Interference with the normal function of the immune system.

immunotherapy - Any of several treatments of disease that involve inducing, enhancing, or suppressing
an immune response.

impedance - Obstruction of normal flow or passage, such as an obstruction of blood flow.

implant - A drug, such as a long-lasting tablet, inserted under the skin.

incisor - Front teeth that are used to grasp or cut food.

inclusion body disease - Any disease characterized by inclusion bodies, small foreign bodies within cells.

incontinence - The inability to control urination or defecation.

incubation period - The time after an infection has been contracted but before any signs are apparent.
infection - A disorder that occurs when microorganisms invade the body and multiply. Infectious
microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

infectious - A condition that is passed from animal to animal by a virus, bacterium, or other agent.

infectious canine hepatitis - A contagious viral disease of dogs with signs that vary from a slight fever
and congestion of the mucous membranes to severe depression, severe reduction in white blood cells,
and deficiency of blood clotting.

infertility - The inability to produce offspring.

infest - To live as a parasite in or on.

infestation - The act of infesting or state of being infested.

infiltrate - Material deposited within the space between cells in a tissue.

inflammation - A localized protective response to injury or other tissue damage. The response includes
increased blood flow in the surrounding capillaries (causing redness), swelling, increased temperature in
the area, and pain.

inflammatory - Characterized or caused by inflammation.

influenza - A respiratory infection caused by an influenza (flu) virus.

ingest - To take food or liquid into the body by swallowing or absorption; eat.

inhalation - The act of breathing in.

inherited - Passed genetically from parents to offspring.

inhibitor - A substance that restrains or retards physiological, chemical, or enzyme action.

initiation - The first step in the transformation of healthy cells into cancerous cells.

inoculation - Introduction of a substance into the tissues or fluids of the body; this is often done for the
purpose of preventing or curing certain diseases.

inorganic - Composed of minerals rather than living material; without carbon.

insect growth regulator - A class of drugs that helps control pests such as fleas by disrupting their
development and maturation.

insecticidal - Of or related to a chemical substance used to kill insects.

insulin - A hormone secreted by the pancreas that is essential for digestion, especially that of
carbohydrates. See also diabetes mellitus.

insulinoma - A common pancreatic islet tumor that affects the insulin-secreting beta cells.
interdigital furunculosis - Abscesses on the webbing between the toes.

interferon - Protein produced by immune cells that helps fight viral infection. See also cytokines.

intermediate host - An animal in which juvenile parasites reside before passing to the final host animal
to develop into adults and breed.

intestinal protozoan - Any of a number of single-celled microorganisms that infect or dwell within the
intestines. Many cause disease, but others are harmless or even beneficial.

intestine - The part of the digestive tract between the stomach and the anus, divided into the small
intestine and the large intestine.

intoxication - Another term for poisoning or toxicosis.

intramuscular - Directly in or into the muscle.

intraocular - Having to do with, entering, or residing within the interior of the eye.

intravascular - Inside the blood vessels.

intravenous - A method of administering fluids or medications directly into a vein. Also known by the
abbreviation IV.

intubation - Insertion of a breathing tube into the trachea.

intussusception - The doubling up of a section of intestine on itself in accordion-like folds, causing

obstruction.

invasive - A tumor that tends to spread locally into adjacent tissues.

invertebrate - An animal without a backbone, such as an insect or spider.

involuntary - Spontaneous or automatic; not controllable by the conscious mind.

iodine deficiency - Insufficient iodine in the diet that can lead to goiter.

iodine toxicity - Harmful effects, which may include goiter, of an excess of iodine in the diet.

iris - The muscular diaphragm in the eye that controls the size of (and therefore the amount of light
passing through) the pupil.

irradiation - Bombardment with radiation, generally as a treatment for tumors.

islet cell tumor - A cancer of the islet cells of the pancreas.

islet of Langerhans - Cluster of 3 kinds of endocrine cells scattered throughout the pancreas that secrete
several hormones, including insulin.
isolation - The process of keeping diseased or potentially diseased animals separate from other
susceptible animals.

jaundice - A condition characterized by yellowing of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes caused by
an excess of bile products in the blood.

joint - The site where 2 or more bones meet. Joints may be movable or immovable.

joint mice - Fragments of cartilage in joints.

jugular - Of, relating to, or located in the region of the neck or throat.

keratin - The hard protein that makes up hair, fingernails, claws, horns, scales, and the shafts of feathers.

keratinization - Creation of new skin cells near the base of the epidermis that migrate upwards,
producing a compact layer of dead cells on the skin surface.

keratoacanthoma - A benign skin tumor of dogs that includes a cyst filled with keratin.

ketosis - A condition resulting from excess buildup of ketones, a waste product, in the blood.

kidney - Either of a pair of abdominal organs that filter waste from the blood and help maintain proper
water and salt balance.

kidney failure - Loss of normal function of the kidneys, which can be either a short- or longterm
condition.

kit - The young of any of a number of mammals, such as foxes and rabbits.

laceration - A cut or tear in the skin.

lacrimal gland - The gland near the eye that produces tears.

lactation - The production of milk by a female mammal.

Lactobacillus species - A group of bacteria that create lactic acid and play a normal, often beneficial, role
in many animals' bodies.
lagenidiosis - A fungal infection of dogs that affects the skin and blood vessels.

lagophthalmos - An inability to completely close the eyelids due to malformation.

lameness - An inability to walk or move normally, often, but not always, caused by pain in the limb.

larva - An immature form or life stage of an insect or parasite.

larvae - Plural form of the word larva.

larval - Of or pertaining to larvae.

larynx - The part of the throat often called the “voice box” in humans.

latent - In an inactive or hidden stage.

laxative - A drug used to promote bowel movements.

leg banding - The process of putting coded bands onto the legs of captive birds, generally while they are
young, for purposes of identification.

Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease - Deterioration of the top of the femur (the femoral head) seen in young
miniature and small breeds of dogs, characterized by a lack of blood supply and destruction of blood
vessels of the bone.

lens - The transparent, oval-shaped part of the eye that focuses light on the retina.

leptospirosis - An infection characterized by fever and jaundice caused by bacteria of the genus
Leptospira.

lesion - Any abnormal change in the structure or function of a part of the body.

lethargy - Lack of energy; apathy.

leukemia - A cancer of the blood and bone marrow, characterized by increased numbers of white blood
cells.

leukocyte - Blood cell type involved in immune responses; commonly called white blood cells.

leukocytic - Having to do with leukocytes.

leukocytosis - An increase in the number of white blood cells in the bloodstream.

leukogram - A diagnostic blood test that counts the number of different white blood cells circulating in
the bloodstream.

leukopenia - A decrease in the number of white blood cells in the bloodstream.

libido - Sexual drive; desire to mate.

lice - A group of small, wingless insects that live on the skin of birds and mammals and suck their blood.

life cycle - A description of all the stages in the life of an organism.

ligament - A band of tough, fibrous tissue connecting bones or cartilage at a joint, or supporting an
organ.

liposarcoma - A benign tumor of fatty tissue.

listeriosis - An infection by the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes which can affect the nervous system, or
lead to abortion or blood poisoning.

liver - A large abdominal organ with many functions, such as filtering and removing toxins from the
blood, storing glycogen, and producing and secreting bile.

localized - Restricted or limited to a specific body part or region.

lockjaw - A spasm of the jaw muscles that keeps them tightly closed, most frequently caused by tetanus.
See also tetanus.

long bones - Any of several elongated bones of the legs (for example, the femur and humerus) that have
a roughly cylindrical shaft.

lordosis - An abnormal inward curving of the spine in the lower area of the back.

lumpectomy - Surgical excision of a tumor with minimal removal of surrounding tissue.

lumpy jaw - The most common and least severe form of actinomycosis, a bacterial infection that causes
hard masses to form in the mouth and jaw.

lung - Either of 2 spongy, saclike respiratory organs that occupy the chest cavity and provide the blood
with oxygen while removing carbon dioxide during respiration.

luxation - Dislocation.

Lyme disease - Tickborne infection of animals and humans caused by Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria that
can cause rash and arthritis. Also known as Lyme borreliosis.

lymph node - Small organ of the immune system that contains cells that fight infections, neutralize
toxins, and produce antibodies.

lymph - A clear, watery fluid derived from body tissues that collects through the lymphatic system and is
then returned to the bloodstream.

lymphadenitis - Inflammation of the lymph nodes.

lymphangitis - Inflammation of lymphatic vessels.

lymphatic system - The network of small vessels that collects the fluid surrounding the cells and returns
it to the bloodstream.

lymphocyte - White blood cells that produce antibodies, neutralize toxins, and fight infections and
cancer.

lymphocytic choriomeningitis - A viral infection of mice characterized by fever, vomiting, neck stiffness,
and slow pulse.

lymphocytosis - An increase in the number of lymphocytes in the bloodstream.

lymphoid - Of or relating to the lymph or lymphatic tissue.

lymphoma - A cancer of certain white blood cells that begins in a lymph node or other lymphoid tissue.

lymphopenia - A decrease in the number of lymphocytes in the bloodstream.

macrophage - A type of white blood cell, larger than most, that consumes infectious agents and other
foreign cells and destroys them.

maggot - The legless, soft-bodied, wormlike larva of any of various flies, often found in decaying matter.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - An advanced, noninvasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses
powerful magnets to examine tissues and organs.

malabsorption - Faulty or abnormal absorption of nutrients from the digestive tract.

malaise - A feeling of illness or depression.

maldigestion - Abnormal breakdown and absorption of foods from the digestive tract.

malignant - Cancerous; a tumor that invades other nearby tissues or spreads throughout the body.

malnourished - Affected by an improper or insufficient diet; undernourished.

malocclusion - See dental malocclusion.

mammals - Animals that produce milk to feed their young and have 4 limbs and at least some hair.

mammary - Of or relating to the mammary glands of a female mammal.

mammary glands - The organs that produce milk.

mange - Any of several skin disorders caused by an infestation of mange mites.

marking - Depositing urine or feces to send a social signal, such as claiming territory.

marsupials - Mammals, chiefly but not exclusively from Australia, that carry their young in an external
pouch.

masking behavior - Behavior to hide injury or weakness, especially by prey animals.

mass - Another word for a tumor or growth.

mast cell - A cell that secretes histamine found in connective tissue.

mastitis - Inflammation of the mammary glands, often caused by bacterial infection.

maternal immunity - The resistance to disease provided by antibodies passed through the mother's first
milk (colostrum) to newborn mammals, usually lasting for several weeks.

mechanism - A process by which something is accomplished.

megakaryocyte - A large cell found in bone marrow that produces platelets.

melanoma - A type of skin tumor, often malignant, that contains dark pigment.

melioidosis - An uncommon bacterial infection, usually of rodents, that can be passed to humans.

membrane - A thin layer of tissue that lines an organ or body cavity.

meninges - Thin layers of tissue that line the brain and spinal cord.

meningitis - Inflammation of the meninges.

meningoencephalitis - Inflammation of the brain and of the membrane lining the brain and spinal cord.

metabolic activity - The chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are essential to
maintenance of life.

metabolic bone disease - Any of several diseases of the bones caused by an imbalance of calcium and
other minerals in response to abnormal metabolism.

metabolic disorder - Any disorder in which normal body processes are disturbed, leading to an increase
or decrease in the end products of those processes.

metabolic rate - Metabolism over time; the speed at which metabolism occurs.

metabolism - The physical and chemical processes that take place in the body to maintain life.

metacarpal bones - Bones in a vertebrate animal's forefoot similar to the bones in the human hand
between the wrist and the fingers.

metastasis - The spread of a malignant tumor to distant parts of the body.

metastatic calcification - Abnormal, hardened deposits of calcium in soft tissues.

metastatic tumor - A tumor formed from cells that have traveled from the original tumor to another site
in the body.

metatarsal bones - Bones in a vertebrate animal's hind foot similar to bones in the human foot between
the toes and the ankle.

metritis - Inflammation of the uterus.

microbiology - The study of small organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other single-celled life
forms.

microchipping - A method of identifying pets that involves the insertion of a small glass-encased
electronic chip under the skin.

microfilaria - Immature life stage of heartworms that is found in the bloodstream.

microhabitat - The small, specialized environment in which an organism lives.

microorganism - A bacterium, virus, or other organism that is too small to see without a microscope.

midges - Gnatlike flies that are often found near water; some species bite and feed on blood.

miliary dermatitis - Skin irritation with small, solid, bumps typically spread over the back, neck, and face.

mineralocorticoids - Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that help control the body's balance of
sodium and potassium salts.

mineral - A solid crystalline substance arising from inorganic processes. Many minerals are nutrients that
are needed for normal body functions.

mite - Any of a number of very small arachnids, related to spiders and scorpions, many of which live as
parasites on various species of animals.

mitral valve - The valve between the left chambers of the heart, through which the blood flows from the
atrium to the ventricle.

molar - A large grinding tooth in the back of the mouth.

mold - Any of various fungi that often cause disintegration of organic matter.

molt - In birds, the normal loss of feathers in preparation for the growth of new feathers. In reptiles, the
normal shedding of skin; also called ecdysis.

Mongolian desert mice - Another term for gerbils, related to their origin.

monkeypox - A viral disease, similar to but milder than smallpox, originally detected in monkeys.
monocyte - A type of white blood cell that plays a role in immune defense by moving from the
bloodstream into the tissues, enlarging, and becoming a macrophage. See also macrophage.

monocytopenia - A decrease in the number of monocytes in the bloodstream.

monocytosis - An increase in the number of monocytes in the bloodstream.

mortality - The rate of death in a population.

mosquito - A winged insect that feeds on blood and can transmit disease.

motor - Relating to motion, or body movement.

motor function - The ability to produce body movement by complex interaction of the brain, nerves, and
muscles.

motor neurons - Nerve cells that carry signals from the brain that control muscle activity.

MRI - See magnetic resonance imaging.

mucosa - See mucous membrane.

mucous membrane - The layer of cells that lines the tubular organs of the body, such as the digestive
and respiratory tracts.

mucus - A slippery secretion produced by glands of the mucous membranes.

multifocal - Relating to or arising from many locations.

murmur - A vibration heard coming from the heart or major blood vessels.

muscle - A tissue composed of fibers capable of contracting (and thus producing motion).

muscular wasting - The steady loss of muscle mass and strength.

musculoskeletal - Having to do with the muscles, bones, and joints.

Mustelidae - Latin term for the scientific family that includes ferrets, mink, and skunks.

mutation - A spontaneous, permanent change in genetic material that is passed to the organism's
offspring.

muzzle - An animal's nose and jaws.

mycetoma - Infection of the skin and underlying tissues that has the appearance of a nodule or tumor.

mycobacterial infections - See mycobacteriosis.

mycobacteriosis - Infection by mycobacteria, a group that includes the bacteria responsible for leprosy
and tuberculosis.

mycoplasma - The smallest known type of bacteria, which lack cell walls.

mycosis - Fungal infection.

mycotoxicosis - Disease caused by toxins produced by fungi.

myelography - A specialized x-ray procedure in which a dye is injected into the cerebrospinal canal to
outline the spinal cord.

myiasis - Maggot infestation. Also known as strike.

myocardial disease - A disorder of the heart muscle.

myocarditis - A local or widespread inflammation of the heart muscle with degeneration or death of the
heart muscle cells.

myocardium - The muscular tissue of the heart.

myopathy - General term referring to any skeletal muscle disease.

myositides - Diseases that produce a mainly inflammatory reaction in muscle.

myositis - Inflammation of a muscle, characterized by pain, tenderness, and sometimes spasm in the
affected area.

myxomatosis - A severe viral disease in rabbits, characterized by the formation of myxoma, or soft,
gelatinous tumors, and subsequent swelling around the head, face, and genitals.

nagana - An often fatal disease of vertebrates transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly; may affect
multiple body systems and often causes anemia.

nares - The openings of the nose.

nasal - Having to do with the nose, often its interior.

nasal cavity - The air-filled space above and behind the nose, on either side of the septum.

nasal discharge - Material, typically mucus, emerging from the nose.

nasogastric tube - A feeding tube that is inserted through the nose into the stomach.

nasolacrimal duct - A duct that moves tears from the eye to the nose.
nebulization - Conversion of a substance, such as a medication, from a liquid or solid state into a fine
mist or vapor.

necropsy - An animal autopsy.

necrotic dermatitis - Inflammation of the skin characterized by localized death of tissue.

necrotic meningoencephalitis - A disease caused by infection of the brain with microorganisms, with
signs that may include depression, lethargy, labored breathing, loss of appetite, bluish skin, and a pus-
like discharge from the nose.

nematode - A parasitic worm; also called a roundworm.

neonatal - Having to do with newborn offspring.

neoplasia - The formation of a tumor.

neoplasm - A tumor.

neosporosis - An infectious disease of dogs and other animals caused by the protozoan parasite
Neospora caninum.

nephritis - Inflammation of the kidney.

nephrotic - Of or relating to the kidneys.

nephrotic syndrome - Signs of disease in the kidney that may include protein in the urine, low levels of
protein in the blood, a buildup of fluid in the abdomen, shortness of breath, and swelling in the legs.

nerve - Specialized tissues that transmit electrical impulses serving to relay sensory or motor
information between the nervous system and body organs.

nest box - A man-made box provided for animals to nest in.

neuroendocrine tissue tumors - Tumors that can develop from neuroendocrine cells (found in tissues
that have both nervous system and hormone-producing functions) in the adrenal or thyroid glands.

neurologic - Of or pertaining to the nervous system.

neurologic signs - Impairments of perception or behavior caused by damage to the central nervous
system.

neuromuscular - Having to do with the terminations of nerves in muscle tissue.

neuron - The specialized cells of the nervous system responsible for transmitting electrical signals.

neuropathic pain - Pain resulting from damage to a nerve or some other part of the central nervous
system.
neurotransmitter - A chemical released by a nerve cell that passes signals to other nerve cells, or to
muscles or glands.

neuter - To remove the internal reproductive organs (that is, the ovaries and uterus or testes) of an
animal in order to prevent reproduction.

neutropenia - A decrease in the number of neutrophils in the bloodstream.

neutrophil - A common type of white blood cell that engulfs and destroys bacteria and other foreign
cells.

neutrophilia - An increase in the number of neutrophils in the bloodstream.

nevus - A congenital pigmented area on the skin; sometimes called a birthmark.

Newcastle disease - A contagious viral disease in birds, whose signs include coughing, sneezing, diarrhea,
tremors, and twitching.

nictitating membrane - A thin membrane in many animals that can extend across the eye to protect it;
also called the third eyelid.

nit - The small egg of a louse, typically found glued to hair.

nitrates - Chemical compounds that can be used by plants and algae as food, or removed by water
filtration.

nocardiosis - A chronic, noncontagious disease caused by Nocardia bacteria found in soil, decaying
vegetation, and other environmental sources.

nocturnal - An animal that is active only or primarily at night.

nodule - A small, irregular, rounded mass.

noncontagious - Not contagious; not communicable by contact.

nonregenerative anemia - A decrease in the number of red blood cells, which the bone marrow is not
able to fully compensate for by creating new red blood cells.

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) - A group of medications other than corticosteroids that
relieve pain, fever, and inflammation.

nonviremic - Animals that, despite being infected by a virus, show no evidence of it in the bloodstream.

nuclear scintigraphy - A diagnostic procedure involving dosing the animal with a radioactive element.
This element is then detected within the body by means of a special camera attached to a computer,
which generates the image.

nutrient - A substance that nourishes a living thing.

nutrition - A source of nourishment; food.

nutritional deficiency - A lack in the type or amount of nutrients an organism receives.

nutritional osteodystrophy - Defective bone formation, as in rickets, caused by an imbalance of calcium

and phosphorus in the diet.

nymph - The larval form of certain insects.

nymphomania - Prolonged estrus or sexually receptive behavior in a female animal.

nystagmus - Abnormal, involuntary, usually rapid movement of the eyeballs as a result of dizziness, head
injury, or disease.

obstruction - Blockage of a passage in the body, as of the intestines.

ocular - Of or relating to the eye.

ocular fundus - The back layer of the eye opposite the pupil where light is detected by specialized nerve
cells.

ointment - A healing salve intended for external application.

oncologist - A cancer specialist.

oncology - The field of medicine dedicated to the study, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer.

oocyst - A fertilized egg in the process of development; a zygote.

oomycosis - Infection with Oomycetes fungi, most common among fish.

opaque - Something through which light cannot pass.

ophthalmoscope - An instrument for viewing the interior of the eye.

opiate - A class of narcotic drugs derived from opium that can reduce pain, induce sleep, and suppress
coughing.

opioid - Any of a class of synthetic drugs that are not derived from opium but have similar properties.
See opiate.

opportunistic agent - An infectious substance or microorganism, not normally dangerous, that can cause
disease when the body's immune system is impaired or weakened.
opportunistic infection - An infection by a microorganism that normally does not cause disease but
becomes capable of doing so when the body's immune system is impaired or weakened.

optic disk - The point on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye. Also called the blind spot.

optic nerve - The nerve that connects the eye to the brain and transmits visual information; also called
the second cranial nerve.

optimal temperature zone - The preferred temperature range for a species.

oral - Having to do with the mouth.

oral cavity - The interior of the mouth.

orbit - The part of the skull that encloses and protects the eye and related structures.

organ - A structure composed of various types of tissues that has a specific function; most organs
function as part of an organ system.

organic - Relating to a substance derived from a living organism; containing carbon.

organism - An individual form of life, such as a plant, an animal, a bacterium, or a fungus.

osmoregulation - Maintenance of an optimal balance in the concentration of salts in the body's fluids.

osteoarthritis - See degenerative joint disease.

osteochondritis dissecans - A condition usually seen in young animals in which the immature joint
cartilage separates from the underlying bone.

osteochondrosis - A condition in which immature joint cartilage separates from the bone and floats
loosely in the joint cavity, where it can cause inflammation and interfere with proper bone formation.

osteomalacia - A condition in adult animals in which the bones soften because of an imbalance in
calcium and phosphorus metabolism.

osteomyelitis - Inflammation of the bones caused by a bacterial infection.

osteoporosis - A condition marked by loss of bone mass due to poor nutrition, age, or nursing.

osteosarcoma - A malignant bone tumor.

otitis - Inflammation of the ear.

otitis externa - Inflammation of the external ear canal.

otitis interna - Inflammation of the inner ear.

otitis media - Inflammation of the middle ear.

otoscope - An instrument with a light and a magnifying lens to aid visual examination of the ear canal.

outbreak - A sudden occurrence or appearance, as of a disease.

ovary - The female reproductive organ that produces eggs, as well as the hormones estrogen and
progesterone.

ovariohysterectomy - The surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus.

over-the-counter - Sold directly to the public without a doctor's prescription.

ovulation - The release of an egg (ovum) from the ovary for possible fertilization.

oxygenate - To treat, combine, or infuse with oxygen.

oxytocin - A hormone that stimulates milk flow, causes the uterus to contract during and after birth, and
increases maternal behavior.

paecilomycosis - An infection caused by fungi of the genus Paecilomyces that affects the lungs and other
organs.

palliative - A drug or medicine used to relieve or soothe the signs of disease.

palpation - Examination by finger pressure to detect growths, changes in underlying organs, and unusual
tissue reactions to pressure.

pancreas - A large gland that secretes digestive enzymes and hormones, such as insulin, that regulate
blood sugar levels.

panhypopituitarism - A disorder in which the pituitary gland and nearby tissues, including the
hypothalamus, are compressed or damaged, leading to a lack of several different hormones.

papilloma - A wart or other benign growth on the skin or other vascular tissues.

papillomatosis - Any condition marked by the presence of many papillomas. See papilloma.

papule - A small, hard, round bump or protuberance on the skin.

paralysis - Partial or total loss of motor function or sensation in part of the body.

paramyxovirus - Any of a group of viruses including those that cause measles, mumps, rubella, and
Newcastle disease.

paranasal - Adjacent to the nasal cavity.

parasite - Any living organism that lives inside, with, or close to another living creature (called a host)
and uses the host as a source of food, shelter, or other requirements.

parasitic - Of, related to, or caused by a parasite.

parasitism - A close relationship in which one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other,
the host.

parathyroid glands - Glands that secrete parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.

parathyroid hormone - A hormone that acts with vitamin D and another hormone, calcitonin, to regulate
the levels of calcium in the body.

parvovirus - A family of viruses including a type that causes a highly contagious intestinal disease of
dogs.

passerine - Describes the group of perching birds and songbirds such as jays, blackbirds, finches,
warblers, and sparrows.

paste - A semisolid drug dosage form for treating animals.

pasteurellosis - Infection with Pasteurella bacteria, which most frequently infect the respiratory tract.

patagium - See gliding membrane.

patella - Kneecap; a flat triangular bone located at the front of the knee joint.

patellar luxation - Displacement of the kneecap.

patent ductus arteriosus - A heart defect in which the ductus arteriosus (the temporary fetal blood
vessel connecting the aorta and the pulmonary artery) does not close at birth.

pathogenic - Producing disease, or having the capability to cause disease.

pathologic - Relating to or caused by disease.

pathologist - A veterinarian or physician who specializes in examining tissue samples to identify the
cause of disease or death.

pectoral muscle - Any of the muscles that connect to the chest at one end and to the bones of the front
limbs at the other end.

pelvic canal - The passage from the abdomen through the bones of the pelvis to the outside of the body.

penicillosis - Infection by mold of the genus Penicillium, which usually affects the nose and sinuses.

penis - The external male organ of copulation, used to transfer semen to the female and to expel urine.
pentastomes - Worms that infest the respiratory system of birds, reptiles, and mammals. Also called
tongue worms due to their appearance.

perianal - Situated or occurring around the anus.

pericardial disease - Disease of the pericardium, the sac surrounding the heart.

pericardiocentesis - Insertion of a needle through the pericardium (the sac surrounding the heart) to
withdraw fluid.

pericarditis - Inflammation of the sac or lining around the heart.

pericardium - The sac-like membrane surrounding the heart.

periodontal - Of or relating to the gums.

perioperative - The period immediately before and after a surgical procedure.

peripheral nervous system - The parts of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord.

peritoneal cavity - The space between the membranes lining the abdominal cavity and the abdominal
organs.

peritoneal lavage - Rinsing of the peritoneal cavity with saline or other fluids as a part of a diagnostic
test to look for signs of infection or inflammation.

peritoneum - The membrane lining the abdominal cavity and the organs found within it.

peritonitis - Inflammation of the peritoneum, often caused by infection or injury to the gastrointestinal
tract.

permeability - The rate at which a liquid or gas passes through a membrane or other porous material.

persistent - Tenaciously or obstinately continuing, often for a long time.

pesticide - A chemical that kill pests, especially insects.

pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a fluid or damp substance.

phaeohyphomycosis - A fungal infection that usually occurs because of contamination of tissue at the
site of an injury.

phagocyte - A cell that ingests and kills other substances, especially microorganisms.

phagocytosis - The process by which cells engulf and digest microorganisms and cellular debris; an
important defense against infection.

phalanx - Any of the bones that form the digits, corresponding to fingers and toes in humans.
pharmacology - The science that deals with the chemistry, development, uses, and metabolism of drugs.

pharynx - The throat.

pheochromocytoma - A tumor of the adrenal gland that is able to secrete adrenaline (epinephrine) and
other hormones.

pheromone - A chemical secreted by an animal that influences the behavior or development of others of
the same species; often serving to attract the opposite sex.

phobia - An intense and excessive fear of something.

photoperiod - The amount of time per day that an organism is exposed to sunlight or artificial light.

photoreceptor - Any structure that senses the presence of light.

photosensitization - A condition in which skin is overly sensitive to sunlight; distinct from sunburn.

pica - The eating of non-food items, such as gravel or dirt.

pigmentation - The deposition of coloring matter (pigment) in a cell or tissue.

pink eye - See conjunctivitis.

pinna - The large visible portion of the external ear.

pinworm - Any of a group of small, parasitic nematodes that live in the intestines of vertebrates.

piping - Refers to the activity of fish swimming near the surface of the water trying to gulp air.

pituitary - Related to the pituitary gland of the brain that produces hormones critical for control of many
bodily functions.

pituitary dwarfism - Disorder of the pituitary gland in which a shortage of growth hormone leads to
smaller than normal size.

pituitary gland - A small, oval, endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain which secretes
hormones that control many other endocrine glands.

placenta - The organ that connects the fetus to the mother in most mammals and regulates the
exchange of nutrients between them.

placental - Of or relating to the placenta.

plague - An acute and sometimes fatal bacterial disease, transmitted primarily by the fleas of rats and
other rodents.

plasma - The clear, yellowish fluid portion of blood or lymph in which cells are suspended.
plasmodial organisms - Single-celled protozoal parasites that live within the bloodstream and cause
malaria.

platelet - A type of small blood cell responsible for clotting. Also called a thrombocyte.

pleura - The membranes lining the outside of the lungs and the chest cavity.

pleural cavity - The space between the membranes lining the chest wall and the lungs.

pleurisy - Inflammation of the lining around the lungs (the pleura), causing pain, cough, chest
tenderness, and shortness of breath.

pneumonia - Inflammation of the lung tissue, often accompanied by inflammation of the trachea and
other large airways; also known as pneumonitis.

pneumonitis - See pneumonia.

pneumothorax - Air in the space between the lungs and the chest wall.

pododermatitis - Inflammation of the skin near the foot or hoof.

poison - A substance that causes illness, injury, or death if ingested.

polioencephalomalacia - A neurologic disease that leads to softening and degeneration in the outer layer
of the brain.

poll evil - Bacterial infection and inflammation of a sac surrounding a tendon near the base of the skull in
horses.

polyarteritis nodosa - Inflammation of the walls of arteries that affects multiple organs.

polycythemia - An increase in the number of red blood cells circulating in the bloodstream.

polydactyly - The presence of extra toes, which is a common inherited condition in cats.

polyp - A growth or mass projecting from the tissue of a membrane, sometimes tumorous.

polyphagia - Excessive appetite or overeating.

polysaccharide - A complex carbohydrate such as starch or cellulose, made up of sugar molecules in a

chain structure.

porphyrin - A protein molecule that is one of the building blocks of hemoglobin, the molecule that
carries oxygen in the bloodstream.

portosystemic shunt - A congenital defect in the blood vessels of the liver that reduces the ability of the
liver to process waste products.

positive inotrope - Any of a class of drugs used to help the heart muscle contract.
postpartum hypocalcemia - See puerperal hypocalcemia.

powder - A formulation in which a drug powder is mixed with other powdered fillers to produce a final
product.

predation - The hunting and eating of other animals.

predilection - A particular liking or preference.

predisposing factor - A condition or situation that increases the susceptibility to a particular disease or
injury.

pregnancy toxemia - An often-fatal metabolic condition of pregnant guinea pigs, cows, and sheep, more
common in those that are overweight, in which a buildup of toxins occurs in the bloodstream.

prenatal - Of or relating to the period before birth.

prepuce - A retractable fold of skin covering the penis in many mammals.

prevalent - Widely or commonly occurring.

priapism - An abnormal, persistent erection of the penis, often caused by spinal cord injury or injury to
the penis.

primary factor - The main cause, or one of the main causes, of a disease or injury.

prognathia - Abnormal protrusion of the jaw, commonly the lower jaw.

prognosis - The prospect of survival or recovery following a disease or injury.

progressive - Tending to become more severe or wider in scope.

prokinetic - A drug that increases the movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract.

prolapse - The displacement of a body part from its usual position.

proliferative enteropathy - A disease of the intestinal tract in young pigs characterized by severe
diarrhea and anemia; possibly caused by bacteria.

promoter - An agent that facilitates the development of cancer in cells.

promotion - The second step in the development of cancer.

prophylaxis - Administering antibiotics as a preventive measure to keep an infection from developing.

prostate gland - An organ of the male reproductive system that creates part of the fluid portion of
semen.

prostration - Total exhaustion or weakness; collapse.

protein - Complex molecules made of amino acids that include many substances (such as enzymes,
hormones, and antibodies) necessary for the proper functioning of an organism.

protocol - A method or regimen of treatment.

protozoa - Plural of protozoan.

protozoal - Of, related to, or caused by protozoa.

protozoan - Any of a large group of single-celled, usually microscopic organisms, that may be parasites.

protrusion - Something that sticks out.

pruritus - Severe itching; usually signalled by scratching.

pseudomyiasis - False strike (maggot infestation); the presence of fly maggots in the gastrointestinal
tract (from ingestion) but without tissue infestation.

psittacine - Of or belonging to the family Psittacidae, which includes parrots, macaws, and parakeets.

psychotropic drug - Any of a group of drugs that are used to modify an animal's behavior, including
antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, and sedatives.

puberty - The phase during which an animal becomes sexually mature.

puerperal hypocalcemia - A life-threatening decrease in calcium usually seen in dogs 2 to 3 weeks after
giving birth, caused by the loss of calcium from producing milk.

puerperal tetany - See puerperal hypocalcemia.

pulmonary - Of, relating to, or affecting the lungs.

pulmonary artery - The artery that carries venous blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the
lungs.

pulmonary edema - Fluid in the lungs.

pulmonary hypertension - High blood pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs.

pulmonary valve - The valve that releases blood out of the right ventricle of the heart into the
pulmonary artery.

pulse - The rhythmic throbbing of arteries produced by the regular contractions of the heart.

pupa - The nonfeeding, transformative stage between the larva and adult in insects.

pupil - The black circle in the center of the iris in the eye; the hole through which light enters the eye.
pus - A thick, yellowish-white fluid seen in wounds and sores and containing white blood cells,
microorganisms, and tissue debris.

pustules - Small, inflamed, elevations of the skin filled with pus.

pyloric stenosis - A muscular constriction between the stomach and intestines.

pyoderma - Any skin disorder that includes formation of pustules or pimples.

pyometra - A disorder characterized by the accumulation of a large amount of pus in the uterus.

pythiosis - A disease caused by Pythium insidiosum, an organism similar to a fungus, which can affect the
skin or gastrointestinal tract in dogs or cause skin disorders in horses or cats.

Q fever - A bacterial infection that mainly affects the respiratory or reproductive tracts of ruminants
such as cattle and sheep, although other domestic animals, including dogs and cats may be infected.
Also known as query fever.

quadriceps - Large muscle at the front of the thigh that acts to extend the knee.

qualitative - Of or related to a categorical observation of an object, for example breed or sex.

quantitative - Of or related to a numerical observation of an object, such as 5 pounds or 3 meters.

quarantine - To keep an animal separate from other animals to avoid spreading a disease or infection.

queen - A mature female cat, especially one kept for breeding purposes.

rabbit calicivirus disease - A highly infectious, contagious, and mostly fatal disease of domestic rabbits
that affects the digestive system and causes internal bleeding. Also called viral hemorrhagic disease.

rabbitpox - An often fatal, generalized, viral disease of rabbits that causes pox marks on the skin as well
as discharges from the nose and eyes.

rabbitry - A place where rabbits are kept or bred.

radiation - High-intensity energy waves emitted by radioactive elements, for example, x-rays.

radiation therapy - The use of radiation or radioactive substances to treat disease.

radiography - An imaging technique that produces an image on film or other sensitive surface by
radiation, such as x-rays passing through an object.

radioisotope irradiation - A type of radiation therapy. See radiation therapy.

radiotherapy - See radiation therapy.

radius - The shorter and thicker bone in the lower forelimb of animals.

radon - A colorless, radioactive gaseous element used in radiotherapy.

range (as in range plants) - Extensive open land area where livestock wander and graze.

rash - A temporary outbreak on the skin's surface that is often reddish and itchy.

receptor - A sensory nerve ending that responds to one of several stimuli, such as touch, temperature,
light, taste, or pain.

recurrence - A repeated occurrence; reappearance or repetition.

recurrent - Happening again and again.

reflex - An unconscious, automatic movement that occurs in response to sensory stimulation, for
example the extension of the knee when the tendon below the knee is tapped.

regenerative anemia - A form of anemia in which the bone marrow responds to the decreased number
of red blood cells by increasing red blood cell production.

regurgitate - To flow in the opposite direction than normal, as in backward flow of blood within the
heart; to bring undigested food up from the esophagus (rather than the stomach) to the mouth.

reinfestation - A reoccurrence of an infestation, as by fleas.

reinforcement - Reward; any event that increases the chances that a certain behavior will be repeated.

relapse - The return of an illness, especially after a period of apparent health or improvement.

remission - A decrease in or a temporary disappearance of the signs of disease.

renal - Of, relating to, or in the region of the kidneys.

replicate - Reproduce.

reproduction - The process that gives rise to offspring.

reproductive system - The organs involved in reproduction.

reptile - Any of a class of air-breathing, usually ectothermic (cold-blooded), vertebrate animals, generally
covered in scales or plates; examples include lizards, snakes, and turtles.
resistance - An organism's ability to keep from being affected by an infection; ability of a microorganism
to withstand the effects of a previously effective drug or dosage.

resistant - Having the capacity to withstand; relating to or conferring immunity.

resorption - The process of reclaiming an established organ or structure in order to use its nutrients.

respiratory - Of, relating to, used in, or affecting respiration (breathing).

respiratory failure - Inadequate gas exchange or airflow in the respiratory system.

respiratory sinus arrhythmia - The small variations in heart rate in healthy, quiet animals that are caused
by pressure changes in the chest associated with breathing.

respiratory system - The organs responsible for breathing, including the lungs, trachea, mouth, nose,
and throat.

respiratory tract - The passages through which air enters and leaves the body.

reticulocyte - An immature red blood cell.

retina - The rear inner surface of the eye, responsible for picking up light and transmitting it to the brain
as visual signals via the optic nerve.

retrovirus - Any of a family of viruses that store their genetic material as single-stranded RNA rather
than 2-stranded DNA.

reverse osmosis - Purification process by which water is forced through an extremely fine membrane
and a carbon filter to remove even more compounds than are removed during normal filtration.

rhabdomyolysis (sporadic exertional) - Severe cramping and stiffness of muscles following heavy
exercise, leading to disintegration of muscle fibers; also called tying up.

rhinitis - Inflammation of the nose.

rhinosporidiosis - A chronic, nonfatal, fungal infection, primarily of the lining of the nasal passages and,
occasionally, of the skin.

rickets - A nutritional disorder of young animals caused by a lack of phosphorus or vitamin D, leading to
malformation of bones and lameness.

rickettsiae - A group of small bacteria that can live only within cells and that cause several diseases,
including Rocky Mountain spotted fever, in animals and people.

ringtail - A ring-like constriction of the tail, affecting mice, rats, or hamsters, caused by low humidity and
high temperatures, and eventually causing gangrene and loss or partial loss of the tail.

ringworm - A fungal skin infection affecting many animals and humans; dermatophytosis.
RNA - Ribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid found in all living cells essential for the manufacture of proteins
and carrying genetic information.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever - An infection of humans, dogs, and other animals that is caused by
Rickettsia rickettsii bacteria, transmitted by ticks.

rodenticide - A compound used to poison rodents.

root canal - The central cavity of a tooth that extends down into the roots of the tooth.

Rotavirus - A genus of viruses that cause intestinal infection in young animals of several species,
including birds and pigs.

roughage - Another term for fiber, which aids digestion.

roundworm - See nematode.

ruminant - Any of various hoofed, even-toed, mammals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and deer,
characteristically having a 4-compartment stomach and chewing a cud consisting of partially digested
food.

saline - A solution of salt (sodium chloride) and purified water that has the same concentration of salts
as the bloodstream.

saliva - The clear liquid containing digestive enzymes and immune cells that is secreted into the mouth
by the salivary glands.

salmon poisoning disease - An infectious disease in which the infective agent is transmitted through the
various life cycle stages of a flatworm known as a fluke. See Elokomin fluke fever.

salmonellosis - Infection with Salmonella bacteria, most often characterized by gastrointestinal signs
such as diarrhea.

sanitation - Measures and actions to maintain health through good hygiene.

sarcocystosis - Disease in which the muscles and other soft tissues are invaded by intermediate life
stages of single-celled organisms of the genus Sarcocystis.

sarcoid (equine) - Fibrous tumor masses that resemble large warts. They commonly occur on the lower
legs of horses.

sarcoma - A malignant tumor formed in connective tissue, bone, cartilage, or certain types of muscle.
scabies - Infestation by mites of the genus -Sarcoptes, which affect dogs, cats, horses, pigs, and other
species; sarcoptic mange.

scar tissue - The pale, inflexible connective tissue that forms at the site of an injury.

scintigraphy - See nuclear scintigraphy.

sclera - The white outer coating that covers the eyeball, except for the central round area covered by
the transparent cornea.

scoliosis - A congenital sideways curvature or deformation of the spine.

scraping - Cellular material obtained for examination by scratching a specific tissue with a clinical
instrument.

screwworm - The larval stage of certain disease-spreading flies.

scrotum - The external pouch of skin and muscle containing the testes in male mammals.

scurvy - A nutritional disorder caused by a lack of vitamin C and characterized by bleeding of the skin
and mucous membranes, tooth loss, weakness, and spongy gums.

scute - An external bony or horny plate or scale covering the skin of some reptiles, such as the shell of a
turtle.

sebaceous gland - A skin gland that secretes the oil known as sebum into the hair follicles and onto the
skin.

seborrhea - A disease of the sebaceous glands characterized by excessive secretion of sebum or an

alteration in its quality, resulting in an oily coating, crusts, or scales on the skin.

sebum - Oily secretion from the sebaceous gland that helps lubricate the skin.

secondary hyperparathyroidism - The excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone by the parathyroid

glands in response to hypocalcemia (low blood calcium levels).

secretion - The process of secreting (generating) a substance from cells, or bodily fluids such as saliva,
mucus, or tears.

sedate - To administer sedatives, bringing about a relaxed state.

sedative - A drug or other agent that induces sedation, a state of calm, restfulness, or drowsiness.

sedentary - An adjective used to describe an animal or human that exercises little.

seizure - Any of several types of interruption in normal bodily control or thought processes, often
characterized by uncontrollable stiffness or jerking of the body, face, or limbs.
semen - The viscous, whitish fluid containing sperm and seminal fluid that a male ejaculates during
breeding.

semiaquatic - An animal that frequents water but does not completely live in it.

semilunar valves - Valves between the heart and the aorta, and between the heart and the pulmonary
artery.

sensory - Of or relating to sensations of pain, position, touch, temperature, taste, hearing, vision, and
smell.

sepsis - Illness resulting from the persistent presence of microorganisms or their toxins in the
bloodstream. Also called septicemia or blood poisoning.

septal defect - A hole in the membrane, or muscle wall, dividing the chambers of the heart.

septic shock - A life-threatening condition caused by an infection in the bloodstream in which blood
pressure falls dangerously low and many organs malfunction because of inadequate blood flow. See
sepsis.

septicemia - See sepsis.

septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD) - A bacterial disease in turtles in which the scales are
pitted.

serotype - A group of related microorganisms that are neutralized by the same antibodies.

service animal - Companion animal that is trained to help a person with disabilities, aid law enforcement
personnel, help search for lost people, or other tasks.

sheath - An enveloping tubular structure, such as the tissue that encloses a muscle or nerve fiber.

shock - A condition of sudden failure of the circulatory system, brought on by excessive blood loss,
severe infection, or nervous system dysfunction, among other causes.

sign - Indication or evidence of disease, for example weakness, coughing, or diarrhea.

silage - Animal feed made by storing green plant material, as in a silo.

sinoatrial node - The heart's natural pacemaker, which generates rhythmic impulses that cause
contractions of the muscle fibers of the heart.

sinus (cardiology) - A dilated channel or receptacle containing chiefly venous blood.

sinus (respiratory system) - Any of several bony cavities in the head connected to the nasal cavity.

sinus arrest - A pause or cessation of cardiac sinus pacemaker activity.

sinusitis - Inflammation of the lining of the sinuses in the head.

skeletal disorder - Disease affecting the development or structure of the bones.

skin appendage - A small or secondary attachment to the skin, such as hair follicles, oil and sweat glands,
and claws.

skin tenting - Condition that occurs when a small section of skin is pinched away from the body does not
snap back to its original position. It can be used to indicate the degree of dehydration of an animal.

small intestine - The long, narrow part of the digestive tract that lies between the stomach and the
colon.

smear - A medical screening or diagnostic procedure in which a sample of cells (blood, for example) is
collected and spread on a microscope slide for examination.

soft tissue - Any of the body tissues other than bone and cartilage.

solution - A drug dosage form that is dissolved in liquid, usually water.

solvent - A substance in which other substances are dissolved to create a solution.

somatostatin - A hormone produced chiefly by the hypothalamus that inhibits the secretion of growth
hormone and various other hormones.

soundness - Freedom from injury, disease, or illness; without damage.

spasm - A sudden, involuntary contraction of a muscle or group of muscles.

spawning - The process by which some animals, such as certain fish, reproduce.

spay - To remove the internal reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus) of a female animal in order to
prevent reproduction.

species - A subdivision of a basic biological group, the genus, containing individuals that resemble one
another and that may interbreed.

spina bifida - A congenital defect in which the spinal column is imperfectly closed.

spinal - Of, relating to, or situated near the spine or spinal cord.

spinal cord - The long bundle of nerve tissue that runs from the brain to the end of the spinal column
and connects to the majority of the peripheral nerves.

spine - The backbone of a vertebrate.

spirurid - A worm, transmitted by mosquitoes or ticks, that may cause skin sores or infect the stomach
lining, body cavity, or blood vessels.
splay leg - A leg or pelvic socket deformity causing the legs to spread out (splay).

spleen - A glandlike, lymphoid organ that is part of the immune system and that stores blood cells and
produces some types of white blood cells.

splint - A rigid device used to prevent motion of a joint or of the ends of a fractured bone.

sporadic - Happening or appearing at irregular intervals.

spore - A reproductive cell, produced by bacteria or fungi, capable of developing into a new individual
without fusing with another reproductive cell.

sporocyst - The first sac-like reproductive stage in many parasitic flatworms that buds off cells.

sporotrichosis - An infectious disease caused by a yeast-like organism that affects many species,
including humans, and that often takes the form of localized, ulcerated skin sores.

spot-on - A solution of active ingredients for application to the skin which typically contains a cosolvent
and a spreading agent to ensure that the product is distributed to the entire body.

squamous - Referring to the portion of the epithelium (skin) composed of flat, plate-like cells.

squamous cell carcinoma - A form of skin cancer that usually originates in sun-damaged areas.

stamina - Endurance.

star-gazing - A sign of neurologic disease in which the neck is twisted backward and the animal appears
to be looking up into the sky.

stenosis - A constriction or narrowing of a duct or passage; an obstruction.

stereotypic behavior - Repetitious, relatively unvaried actions that have no obvious purpose or function.

stethoscope - An instrument used to magnify sounds produced within the body in order to determine
health or diagnose disease.

stifle joint - Knee joint; the tendons, ligaments, and other tissues that connect the upper and lower long
bones of the rear leg.

stillbirth - Unintentional death of the fetus in the uterus.

stimulant - A drug or other agent that produces an increase in function of an organ or body part.

stimulation - To cause physical reaction in something such as a nerve or organ.

stimulus - An agent or condition that elicits a reaction or response from an organism.

stomatitis - Inflammation of the mouth.

strain - A group of organisms of the same species, having distinctive characteristics but not usually
considered a separate breed or variety.

strike - Maggot infestation, or myiasis.

stunting - A reduction in overall growth or progress.

stye - An infection of one or more of the glands at the edge of the eyelid or under it.

subcutaneous - Located just beneath the skin.

subcutis - The innermost of the 3 layers of the skin.

subspectacle abscessation - A common bacterial eye infection in snakes.

substrate - Ground covering such as newsprint, sand, peat moss, potting soil, wood shavings, or cypress
mulch that are used to cover the bottom of cages for animals such as rodents or reptiles.

subvalvular - Located below one of the heart valves.

superficial - Located at the surface, or only affecting the surface.

superficial flexor tendon - A tendon that flexes the joints of the lower leg.

supplement - Something added to complete a thing, make up for a deficiency, or extend or strengthen
the whole.

supportive care - A wide range of nonspecific treatments for sick or injured animals designed to relieve
the signs of illness and that may include injectable fluids, supplemental feeding, heat, or removal of
stress.

suppression - The reduction or stoppage of a normal bodily function.

supravalvular - Located above one of the heart valves.

surgery - Medical procedure to treat injury or disease involving an operation, such as removal or
replacement of a diseased organ or tissue.

susceptibility - The likelihood of being affected or infected; vulnerability.

suspension - A dispersion of insoluble or poorly soluble drug particles in a liquid.

suspensory ligament - A ligament that provides support for the fetlock joint in horses.

suture - Any of the fine threads of specialized material used surgically to close a wound or join tissues;
also the act of surgically closing a wound or joining tissues using a stitch or stitches.

syndrome - A group of signs that occur together and signal a particular abnormal condition.
synostosis - An abnormality in which 2 adjacent bones, such as vertebrae, fuse together.

synovial fluid - Fluid contained within a joint cavity that helps lubricate the joint.

synovial membrane - Membrane surrounding a joint between bones.

systemic - A disease or condition that affects or spreads throughout the entire body rather than being
confined to a single location. Also called generalized.

systole - The second half of the heartbeat, characterized by the sound of the aortic and pulmonary
valves closing, when the ventricles contract.

T cell - A type of white blood cell that participates in immune responses to infections and other diseases.

T3, T4 - Two iodine-containing hormones produced by the thyroid gland that act on many cellular
processes to regulate metabolic rate.

tablet - A solid pellet made up of one or more compressed powdered drugs and perhaps fillers to be
taken by mouth.

tachycardia - A rapid heartbeat.

tarsal joint - The hock, or ankle joint of the lower rear leg.

tarsal - Of, relating to, or situated near the bones of the ankle.

tartar - A hard deposit of organic material that forms on teeth.

temperate - Mild or restrained in behavior or attitude. As refers to climate, neither very hot nor very
cold.

tendinitis - Inflammation of a tendon.

tendon - An inelastic band of tough fibrous connective tissue attaching a muscle to a bone or other part.

tension pneumothorax - A buildup of air in the space between the lungs and the chest wall; can lead to
collapse of a lung.

tentative diagnosis - Early, most likely diagnosis based on the history, physical examination, and signs of
a disorder.

teratogen - Agents or factors that cause or increase the incidence of a congenital defect.
terrestrial - Living on the ground or underneath its surface.

testes - The reproductive organs in a male vertebrate, which produce sperm and the hormone
testosterone.

tetanus - An often-fatal disease characterized by spastic contraction of muscles and caused by a toxin
produced by Clostridium tetani bacteria. Also called lockjaw.

tetany - Continuous, spastic contraction of muscles, causing rigidity of limbs.

tetralogy of Fallot - A complex congenital heart defect that produces a bluish tinge to skin and
membranes caused by insufficient oxygen in the blood.

therapy - Treatment for an illness.

thermography - An imaging technique that records the heat emitted by bodies as infrared radiation;
used to diagnose musculoskeletal disorders.

third eyelid - See nictitating membrane.

third phalanx - The outermost bone of a finger or toe.

thoracentesis - Procedure in which a needle is inserted into the chest cavity to withdraw excess fluid.

thoracic - Of, relating to, or situated in or near the chest (thorax).

thorax - The chest cavity, encased by the ribs and containing the heart, lungs, and other organs.

thrombocyte - See platelet.

thrombopoietin - A hormone that regulates the production of blood platelets.

thrombosis - Obstruction of an artery by a blood clot.

thrombus - A blood clot formed in an artery or vein, frequently causing blockage of the blood vessel.

thymus - A gland in the upper chest or the base of the neck that is the site of maturation of some types
of lymphocytes, a class of white blood cell.

thyroid gland - An endocrine organ in the base of the neck that regulates metabolism.

thyroid hyperplasia - Enlargement of the thyroid gland. Also known as goiter.

tick - Parasitic invertebrates with 8 legs that suck blood and can transmit several diseases.

tick fever - See Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

tissue - Interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism.

tonometer - A device for measuring pressure, particularly pressure inside the eye.

tonsillitis - Inflammation of the tonsils.

tonsil - A small mass of lymphoid tissue in the throat.

topical - Involving local application to a part of the body, especially on the skin; for instance, a topical
ointment.

torpor - A state of deep unconsciousness, usually brought on as a result of environmental conditions

such as low temperature.

torticollis - A twisting of the neck to one side, resulting in the head being tilted; can be caused by an ear
infection or neurologic disease. Also called wry neck.

toxemia - A condition brought on by toxins in the blood, especially those produced by bacteria or a
metabolic disturbance.

toxic - Containing or being a toxin; poisonous.

toxicant - A toxic substance.

toxicity - The degree to which something is poisonous.

toxicology - The branch of science that studies how poisons affect animals and people and how they
respond to poisons.

toxicosis - Disease or condition resulting from poisoning.

toxin - A poisonous material; most often used to describe poisons produced by plants, animals (such as
venomous snakes), and some bacteria.

toxoid - A substance that has been treated to destroy its toxic properties but retains the capacity to
stimulate production of antibodies that can neutralize the original toxin.

toxoplasmosis - Infection by Toxoplasma microorganisms, which can cause serious damage to the
central nervous system, especially in young animals.

trachea - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tube that connects the throat to the lungs. Also called the
windpipe.

tracheal intubation - Insertion of a tube into the trachea to help an animal breathe or to administer
anesthesia.

tracheobronchitis - Inflammation of the trachea and large airways (bronchi).

tracheostomy - An emergency procedure for inserting a tube through the neck into the trachea to allow
breathing.
tranquilizer - Any of a class of drugs used to produce a calming or soothing effect.

transdermal - Describes a medication delivery form that is absorbed through the skin into the
bloodstream, such as a patch or an ointment.

transformation - The 2-step process of development of cancerous cells from healthy cells, consisting of
initiation and promotion.

transfusion - The transfer of whole blood or blood products, such as packed red blood cells, from one
individual to another.

transmission - The passing of an infection from one individual to another.

trauma - Damage to living tissue caused by an outside source; a wound.

trematodes - Parasitic flatworms.

treponematosis - Infection by bacteria of the genus Treponema, which includes syphilis.

trichinellosis - A parasitic disease caused by a type of roundworm, transmittable to humans and often
associated with eating undercooked pork. Also called trichinosis.

tricuspid valve - The valve between the right chambers of the heart, through which blood flows from the
right atrium to the right ventricle.

trocarization - A technique used to relieve the pressure in the abdomen when it becomes distended with
gas due to an intestinal blockage.

tube feeding - Delivery of nutrients, either a special liquid formula or pureed food, through a tube
advanced through the nose or mouth into the stomach.

tuberculosis - Disease of many animal species and humans caused by infection with bacteria of the
genus Mycobacterium, which typically affects the respiratory system.

tularemia - A highly contagious bacterial infection found especially in wild rabbits and rodents that may
also affect humans, and which may be transmitted by ticks or direct contact with an infected animal.

tumor - An abnormal, usually well defined, mass of tissue within an animal; can be either malignant
(cancerous) or benign.

tympanic bullae - The round bones behind the ears.

Tyzzer's disease - A common infection of rabbits and rodents, caused by Clostridium piliforme bacteria,
that typically affects the digestive system. Other species are occasionally affected.

U
U

ubiquitous - Existing everywhere.

udder - Another term for the mammary glands of farm animals, including cows, pigs, and horses.

ulcer - A sore of the skin or of a mucous membrane (for instance, the mouth or stomach lining)
characterized by erosion and loss of surface tissue.

ulcerate - To develop an ulcer.

ulcerative dermatitis - A skin disorder characterized by formation of ulcers in multiple locations; can be a
result of itching and scratching caused by another condition.

ulna - One of the 2 long bones of the lower part of the front leg.

ultrasonography - A diagnostic test that uses a machine which emits ultrasonic sound waves, or sounds
above the range that humans can hear, to produce a 2-dimensional image of the inside of a body cavity.

ultraviolet (UV) radiation - Light energy radiating from the sun that is not visible to the human eye and
that can cause sunburn and increase the risk of skin cancer.

umbilical - Related to or situated in the umbilical cord, the navel, or the area surrounding the navel.

umbilical cord - The flexible tube connecting the fetus to the placenta, through which nutrients are
delivered and waste is expelled.

unconscious - Lacking awareness and the capacity for sensory perception; not conscious.

unthriftiness - Failure of a young animal to grow or gain weight at a normal rate in spite of an adequate
diet and absence of obvious illness.

upper airways - The portion of the respiratory tract that extends from the nostrils or mouth through the
throat (pharynx).

urate - A salt formed from uric acid. See uric acid.

uremia - A buildup of toxic chemicals in the blood that occurs when the kidneys are not functioning
properly.

ureter - The narrow tube that connects the kidney to the bladder.

urethra - The tube from the urinary bladder through which urine exits the body.

uric acid - A weak acid present in the urine, which can lead to gout or other disorders in birds if it builds
up to high levels.

urinalysis - Laboratory analysis of urine, used to aid in the diagnosis of disease.

urinate - To expel liquid waste from the body by contracting the urinary bladder.

urine scalding - Skin inflammation caused by prolonged contact with urine.

urogenital tract - Relating to or involving the organs of the urinary tract and the reproductive system.

urolith - A buildup of mineral salts in any part of the urinary tract; also called a urinary calculus or stone.

urolithiasis - A condition brought on by the formation of stones (calculi) in the urinary system of an
animal.

urticaria - See hives.

uterus - The organ of the female reproductive system in which the fetus develops.

uvea - The middle layer of the eye, which includes the iris and the muscles that control it.

uveitis - Inflammation of the uvea.

vaccination - The administration of a substance to produce immunity against a specific disease;

immunization.

vaccine - A product, including dead or weakened forms of an infectious agent or molecules that are part
of the agent, that prompts the immune system to develop defenses against that specific organism.

vagina - The lubricated muscular tube of female mammals that connects the cervix to the vulva, forming
the external opening of the genitals.

valve - A membranous structure that closes to prevent the backward flow of material through a canal or
passage.

valvular disease - Disease resulting in failure of the heart valves to open or close properly.

vascular - Of, characterized by, or containing vessels that carry fluids, such as blood or lymph, through
the body of an animal.

vascular network - The collection of vessels that carry or circulate bodily fluids.

vasculitis - Inflammation of the blood vessels.

vasodilator - Any of a class of drugs intended to lower blood pressure by widening blood vessels, thus
increasing blood flow.
vector - An organism, such as a tick or mosquito, that carries an infectious agent between susceptible
animals. A vector may also be mechanical (nonliving), such as clothing or equipment.

vein - Any of the system of blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

venae cavae - The 2 largest veins, which return blood from the body to the right atrium.

venereal disease - A contagious disease typically spread through sexual activity.

venom - A poisonous fluid injected by the bite or sting of an animal.

venous dilator - A drug that dilates the veins coming to the heart and increases the amount of blood that
enters the heart.

ventricle - Either of the 2 lower chambers of the heart.

ventricular fibrillation - A common arrhythmia of the heart characterized by chaotic, ineffective

contraction of the heart muscle.

vertebra - Any of the bones forming the spinal column.

vertebrate - An animal with a backbone, such as fish, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

vesicle - A small, raised area of skin, containing fluid; blister.

vesicular stomatitis - An acute viral disease of horses and pigs, transmitted by mosquitoes and other
insects and signaled by excessive drooling, loss of appetite due to mouth blisters, and lameness due to
foot ulcers.

vestibular system - The organs in the inner ear that control balance.

veterinarian - An individual trained and licensed to treat the medical conditions of animals; a doctor of
veterinary medicine.

veterinary dermatologist - A veterinarian specializing in the treatment of skin disorders.

veterinary family practice - Also known as “bond-centered practice,” in which the veterinarian
establishes a lifelong relationship with families and their animals and cares not only for the medical
welfare of the animal, but also for the social health of its family.

vipers - A group of highly poisonous snakes whose long fangs fold back when not in use.

viral - Of, relating to, or caused by a virus.

virus - A tiny infectious agent consisting of a genetic material (RNA or DNA) in a protein coat, which
relies on host cells to reproduce.
visceral - Relating to or affecting one or more of the soft internal organs of the body, especially those
within the abdominal cavity.

visceral gout - An inflammatory buildup of uric acid metabolites in the internal organs of reptiles or
birds, leading to pain and discomfort.

visceral leishmaniasis - A chronic, severe disease of humans, dogs, and certain rodents caused by
protozoa, characterized by skin lesions, lymph node enlargement, weight loss, anemia, lameness, and
kidney failure.

vitamin - Any of a group of compounds that are essential for proper body function and growth.

vitamin D - A fat-soluble vitamin required for normal metabolism of calcium and phosphorus.

volume overload - A form of heart failure that results in an increase in the size of the one or both
ventricles, the lower chambers of the heart.

vomit - To expel the contents of the stomach; to throw up.

vulva - The external female reproductive organs.

warm-blooded - An animal that maintains a relatively constant and warm body temperature
independent of environmental temperature. Also called homeothermic.

wart - A hard, rough lump growing on the skin.

water mold - An aquatic fungus living chiefly in fresh water or moist soil.

water salinity - A measure of the amount of salt in water.

weaning - The process of getting an infant mammal adjusted to eating food rather than drinking its
mother's milk.

wheal - A localized area of fluid buildup in the skin that may be pale or reddened and may itch; a hive.

white blood cell - Any of a group of infection-fighting blood cells. See leukocyte.

withers - The ridge between the shoulder blades of a horse.

womb - Another word for uterus. See uterus.

worms - Soft-bodied organisms, many of which are parasitic and infect animals and/or humans.
X

x-ray - A high-energy form of electromagnetic radiation that can be used to produce images that allow a
veterinarian to see inside the body; also used to describe the pictures produced by the rays, which are
also called radiographs.

x-ray therapy - See radiation therapy.

yeast - A small, single-celled fungus that ferments carbohydrates; some types can infect humans and
animals.

yellow fat disease - A condition in cats involving inflammation of the fatty tissue, thought to be due to an
excess of unsaturated fatty acids in food combined with a deficiency of vitamin E.

zinc toxicity - A typically chronic form of poisoning caused by consumption of items containing the metal
zinc and characterized by lameness and stiffness.

zoonosis - A disease that can be passed from animals to people.

zoonotic risk - The likelihood that a disease will be passed from an animal to people.

zygomycosis - A fungal infection of the lining of the mouth, nasal passages, and tissue beneath the skin,
or the sides of the head, neck, and body.

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Glossary

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acquired trait: A phenotypic characteristic, acquired during growth and development, that is not
genetically based and therefore cannot be passed on to the next generation (for example, the large
muscles of a weightlifter).

adaptation: Any heritable characteristic of an organism that improves its ability to survive and reproduce
in its environment. Also used to describe the process of genetic change within a population, as
influenced by natural selection.

adaptive landscape: A graph of the average fitness of a population in relation to the frequencies of
genotypes in it. Peaks on the landscape correspond to genotypic frequencies at which the average
fitness is high, valleys to genotypic frequencies at which the average fitness is low. Also called a fitness
surface.

adaptive logic: A behavior has adaptive logic if it tends to increase the number of offspring that an
individual contributes to the next and following generations. If such a behavior is even partly genetically
determined, it will tend to become widespread in the population. Then, even if circumstances change
such that it no longer provides any survival or reproductive advantage, the behavior will still tend to be
exhibited -- unless it becomes positively disadvantageous in the new environment.

adaptive radiation: The diversification, over evolutionary time, of a species or group of species into
several different species or subspecies that are typically adapted to different ecological niches (for
example, Darwin's finches). The term can also be applied to larger groups of organisms, as in "the
adaptive radiation of mammals."

adaptive strategies: A mode of coping with competition or environmental conditions on an evolutionary

time scale. Species adapt when succeeding generations emphasize beneficial characteristics.

agnostic: A person who believes that the existence of a god or creator and the nature of the universe is
unknowable.
algae: An umbrella term for various simple organisms that contain chlorophyll (and can therefore carry
out photosynthesis) and live in aquatic habitats and in moist situations on land. The term has no direct
taxonomic significance. Algae range from macroscopic seaweeds such as giant kelp, which frequently
exceeds 30 m in length, to microscopic filamentous and single-celled forms such as Spirogyra and
Chlorella.

allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene. For example, if a gene determines the seed color of peas,
one allele of that gene may produce green seeds and another allele produce yellow seeds. In a diploid
cell there are usually two alleles of any one gene (one from each parent). Within a population there may
be many different alleles of a gene; each has a unique nucleotide sequence.

allometry: The relation between the size of an organism and the size of any of its parts. For example, an
allometric relation exists between brain size and body size, such that (in this case) animals with bigger
bodies tend to have bigger brains. Allometric relations can be studied during the growth of a single
organism, between different organisms within a species, or between organisms in different species.

allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when two or more populations of a species are
geographically isolated from one another sufficiently that they do not interbreed.

allopatry: Living in separate places. Compare with sympatry.

amino acid: The unit molecular building block of proteins, which are chains of amino acids in a certain
sequence. There are 20 main amino acids in the proteins of living things, and the properties of a protein
are determined by its particular amino acid sequence.

amino acid sequence: A series of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, usually coded for by DNA.
Exceptions are those coded for by the RNA of certain viruses, such as HIV.

ammonoid: Extinct relatives of cephalopods (squid, octopi, and chambered nautiluses), these mollusks
had coiled shells and are found in the fossil record of the Cretaceous period.
amniotes: The group of reptiles, birds, and mammals. These all develop through an embryo that is
enclosed within a membrane called an amnion. The amnion surrounds the embryo with a watery
substance, and is probably an adaptation for breeding on land.

amphibians: The class of vertebrates that contains the frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders. The
amphibians evolved in the Devonian period (about 370 million years ago) as the first vertebrates to
occupy the land. They have moist scaleless skin which is used to supplement the lungs in gas exchange.
The eggs are soft and vulnerable to drying, therefore reproduction commonly occurs in water.
Amphibian larvae are aquatic, and have gills for respiration; they undergo metamorphosis to the adult
form. Most amphibians are found in damp environments and they occur on all continents except
Antarctica.

analogous structures: Structures in different species that look alike or perform similar functions (e.g., the
wings of butterflies and the wings of birds) that have evolved convergently but do not develop from
similar groups of embryological tissues, and that have not evolved from similar structures known to be
shared by common ancestors. Contrast with homologous structures. Note: The recent discovery of deep
genetic homologies has brought new interest, new information, and discussion to the classical concepts
of analogous and homologous structures.

anatomy: (1) The structure of an organism or one of its parts. (2) The science that studies those
structures.

ancestral homology: Homology that evolved before the common ancestor of a set of species, and which
is present in other species outside that set of species. Compare with derived homology.

anthropoid: A member of the group of primates made up of monkeys, apes, and humans.

antibacterial: Having the ability to kill bacteria.

antibiotics: Substances that destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, particularly disease-
causing bacteria.
antibiotic resistance: A heritable trait in microorganisms that enables them to survive in the presence of
an antibiotic.

aperture: Of a camera, the adjustable opening through which light passes to reach the film. The
diameter of the aperture determines the intensity of light admitted. The pupil of a human eye is a self-
adjusting aperture.

aquatic: Living underwater.

arboreal: Living in trees.

archeology: The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis
of physical remains, such as graves, tools, pottery, and other artifacts.

archetype: The original form or body plan from which a group of organisms develops.

artifact: An object made by humans that has been preserved and can be studied to learn about a
particular time period.

artificial selection: The process by which humans breed animals and cultivate crops to ensure that future
generations have specific desirable characteristics. In artificial selection, breeders select the most
desirable variants in a plant or animal population and selectively breed them with other desirable
individuals. The forms of most domesticated and agricultural species have been produced by artificial
selection; it is also an important experimental technique for studying evolution.

asexual reproduction: A type of reproduction involving only one parent that ususally produces
genetically identical offspring. Asexual reproduction occurs without fertilization or genetic
recombination, and may occur by budding, by division of a single cell, or by the breakup of a whole
organism into two or more new individuals.
assortative mating: The tendency of like to mate with like. Mating can be assortative for a certain
genotype (e.g., individuals with genotype AA tend to mate with other individuals of genotype AA) or
phenotype (e.g., tall individuals mate with other tall individuals).

asteroid: A small rocky or metallic body orbitting the Sun. About 20,000 have been observed, ranging in
size from several hundred kilometers across down to dust particles.

atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no god.

atomistic: (as applied to theory of inheritance) Inheritance in which the entities controlling heredity are
relatively distinct, permanent, and capable of independent action. Mendelian inheritance is an atomistic
theory because in it, inheritance is controlled by distinct genes.

australopithecine: A group of bipedal hominid species belonging to the genus Australopithecus that
lived between 4.2 and 1.4 mya.

Australopithecus afarensis: An early australopithecine species that was bipedal; known fossils date
between 3.6 and 2.9 mya (for example, Lucy).

autosome: Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome.

avian: Of, relating to, or characteristic of birds (members of the class Aves).

bacteria: Tiny, single-celled, prokaryotic organisms that can survive in a wide variety of environments.
Some cause serious infectious diseases in humans, other animals, and plants.

base: The DNA molecule is a chain of nucleotide units; each unit consists of a backbone made of a sugar
and a phosphate group, with a nitrogenous base attached. The base in a unit is one of adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) is used instead of thymine. A and G belong to
the chemical class called purines; C, T, and U are pyrimidines.

Batesian mimicry: A kind of mimicry in which one non-poisonous species (the Batesian mimic) mimics
another poisonous species.

belemnite: An extinct marine invertebrate that was related to squid, octopi, and chambered nautiluses.
We know from the fossil record that belemnites were common in the Jurassic period and had bullet-
shaped internal skeletons.

big bang theory: The theory that states that the universe began in a state of compression to infinite
density, and that in one instant all matter and energy began expanding and have continued expanding
ever since.

biodiversity (or biological diversity): A measure of the variety of life, biodiversity is often described on
three levels. Ecosystem diversity describes the variety of habitats present; species diversity is a measure
of the number of species and the number of individuals of each species present; genetic diversity refers
to the total amount of genetic variability present.

bioengineered food: Food that has been produced through genetic modification using techniques of
genetic engineering.

biogenetic law: Name given by Haeckel to recapitulation.

biogeography: The study of patterns of geographical distribution of plants and animals across Earth, and
the changes in those distributions over time.

biological species concept: The concept of species, according to which a species is a set of organisms
that can interbreed among each other. Compare with cladistic species concept, ecological species
concept, phenetic species concept, and recognition species concept.
biometrics: The quantitative study of characters of organisms.

biosphere: The part of Earth and its atmosphere capable of sustaining life.

bipedalism: Of hominids, walking upright on two hind legs; more generally, using two legs for
locomotion.

bivalve: A mollusk that has a two-part hinged shell. Bivalves include clams, oysters, scallops, mussels,
and other shellfish.

Blackmore, Susan: A psychologist interested in memes and the theory of memetics, evolutionary theory,
consciousness, the effects of meditation, and why people believe in the paranormal. A recent book, The
Meme Machine, offers an introduction to the subject of memes.

blending inheritance: The historically influential but factually erroneous theory that organisms contain a
blend of their parents' hereditary factors and pass that blend on to their offspring. Compare with
Mendelian inheritance.

botanist: A scientist who studies plants.

brachiopod: Commonly known as "lamp shells," these marine invertebrates resemble bivalve mollusks
because of their hinged shells. Brachiopods were at their greatest abundance during the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic eras.

Brodie, Edmund D., III: A biologist who studies the causes and evolutionary implications of interactions
among traits in predators and their prey. Much of his work concentrates on the coevolutionary arms
race between newts that posess tetrodotoxin, one of the most potent known toxins, and the resistant
garter snakes who prey on them.
Brodie, Edmund D., Jr.: A biologist recognized internationally for his work on the evolution of
mechanisms in amphibians that allow them to avoid predators. These mechanisms include toxins carried
in skin secretions, coloration, and behavior.

Bruner, Jerome: A psychologist and professor at Harvard and Oxford Universities, and a prolific author
whose book, The Process of Education, encouraged curriculum innovation based on theories of cognitive
development.

bryozoan: A tiny marine invertebrate that forms a crust-like colony; colonies of bryozoans may look like
scaly sheets on seaweed.

Burney, David: A biologist whose research has focused on endangered species, paleoenvironmental
studies, and causes of extinction in North America, Africa, Madagascar, Hawaii, and the West Indies.

carbon isotope ratio: A measure of the proportion of the carbon-14 isotope to the carbon-12 isotope.
Living material contains carbon-14 and carbon-12 in the same proportions as exists in the atmosphere.
When an organism dies, however, it no longer takes up carbon from the atmosphere, and the carbon-14
it contains decays to nitrogen-14 at a constant rate. By measuring the carbon-14-to-carbon-12 ratio in a
fossil or organic artifact, its age can be determined, a method called radiocarbon dating. Because most
carbon-14 will have decayed after 50,000 years, the carbon isotope ratio is mainly useful for dating
fossils and artifacts younger than this. It cannot be used to determine the age of Earth, for example.

carnivorous: Feeding largely or exclusively on meat or other animal tissue.

Carroll, Sean: Developmental geneticist with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and professor at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. From the large-scale changes that distinguish major animal groups to
the finely detailed color patterns on butterfly wings, Dr. Carroll's research has centered on those genes
that create the "molecular blueprint" for body pattern and play major roles in the origin of new features.
Coauthor, with Jennifer Grenier and Scott Weatherbee, of From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics
and the Evolution of Animal Design.
Carson, Rachel: A scientist and writer fascinated with the workings of nature. Her best-known
publication, Silent Spring, was written over the years 1958 to 1962. The book looks at the effects of
insecticides and pesticides on songbird populations throughout the United States. The publication
helped set off a wave of environmental legislation and galvanized the emerging ecological movement.

Castle, W.E.: An early experimental geneticist, his 1901 paper was the first on Mendelism in America. His
Genetics of Domestic Rabbits, published in 1930 by Harvard University Press, covers such topics as the
genes involved in determining the coat colors of rabbits and associated mutations.

cell: The basic structural and functional unit of most living organisms. Cell size varies, but most cells are
microscopic. Cells may exist as independent units of life, as in bacteria and protozoans, or they may
form colonies or tissues, as in all plants and animals. Each cell consists of a mass of protein material that
is differentiated into cytoplasm and nucleoplasm, which contains DNA. The cell is enclosed by a cell
membrane, which in the cells of plants, fungi, algae, and bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall. There are
two main types of cell, prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

Cenozoic: The era of geologic time from 65 mya to the present, a time when the modern continents
formed and modern animals and plants evolved.

centromere: A point on a chromosome that is involved in separating the copies of the chromosome
produced during cell division. During this division, paired chromosomes look somewhat like an X, and
the centromere is the constriction in the center.

cephalopod: Cephalopods include squid, octopi, cuttlefish, and chambered nautiluses. They are mollusks
with tentacles and move by forcing water through their bodies like a jet.

character: Any recognizable trait, feature, or property of an organism. In phylogenetic studies, a

character is a feature that is thought to vary independantly of other features, and to be derived from a
corresponding feature in a common ancestor of the organisms being studied. A "character state" is one
of the possible alternative conditions of the character. For example, "present" and "absent" are two
states of the character "hair" in mammals. Similarly, a particular position in a DNA sequence is a
character, and A, T, C, and G are its possible states (see bases.)
character displacement: The increased difference between two closely related species where they live in
the same geographic region (sympatry) as compared with where they live in different geographic
regions (allopatry). Explained by the relative influences of intra- and inter-specific competition in
sympatry and allopatry.

chloroplast: A structure (or organelle) found in some cells of plants; its function is photosynthesis.

cholera: An acute infectious disease of the small intestine, caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae
which is transmitted in drinking water contaminated by feces of a patient. After an incubation period of
1-5 days, cholera causes severe vomiting and diarrhea, which, if untreated, leads to dehydration that
can be fatal.

chordate: A member of the phylum Chordata, which includes the tunicates, lancelets, and vertebrates.
They are animals with a hollow dorsal nerve cord; a rodlike notochord that forms the basis of the
internal skeleton; and paired gill slits in the wall of the pharynx behind the head, although in some
chordates these are apparent only in early embryonic stages. All vertebrates are chordates, but the
phylum also contains simpler types, such as sea-squirts, in which only the free-swimming larva has a
notochord.

chromosomal inversion: See inversion.

chromosome: A structure in the cell nucleus that carries DNA. At certain times in the cell cycle,
chromosomes are visible as string-like entities. Chromosomes consist of the DNA with various proteins,
particularly histones, bound to it.

chronology: The order of events according to time.

Clack, Jenny: A paleontologist at Cambridge University in the U.K., Dr. Clack studies the origin,
phylogeny, and radiation of early tetrapods and their relatives among the lobe-finned fish. She is
interested in the timing and sequence of skeletal and other changes which occurred during the
transition, and the origin and relationships of the diverse tetrapods of the late Paleozoic.
clade: A set of species descended from a common ancestral species. Synonym of monophyletic group.

cladism: Phylogenetic classification. The members of a group in a cladistic classification share a more
recent common ancestor with one another than with the members of any other group. A group at any
level in the classificatory hierarchy, such as a family, is formed by combining a subgroup at the next
lowest level (the genus, in this case) with the subgroup or subgroups with which it shares its most recent
common ancestor. Compare with evolutionary classification and phenetic classification.

cladistic species concept: The concept of species, according to which a species is a lineage of populations
between two phylogenetic branch points (or speciation events). Compare with biological species
concept, ecological species concept, phenetic species concept, and recognition species concept.

cladists: Evolutionary biologists who seek to classify Earth's life forms according to their evolutionary
relationships, not just overall similarity.

cladogram: A branching diagram that illustrates hypotheses about the evolutionary relationships among
groups of organisms. Cladograms can be considered as a special type of phylogenetic tree that
concentrates on the order in which different groups branched off from their common ancestors. A
cladogram branches like a family tree, with the most closely related species on adjacent branches.

class: A category of taxonomic classification between order and phylum, a class comprises members of
similar orders. See taxon.

classification: The arrangement of organisms into hierarchical groups. Modern biological classifications
are Linnaean and classify organisms into species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and
certain intermediate categoric levels. Cladism, evolutionary classification, and phenetic classification are
three methods of classification.

cline: A geographic gradient in the frequency of a gene, or in the average value of a character.

clock: See molecular clock.

clone: A set of genetically identical organisms asexually reproduced from one ancestral organism.

coadaptation: Beneficial interaction between (1) a number of genes at different loci within an organism,
(2) different parts of an organism, or (3) organisms belonging to different species.

codon: A triplet of bases (or nucleotides) in the DNA coding for one amino acid. The relation between
codons and amino acids is given by the genetic code. The triplet of bases that is complementary to a
condon is called an anticodon; conventionally, the triplet in the mRNA is called the codon and the triplet
in the tRNA is called the anticodon.

coelacanth: Although long thought to have gone extinct about 65 million years ago, one of these deep-
water, lungless fish was caught in the 1930s. Others have since been caught and filmed in their natural
habitat.

coevolution: Evolution in two or more species, such as predator and its prey or a parasite and its host, in
which evolutionary changes in one species influence the evolution of the other species.

cognitive: Relating to cognition, the mental processes involved in the gathering, organization, and use of
knowledge, including such aspects as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement. The term refers
to any mental "behaviors" where the underlying characteristics are abstract in nature and involve
insight, expectancy, complex rule use, imagery, use of symbols, belief, intentionality, problem-solving,
and so forth.

common ancestor: The most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved.

comparative biology: The study of patterns among more than one species.

comparative method: The study of adaptation by comparing many species.

concerted evolution: The tendency of the different genes in a gene family to evolve in concert; that is,
each gene locus in the family comes to have the same genetic variant.

conodont: A jawless fish that had tiny, tooth-like phosphate pieces that are abundant in the fossil
record, these were the earliest known vertebrates.

continental drift: The process by which the continents move as part of large plates floating on Earth's
mantle. See plate tectonics.

contrivance: An object or characteristic used or modified to do something different from its usual use.

convergence: The process by which a similar character evolves independently in two species. Also, a
synonym for analogy; that is, an instance of a convergently evolved character, or a similar character in
two species that was not present in their common ancestor. Examples include wings (convergent in
birds, bats, and insects) and camera-type eyes (convergent in vertebrates and cephalopod mollusks).

convergent evolution: The evolution of species from different taxonomic groups toward a similar form;
the development of similar characteristics by taxonomically different organisms.

Conway Morris, Simon: Paleobiologist and professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at Cambridge
University in the U.K. His research centers around the early evolution of the metazoans, and he is a
leading authority on Cambrian and Precambrian fossils. Conway Morris established a link between the
Ediacaran fossils, a Burgess Shale fernlike frond Thaumaptilon, and the modern seapens, colonial
animals related to the corals.

Cope's rule: The evolutionary increase in body size over geological time in a lineage of populations.

coral (also, rugose coral, tabulate coral): These tiny animals make calcium carbonate skeletons that are
well known as a key part of tropical reefs. The skeletons of the extinct rugose and tabulate corals are
known from fossils.
cranium: The part of the skull that protects the brain in vertebrates.

creationism: The religious doctrine that all living things on Earth were created separately, in more or less
their present form, by a supernatural creator, as stated in the Bible; the precise beliefs of different
creationist groups vary widely. See separate creation.

creation science: An assortment of many different, non-scientific attempts to disprove evolutionary

theory, and efforts to prove that the complexity of living things can be explained only by the action of an
"intelligent designer."

Cretaceous: The final geological period of the Mesozoic era that began 144 million years ago and ended
65 million years ago. The end of this period is defined most notably by the extinction of the dinosaurs in
one of the largest mass extinctions ever to strike the planet.

crinoid: A marine invertebrate animal belonging to a class (Crinoidea; about 700 species) of
echinoderms, including sea lilies and feather stars. They have a small cup-shaped body covered with
hard plates and five radiating pairs of feathery flexible arms surrounding the mouth at the top. Sea lilies,
most of which are extinct, are fixed to the sea bottom or some other surface such as a reef by a stalk.
Feather stars are free-swimming and are usually found on rocky bottoms. Crinoids occur mainly in deep
waters and feed on microscopic plankton and detritus caught by the arms and conveyed to the mouth.
The larvae are sedentary. They arose in the Lower Ordovician (between 500 and 460 million years ago),
and fossil crinoids are an important constituent of Palaeozoic limestones.

crossing over: The process during meiosis in which the chromosome of a diploid pair exchange genetic
material, visible in the light microscope. At a genetic level, it produces recombination.

crustacean: A group of marine invertebrates with exoskeletons and several pairs of legs. They include
shrimp, lobsters, crabs, amphipods (commonly known as "sand fleas"), and many more.

Currie, Cameron: A Canadian ecologist and recipient of the 2001 Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council Doctoral Prize for his research on the complex symbiotic relationship of fungus-
growing ants, the fungi they cultivate, mutualistic bacteria that the ants carry on their bodies, and
pathogens that attack the fungi.
cytoplasm: The region of a eukaryotic cell outside the nucleus.

Daeschler, Ted: Paleontologist and associate research curator at the Academy of Natural Sciences.
Discoverer of late Devonian limbed fossils Hynerpeton bassetti and Designathus rowei (tetrapods) and
Sauripterus taylorii and Hyneria (lobed-finned fishes), all early examples of animals exploiting both land
and water environments. Author of two books on paleontology for young people.

Dart, Raymond: Australian-born South African anatomist and anthropologist (1893-1988). In 1924 he
described a fossil skull collected near Taung in South Africa, naming it Australopithecus africanus. Dart
asserted that the skull was intermediate between the apes and humans, a controversial claim at the
time, though later work made it clear that the Taung child, as it came to be known, was indeed a
hominid.

Darwinian evolution: Evolution by the process of natural selection acting on random variation.

Darwinism: Darwin's theory that species originated by evolution from other species and that evolution is
mainly driven by natural selection. Differs from neo-Darwinism mainly in that Darwin did not know
about Mendelian inheritance.

Darwin, Charles: The 19th-century naturalist considered the father of evolution. His landmark work, On
the Origin of Species, published in 1859, presented a wealth of facts supporting the idea of evolution
and proposed a viable theory for how evolution occurs -- via the mechanism Darwin called "natural
selection." In addition to his prolific work in biology, Darwin also published important works on coral
reefs and on the geology of the Andes, and a popular travelogue of his five-year voyage aboard HMS
Beagle.

Darwin, Erasmus: The name shared by Charles Darwin's grandfather and brother, each important in his
life and work. Charles's grandfather Erasmus (1731-1802) was a glorious polymath -- physician, author,
and botanist. His impact is reflected throughout a wide range of disciplines from the poetry to the
technology of his day. Author of The Loves of the Plants, a 2,000-line poem detailing their sexual
reproduction, and Zoonomia, or the Theory of Generations, whose themes echo throughout his
grandson's work. Charles's older brother Erasmus (1805-1881), known as "Ras," used his network of
social and scientific contacts to advance the theories of his shyer, more retiring sibling.

Dawkins, Richard: An evolutionary biologist who has taught zoology and is the author of several books
on evolution and science, including The Selfish Gene (1976) and The Blind Watchmaker (1986). He is
known for his popularization of Darwinian ideas, as well as for original thinking on evolutionary theory.

Dembski, William: A mathematician and philosopher who has written on intelligent design, attempting
to establish the legitimacy and fruitfulness of design within biology.

Dennett, Daniel: Philosopher and director of the Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts University, whose
work unites neuroscience, computer science, and evolutionary biology. Dennett sees no basic distinction
between human and machine intelligence, advocating a mechanical explanation of consciousness. He is
the author of Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds and Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the
Meanings of Life, among many other books and publications.

derived homology: Homology that first evolved in the common ancestor of a set of species and is unique
to those species. Compare with ancestral homology.

de facto: In fact; in reality. Something which exists or occurs de facto is not the result of a law, but
because of circumstances.

diatom: These single-celled algae are common among the marine phytoplankton. Their glassy, two-part
shells have intricate patterns and fit together like the two parts of a shirt box.

diffusion: The process by which molecules (for example, of oxygen) move passively from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.

dinoflagellate: Possessing two tail-like extensions called flagella that are used for movement, these
single-celled algae can live freely or in other organisms such as corals. When many dinoflagellates
suddenly reproduce in great numbers, they create what are known as "red tides" by making the water
appear red.

diploid: Having two sets of genes and two sets of chromosomes (one from the mother, one from the
father). Many common species, including humans, are diploid. Compare with haploid and polyploid.

directional selection: Selection causing a consistent directional change in the form of a population
through time (e.g., selection for larger body size).

disruptive selection: Selection favoring forms that deviate in either direction from the population
average. Selection favors forms that are larger or smaller than average, but works against the average
forms between the extremes.

distance: In taxonomy, referring to the quantitatively measured difference between the phenetic
appearance of two groups of individuals, such as populations or species (phenetic distance), or the
difference in their gene frequencies (genetic distance).

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that controls inheritance.

DNA base sequence: A chain of repeating units of deoxyribonucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosice,
thymine) arranged in a particular pattern.

Dobzhansky, Theodosius: A geneticist and zoologist best known for his research in population genetics
using the fruit fly. His study of the evolution of races led to the discovery of genetic diversity within
species, and confirmed his belief that genetic variation leads to better adaptability.

dominance (genetic): An allele (A) is dominant if the phenotype of the heterozygote (Aa) is the same as
the homozygote (AA). The allele (a) does not influence the heterozygote's phenotype and is called
recessive. An allele may be partly, rather than fully, dominant; in that case, the heterozygous phenotype
is nearer to, rather than identical with, the homozygote of the dominant allele.
drift: Synonym of genetic drift.

duplication: The occurrence of a second copy of a particular sequence of DNA. The duplicate sequence
may appear next to the original or be copied elsewhere into the genome. When the duplicated
sequence is a gene, the event is called gene duplication.

echinoderm: Echinoderms, whose name means "spiny skin," are a group of marine invertebrates that
includes starfish, brittlestars, basket stars, sea cucumbers, sand dollars, sea urchins, and others. They
live in environments from shallow coastal waters to deep-sea trenches, from the tropics to the poles.

ecological genetics: The study of evolution in action in nature, by a combination of field work and
laboratory genetics.

ecological species concept: A concept of species, according to which a species is a set of organisms
adapted to a particular, discrete set of resources (or "niche") in the environment. Compare with
biological species concept, cladistic species concept, phenetic species concept, and recognition species
concept.

ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with a particular environment.

Eldredge, Niles: A paleontologist and evolutionary biologist with the American Museum of Natural
History, Eldredge, together with Stephen Jay Gould, proposed the theory of punctuated equilibria,
providing paleontologists with an explanation for the patterns which they find in the fossil record. He
has written several books for a general audience, including Time Frames: The Evolution of Punctuated
Equilibria and Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis.

electrophoresis: The method of distinguishing entities according to their motility in an electric field. In
evolutionary biology, it has been mainly used to distinguish different forms of proteins. The
electrophoretic motility of a molecule is influenced by its size and electric charge.
embryo: An early stage of animal development that begins after division of the zygote (the earliest
stage, in which joined egg and sperm have not yet divided).

embryonic: Related to an embryo, or being in the state of an embryo.

embryology: scientific study of the earliest stages of growth and development in organisms.

emigration: The movement of organisms out of an area.

Emlen, Stephen: A world authority on the social behavior of animals, particularly birds. Emlen's interests
center on evolutionary or adaptive aspects of animal behavior. The goal of his research is to better
understand the social interactions that occur between individuals, especially cooperation and conflict.

empirical: Determined by experimentation.

Endler, John: A zoologist and professor with interests in evolution and how it affects geographic
variation. His current research focuses on guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in their natural habitat, and how
visual signs and vision dictate their behavior.

enzyme: A protein that acts as a catalyst for chemical reactions.

Eocene: The second oldest of the five major epochs of the Tertiary period, from 54 to 38 mya. It is often
known for the rise of mammals.

epistasis: An interaction between the genes at two or more loci, such that the phenotype differs from at
would be expected if the loci were expressed independently.

Erwin, Douglas: Dr. Erwin is a paleobiologist with the National Museum of Natural History in the
Smithsonian Institution. His research is concerned with aspects of major evolutionary novelties,
particularly the Metazoan radiation and post-mass extinction recoveries. Recent work has involved the
developmental events associated with the Cambrian along with their environmental context. He also
works on the rate, causes, and consequences of the end-Permian mass extinction.

eugenics: The science or practice of altering a population, especially of humans, by controlled breeding
for desirable inherited characteristics. The term was coined in 1883 by Francis Galton, who was an
advocate of "improving" the human race by modifying the fertility of different categories of people.
Eugenics fell into disfavour after the perversion of its doctrines by the Nazis.

eukaryote: Any organism made up of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes are generally larger and have more
DNA than prokaryotes (whose cells do not have a nucleus to contain their DNA). Almost all multicellular
organisms are eukaryotes.

eukaryotic cell: A cell with a distinct nucleus.

evo-devo: the informal name for 'evolutionary developmental biology', a branch of evolutionary studies
that seeks to contribute insights from genetics, embryology and microbiology to help scientists better
understand how new species arise from existing life forms

evolution: Darwin defined this term as "descent with modification." It is the change in a lineage of
populations between generations. In general terms, biological evolution is the process of change by
which new species develop from preexisting species over time; in genetic terms, evolution can be
defined as any change in the frequency of alleles in populations of organisms from generation to
generation.

evolutionary classification: Method of classification using both cladistic and phenetic classificatory
principles. To be exact, it permits paraphyletic groups (which are allowed in phenetic but not in cladistic
classification) and monophyletic groups (which are allowed in both cladistic and phenetic classification)
but excludes polyphyletic groups (which are banned from cladistic classification but permitted in
phenetic classification).
Ewald, Paul: Professor of biology at Amherst College, specializing in hummingbird and flower
coevolution and the evolution of infectious diseases. His research on disease focuses on the
evolutionary effects of various public health interventions.

exon: The nucleotide sequences of some genes consist of parts that code for amino acids, with other
parts that do not code for amino acids interspersed among them. The coding parts, which are
translated, are called exons; the interspersed non-coding parts are called introns.

extinction: The disappearance of a species or a population.

fact: A natural phenomenon repeatedly confirmed by observation.

family: The category of taxonomic classification between order and genus (see taxon). Organisms within
a family share a close similarity; for example, the cat family, Felidae, which includes lions and domestic
cats.

fauna: Animal life; often used to distinguish from plant life ("flora").

fermentation: A series of reactions occurring under anaerobic conditions (lacking oxygen) in certain
microorganisms (particularly yeasts) in which organic compounds such as glucose are converted into
simpler substances with the release of energy. Fermentation is involved in bread making, where the
carbon dioxide produced by the yeast causes dough to rise.

fetus: The embryo of a mammal that has reached a stage of development in the uterus in which most of
the adult features are recognizable. Specifically in humans it refers to the stage of development after the
appearance of bone cells, a process occurring 7 to 8 weeks after fertilization.

fitness: The success of an individual (or allele or genotype in a population) in surviving and reproducing,
measured by that individual's (or allele's or genotype's) genetic contribution to the next generation and
subsequent generations.
FitzRoy, Robert: Captain of the Beagle, which took Charles Darwin on his famous voyage to South
America and around the world. FitzRoy's chief mission on the Beagle was to chart the coast of South
America. He also established the first weather warning system while on his journeys, with the help of
the telegraph, and later rose to the rank of Admiral in the British Navy. He was known as a young man
for his moody temperament, and in his older age for questionable sanity; FitzRoy's life ended in suicide.

fixation: A gene has achieved fixation when its frequency has reached 100 percent in the population.

fixed: (1) In population genetics, a gene is "fixed" when it has a frequency of 100 percent. (2) In
creationism, species are described as "fixed" in the sense that they are believed not to change their
form, or appearance, through time.

Flammer, Larry: A retired high school biology teacher and co-founder of the Santa Clara County
Biotechnology-Education Partnership, which provides teacher training and lab equipment for local
schools. He is a current member and Web writer for the Evolution and Nature of Science Institute (ENSI).

flora: Plant life; often used to distinguish from animal life ("fauna").

foraminifera: These invertebrates are very common in the global ocean, and their distinctive,
chambered shells are common in the fossil record as far back as 550 million years. Although very few
today exceed 9 mm in diameter, fossils have been found that measure 15 cm across.

fossil: Most commonly, an organism, a physical part of an organism, or an imprint of an organism that
has been preserved from ancient times in rock, amber, or by some other means. New techniques have
also revealed the existence of cellular and molecular fossils.

founder effect: The loss of genetic variation when a new colony is formed by a very small number of
individuals from a larger population.
frequency-dependent selection: Selection in which the fitness of a genotype (or phenotype) depends on
its frequency in the population.

fungi: A group of organisms comprising the kingdom Fungi, which includes molds and mushrooms. They
can exist either as single cells or make up a multicellular body called a mycelium. Fungi lack chlorophyll
and secrete digestive enzymes that decompose other biological tissues.

Galton, Francis: A cousin of Charles Darwin, Galton was a British explorer and anthropologist. He was
known for his studies of human intelligence and later for his work in eugenics (a term he coined), the
"science" of improving human hereditary characteristics. Known for his efforts at various sorts of
measurement (he developed fingerprinting and was a pioneer in statistics), he was knighted in 1909.

gamete: Haploid reproductive cells that combine at fertilization to form the zygote, called sperm (or
pollen) in males and eggs in females.

gastropod: Meaning "stomach foot," this name refers to the class of mollusks that contains the most
species. Gastropods include snails and slugs that are marine, freshwater, and terrestrial.

Gehring, Walter J.: Dr. Gehring and his research group discovered the homeobox, a DNA segment
characteristic for homeotic genes which is not only present in arthropods and their ancestors, but also in
vertebrates up to humans. Their work on the "master control gene" for eye development sheds light on
how the mechanism for building eyes may have evolved long ago in the ancestor of what are now very
different types of organisms.

gene: A sequence of nucleotides coding for a protein (or, in some cases, part of a protein); a unit of
heredity.

genetic: Related to genes. A gene is a sequence of nucleotides coding for a protein (or, in some cases,
part of a protein); a unit of heredity.
genetics: The study of genes and their relationship to characteristics of organisms.

genetic code: The code relating nucleotide triplets in the mRNA (or DNA) to amino acids in the proteins.

genetic distance: See distance.

genetic drift: Changes in the frequencies of alleles in a population that occur by chance, rather than
because of natural selection.

genetic engineering: Removing genes from the DNA of one species and splicing them into the DNA of
another species using the techniques of molecular biology.

genetic load: A reduction in the average fitness of the members of a population because of the
deleterious genes, or gene combinations, in the population. It has many particular forms, such as
"mutational load," "segregational load," and "recombinational load."

genetic locus: See locus.

gene duplication: See duplication.

gene family: A set of related genes occupying various loci in the DNA, almost certainly formed by
duplication of an ancestral gene and having a recognizably similar sequence. Members of a gene family
may be functionally very similar or differ widely. The globin gene family is an example.

gene flow: The movement of genes into or through a population by interbreeding or by migration and
interbreeding.

gene frequency: The frequency in the population of a particular gene relative to other genes at its locus.
Expressed as a proportion (between 0 and 1) or percentage (between 0 and 100 percent).
gene pool: All the genes in a population at a particular time.

genome: The full set of DNA in a cell or organism.

genomics: The study that characterizes genes and the traits they encode.

genotype: The set of two genes possessed by an individual at a given locus. More generally, the genetic
profile of an individual.

genus (plural genera): The second-to-lowest category in taxonomic classification. The phrase "species
name" generally refers to the genus and species together, as in the Latin name for humans, Homo
sapiens. See taxon.

geographic isolation: See reproductive isolation.

geographic speciation: See allopatric speciation.

geologic time: The time scale used to describe events in the history of Earth.

germination: The initial stages in the growth of a seed to form a seedling. The embryonic shoot
(plumule) and embryonic root (radicle) emerge and grow upward and downward, respectively. Food
reserves for germination come from tissue within the seed and/or from the seed leaves (cotyledons).

germ plasm: The reproductive cells in an organism, or the cells that produce the gametes. All cells in an
organism can be divided into the soma (the cells that ultimately die) and the germ cells (the cells that
are perpetuated by reproduction).
gestation: The period in animals bearing live young (especially mammals) from the fertilization of the
egg and its implantation into the wall of the uterus until the birth of the young (parturition), during
which the young develops in the uterus. In humans gestation is known as pregnancy and takes about
nine months (40 weeks).

Gingerich, Philip: Gingerich is interested in evolutionary change documented in the fossil record and
how this relates to the kinds of changes observable in the field or laboratory on the scale of a few
generations. His ongoing fieldwork in Wyoming, Egypt, and Pakistan is concerned with the origin of
modern orders of mammals, especially primates and whales.

glaciation: The formation of large sheets of ice across land. Glaciation of the continents marks the
beginning of ice ages, when the makeup of Earth and organisms on it changes dramatically.

Goldfarb, Alex: A Russian-born microbiologist now at the Public Health Research Institute in New York
City, Dr. Goldfarb is piloting a program in the Russian prison system to combat the further evolution of
drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis, which have infected at least 30,000 inmates.

Gould, Stephen Jay: A professor of geology and zoology at Harvard University since 1967. A
paleontologist and an evolutionary biologist, he teaches geology and the history of science, as well. With
others, he has advanced the concept that major evolutionary changes can occur in sudden bursts rather
than through the slow, gradual process proposed by the traditional view of evolution. In addition to his
scholarly works, Gould has published numerous popular books on paleoanthropology, Darwinian theory,
and evolutionary biology.

Grant, Peter and Rosemary: Biologists whose long-term research focuses on finches in the Galapagos
Islands, and the evolutionary impact of climatic and environmental changes on their populations. They
live part of the year in the Islands, and have received honors for their work since they began in 1973.

graptolite: A small, colonial, often planktonic marine animal that was very abundant in the oceans 300 to
500 million years ago; now extinct.
Greene, Mott: A historian of science who has written extensively about the development of geological
thought during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including the development of the theory of
continental drift.

greenhouse gases: Gases that absorb and reradiate infrared radiation. When present in the atmosphere,
these gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat near the surface of the planet. On Earth,
the main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and some
halocarbon compounds.

group selection: The selection operating between groups of individuals rather than between individuals.
It would produce attributes beneficial to a group in competition with other groups rather than attributes
beneficial to individuals.

Haeckel, Ernst: A German biologist who lived from 1834-1919, Haeckel was the first to divide animals
into protozoan (unicellular) and metazoan (multicellular) forms. His notion of recapitulation is no longer
accepted.

Haile Selassie, Yohannes: A paleoanthropologist who, while doing field work in Ethiopia for his doctoral
dissertation at the University of California, Berkeley, discovered Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, a
bipedal hominid dated at 5.2 million years old.

half-life: The amount of time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material to decay to a
stable form. For example, the half-life of carbon-14 is 5,568 years.

Hamilton, W.D.: A naturalist, explorer, and zoologist who worked in the world of mathematical models,
including "Hamilton's Rule," about the spread through a population of a gene for altruistic self sacrifice.
He was also interested in the evolutionary impact of parasites as the key to many outstanding problems
left by Darwin, including the baffling riddle of the evolution of sex. This led him to extensive work in
computer simulations.
haploid: The condition of having only one set of genes or chromosomes. In normally diploid organisms
such as humans, only the gametes are haploid.

haplotype: A set of genes at more than one locus inherited by an individual from one of its parents. It is
the multi-locus analog of an allele.

Hardy-Weinberg principle: In population genetics, the idea that if a population experienced no selection,
no mutation, no migration, no genetic drift, and random mating, then the frequency of each allele and
the frequencies of genotype in the population would remain the same from one generation to the next.

Hardy-Weinberg ratio: The ratio of genotype frequencies that evolve when mating is random and
neither selection nor drift are operating. For two alleles (A and a) with frequencies p and q, there are
three genotypes: AA, Aa, and aa. The Hardy-Weinberg ratio for the three is: p2AA : 2pqAa : q2aa. It is
the starting point for much of the theory of population genetics.

Harvey, Ralph: A geologist whose work includes the study of geological processes at a range of scales,
from the smallest nanometer to broader-scale interpretations of the history experienced by geological
materials.

heavy metals: Metals with a high relative atomic mass, such as lead, copper, zinc, and mercury. Many of
them are toxic.

hemoglobin: A protein that carries oxygen from the lungs throughout the body.

heredity: The process by which characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.

heritability: Broadly, the proportion of variation (more strictly, variance) in a phenotypic character in a
population that is due to individual differences in genotypes. Narrowly, it is defined as the proportion of
variation (more strictly, variance) in a phenotypic character in a population that is due to individual
genetic differences that will be inherited in the offspring.
heritable: Partly or wholly determined by genes; capable of being passed from an individual to its
offspring.

Herrnstein, Richard J.: A professor of psychology and an author of notable books on intelligence and
crime. He has primarily done research on human and animal motivational and learning processes. His
books include Psychology and I. Q. in the Meritocracy, and he coauthored (with Charles Murray) The Bell
Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1994).

heterogametic: The sex with two different sex chromosomes (males in mammals, because they are XY).
Compare with homogametic.

heterozygosity: (for most purposes) The proportion of individuals in a population that are
heterozygotes.

heterozygote: An individual having two different alleles at a genetic locus. Compare with homozygote.

heterozygote advantage: A condition in which the fitness of a heterozygote is higher than the fitness of
either homozygote.

heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular trait. See also heterozygote.

Hill, Andrew: A paleontologist and professor at Yale University. His work with Mary Leakey's team at
Laeotoli, Tanzania, in the 1970s helped lead to the discovery of the fossilized footprints of early
hominids and other mammals. His current research interests include hominid evolution, paleoecology,
and taphonomy.

HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus causes AIDS by inactivating the T cells of the immune
system.
homeobox: Homeoboxes are relatively short (approximately 180 base pair) sequences of DNA,
characteristic of some homeotic genes (which play a central role in controlling body development).
Homeoboxes code for a protein "homeodomain," a protein domain that binds to DNA, and can regulate
the expression of other genes. These homeodomain motifs are involved in orchestrating the
development of a wide range of organisms.

homeobox genes: "Homeobox genes" are genes that contain "homeoboxes", and can regulate the
expression of other genes. There are at least 24 homeobox genes, some but not all of which are also
homeotic in their effect. In general, "homeotic" genes are genes that control the identity of body parts.
They are active in the early stages of embryonic development of organisms. Some, but not all, homeotic
genes are homeobox genes. "Hox" genes are a subgroup of homeotic homeobox genes that determine
positional cell differentiation and development. They lay out the head to tail body pattern in very early
embryos. The Hox genes are very ancient and widely shared among bilateral animals. After the head to
tail pattern is established, homeotic genes direct the developmental fates of particular groups of cells.

homeostasis (developmental): A self-regulating process in development, such that the organism grows
up to have much the same form independent of the external influences it experiences while growing up.

homeotic mutation: A mutation causing one structure of an organism to grow in the place appropriate
to another. For example, in the mutation called "antennapedia" in the fruit fly, a foot grows in the
antennal socket.

hominids: Members of the family Hominidae, which includes only modern humans and their ancestors
since the human lineage split from the apes.

homogametic: The sex with two of the same kind of chromosomes (females in mammals, because they
are XX). Compare with heterogametic.

homologous structures: The structures shared by a set of related species because they have been
inherited, with or without modification, from their common ancestor. For example, the bones that
support a bat's wing are similar to those of a human arm.
homology: A character shared by a set of species and present in their common ancestor. Compare with
analogy. (Some molecular biologists, when comparing two sequences, call the corresponding sites
"homologous" if they have the same nucleotide, regardless of whether the similarity is evolutionarily
shared from a common ancestor or convergent. They likewise talk about percent homology between the
two sequences. Homology in this context simply means similarity. This usage is frowned upon by many
evolutionary biologists, but is established in much of the molecular literature.)

homozygote: An individual having two copies of the same allele at a genetic locus. Also sometimes
applied to larger genetic entities, such as a whole chromosome; a homozygote is then an individual
having two copies of the same chromosome.

homozygous: Having identical alleles for a particular trait. See also homozygote.

Homo erectus: A species of hominid that lived between 1.8 mya and 300,000 years ago; the first Homo
species to migrate beyond Africa.

Homo habilis: A species of hominid that lived between 1.9 and 1.8 mya, the first species in genus Homo,
and the first hominid associated with clear evidence of tool manufacture and use.

Homo neanderthalensis: A species of hominid that lived between 150,000 and 30,000 years ago in
Europe and Western Asia, originally thought to be a geographic variant of Homo sapiens but now
generally accepted to be a distinct species.

Homo sapiens: Modern humans, which evolved to their present form about 100,000 years ago.

horsetail: A seedless plant related to ferns. Twenty-five species of only one genus, Equisteum, remain
today, whereas many different species, some the size of modern trees, were abundant in ancient
swamps. Along with lycophytes and ferns, horsetails were among the first terrestrial plants to appear.

Ho, David: A physician and world-renowed AIDS researcher. Dr. Ho overturned an earlier conventional
assumption that the HIV virus remains dormant for up to 10 years in a person before its outbreak into
AIDS. His recognition that the virus is active right from the beginning of infection led him to initiate the
deployment of a combination of drugs to overpower the virus.

hox genes: A particular subgroup of homeobox genes that function to pattern the axis of an organismÕs
body and determine where limbs and other body segments will grow as the embryo develops.

Huxley, Thomas Henry: British intellect, photographer, and contemporary of Darwin. He was the first to
apply the theory of natural selection to humanity to explain the course of human evolution.

hybrid: The offspring of a cross between two species.

hypothesis: An explanation of one or more phenomena in nature that can be tested by observations,
experiments, or both. In order to be considered scientific, a hypothesis must be falsifiable, which means
that it can be proven to be incorrect.

idealism: The philosophical theory that there are fundamental non-material "ideas," "plans," or "forms"
underlying the phenomena we observe in nature. It has been historically influential in classification.

immigration: The movement of organisms into an area.

immutability: The ability to withstand change.

induction: The process of deriving general principles from particular facts.

inference: A conclusion drawn from evidence.

inheritance of acquired characters: Historically influential but factually erroneous theory that an
individual inherits characters that its parents acquired during their lifetimes.

insectivorous: Feeding largely or exclusively on insects.

intelligent design: The non-scientific argument that complex biological structures have been designed by
an unidentified supernatural or extraterrestrial intelligence.

intron: The nucleotide sequences of some genes consist of parts that code for amino acids, and other
parts that do not code for amino acids interspersed among them. The interspersed non-coding parts,
which are not translated, are called introns; the coding parts are called exons.

inversion: An event (or the product of the event) in which a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA is
reversed, or inverted. Sometimes inversions are visible in the structure of the chromosomes.

IQ: An abbreviation of "intelligence quotient," usually defined as the mental age of an individual (as
measured by standardized tests) divided by his or her real age and multiplied by 100. This formulation
establishes the average IQ as 100. The usefulness and reliability of IQ as a measure of intelligence has
been questioned, in part because of the difficulty of devising standardized tests that are free of cultural
biases.

isolating mechanism: Any mechanism, such as a difference between species in courtship behavior or
breeding season, that results in reproductive isolation between the species.

isolation: Synonym for reproductive isolation.

isotope: An atom that shares the same atomic number and position as other atoms in an element but
has a different number of neutrons and thus a different atomic mass.
Jablonski, David: Paleontologist and professor in the Department of the Geophysical Sciences of the
University of Chicago. His research emphasizes combining data from living and fossil organisms to study
the origins and fates of lineages and adaptations, to develop an understanding of the underlying
dynamics of speciation and extinction that could lead to a general theory of evolutionary novelty. He is
interested in the way evolutionary patterns are shaped by the alternation of extinction regimes, with
rare but influential mass extinctions driving unexpected evoutionary shifts.

Johanson, Don: A paleontologist and founder of the Institute for Human Origins. Johanson discovered
Lucy (at that time the oldest, most complete hominid skeleton known) in 1974, and the following year
unearthed the fossilized remains of 13 early hominids in Ethiopia. He is the author of several popular
books on human origins.

Johnson, Jerry: Johnson's research interests focus on the interactions and evolutionary relationships of
amphibian and reptilian species of tropical American and Mexican desert ecosystems. Johnson
specializes in field research in places such as Yucatan, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Chiapas, Mexico. He has
done research on the biochemical analysis of rattlesnake venom using immunological techniques, snake
ecology, and lizard ecology.

Johnston, Victor: Professor of biopsychology at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces. His research
interests include the evolution of consciousness and perceptions of beauty. He is the author of Why We
Feel: The Science of Human Emotions.

Kegl, Judy: A linguist who works on theoretical linguistics as it applies to signed and spoken languages.
Among her research interests is a study of Nicaraguan Sign Language.

Kimbel, Bill: An anatomist, Kimbel worked with Don Johanson and assembled Lucy's skull fragments. In
1991, Kimbel and Yoel Rak found a 70 percent complete skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis.

kingdom: The second highest level of taxonomic classification of organisms (below domains).
Classification schemes at the kingdom level have changed over time. Recent molecular data have
generally reinforced the evolutionary significance of the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, and Fungi. The
single-celled eukaryotes once lumped into the kingdom Protista are now known to be very diverse, and
not closely related to one another. The prokaryotic organisms once lumped into the kingdom Monera
are now considered to belong to separate domains: Eubacteria and Archaea. See taxon.

Kirchweger, Gina: An Austrian biologist interested in the biological evolution of skin tone. Her essay,
"The Biology of Skin Color," concerns the evolution of race.

Kluger, Matthew: A researcher whose work on lizards demonstrated that fever is beneficial and can
improve the immune response to infection. The implication for humans is still being researched, but
evidence indicates that mild fevers can have a number of important immunological functions that allow
us to better fight bacterial and viral infections.

Knowlton, Nancy: Dr. Knowlton is professor of marine biology at the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, University of California San Diego, and staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical
Research Institute in Panama. Her primary research interests concern various facets of marine
biodiversity. These include the nature of species boundaries in corals, elucidating biogeographic patterns
in tropical seas, the ecology of coral-algal symbiosis, and threshold effects in coral reef ecosystems.

Kondrashov, Alexey: A population geneticist specializing in mathematical analysis who has studied the
evolutionary role of slightly deleterious mutations. He has theorized that a primitive organism's strategy
for protecting itself against damaging mutations may have been the first step in the evolution of sexual
reproduction.

Kreiswirth, Barry: Director of the Public Health Research Institute TB Center in New York, Dr. Kreiswirth
uses DNA fingerprinting to study the evolution of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
the pathogen that causes TB.

Lamarckian inheritance: Historically misleading synonym for inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Lamarck, Jean: An 18th-century naturalist, zoologist, and botanist noted for his study and classification
of invertebrates, as well as his evolutionary theories. He traveled extensively throughout Europe and
was elected to the Academy of Sciences, where he introduced the principles of heredity and acquired
characteristics.

land bridge: A connection between two land masses, especially continents (e.g., the Bering land bridge
linking Alaska and Siberia across the Bering Strait) that allows migration of plants and animals from one
land mass to the other. Before the widespread acceptance of continental drift, the existence of former
land bridges was often invoked to explain faunal and floral similarities between continents now widely
separated. On a smaller scale, the term may be applied to land connections that have now been
removed by recent tectonics or sea-level changes (e.g., between northern France and southeastern
England).

larva (and larval stage): The prereproductive stage of many animals. The term is particularly apt when
the immature stage has a different form from the adult. For example, a caterpillar is the larval stage of a
butterfly or moth.

law: A description of how a natural phenomenon will occur under certain circumstances.

Leakey, Maeve: A paleoanthropologist at the National Museums of Kenya, Maeve is the discoverer of
Kenyanthropus platyops and Australopithecus anamensis. She is married to Richard Leakey.

Leakey, Mary: A British paleoanthropologist described as "a real fossil hunter" and "the real scientist in
the family." Her discoveries, some in collaboration with her husband Louis Leakey, included the 1.75-
million-year-old skull which first showed the antiquity of hominids in Africa, jaws and teeth of an early
Homo species, and fossilized footprints of bipedal hominids.

Leakey, Richard: The son of renowned anthropologists Louis and Mary Leakey, Richard continued their
work on early hominids from 1964 until the 1980s, making a number of significant fossil finds in the Lake
Turkana area and serving as director of the National Museum of Kenya. Later he devoted his energies to
conservation and politics.
Lee, Melanie: A molecular geneticist and microbial biologist, who in the 1980s collaborated with Paul
Nurse on novel research that demonstrated the commonality of the genetic code between yeasts and
humans. Dr. Lee later took her molecular skills into the pharmaceutical industry, and was a leader in
moving pharmacology away from animal models and toward the use of recombinant DNA technology
for screening potential new therapies. She now heads the research division of Celltech, an international
biopharmaceutical company, where her team works on drug discovery and development of new
therapies, mainly for the treatment of inflammatory and immune diseases.

lek: An area of ground divided into territories that are defended by males for the purpose of displaying
to potential mates during the breeding season. This form of mating behavior is known as lekking, and
occurs in various bird species (for example the peacock) and also in some mammals. The dominant
males occupy the territories at the centre of the lek, where they are most likely to attract and mate with
visiting females. The outer territories are occupied by subordinate males, who have less mating success.
Over successive breeding seasons, younger subordinate males tend to gradually displace older
individuals from the most desirable territories and become dominant themselves. The lek territories do
not contain resources of value to the female, such as food or nesting materials, although males of some
species may build structures such as bowers that form part of their display.

lemur: A small, tree-dwelling primate that belongs to the group called prosimians.

lethal recessive: The case in which inheriting two recessive alleles of a gene causes the death of the
organism.

Levine, Michael: Professor of genetics and development in the Molecular and Cell Biology Department at
University of California, Berkeley. Levine was the discoverer (with Bill McGinnis) of homeobox sequences
in the homeotic genes Antennapedia and Ultrabithorax while a postdoctoral researcher with Walter
Gehring at the University of Basel, Switzerland. His current research involves analysis of gene regulation
and patterning in the early Drosophila embryo; studies of embryonic development in the tunicate, Ciona
intestinalis, focused on the specification of the notochord and tail muscles; and a critical test of classical
models for the evolutionary origins of the chordate body plan.

lineage: An ancestor-descendant sequence of (1) populations, (2) cells, or (3) genes.

linkage disequilibrium: A condition in which the haplotype frequencies in a population deviate from the
values they would have if the genes at each locus were combined at random. (When no deviation exists,
the population is said to be in linkage equilibrium.)

linked: Of genes, present on the same chromosome.

Linnaean classification: A hierarchical method of naming classificatory groups, invented by the 18th-
century Swedish naturalist Carl von Linné, or Linnaeus. Each individual is assigned to a species, genus,
family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom, and some intermediate classificatory levels. Species are
referred to by a Linnaean binomial of its genus and species, such as Magnolia grandiflora.

Lively, Curtis: A professor of biology who studies population biology and the ecology and evolution of
host-parasite interactions. His laboratory is involved in detailed studies of the interaction between a
parasitic trematode and a freshwater New Zealand snail in which both sexual and asexual females
coexist.

locus: The location in the DNA occupied by a particular gene.

Lovejoy, Owen: A paleoanthropologist and consulting forensic anatomist, Lovejoy is known for his
analysis of early hominid fossils. His research includes work on Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis).

lycophyte: Commonly known as club mosses, lycophytes were among the first seedless plants to appear
on Earth. Along with horsetails and ferns, these made the planet more hospitable for the first animals.

Lyell's notion of gradual change: Also called uniformitarianism, Lyell's notion was that Earth has been
shaped by the same forces and processes that operate today, acting continuously over very long periods
of time. For example, the ongoing erosion caused by flowing water in a river could, given enough time,
carve out the Grand Canyon.

Lyell, Charles: A 19th-century scientist considered a father of modern geology. Lyell proposed that the
geology of Earth is shaped by gradual processes, such as erosion and sedimentation. Lyell's ideas,
expressed in his landmark work, Principles of Geology, greatly influenced the young Charles Darwin.
Darwin and Lyell later became close friends. While Lyell initially opposed the idea of evolution, he came
to accept it after Darwin published On the Origin of Species.

macroevolution: A vague term generally used to refer to evolution on a grand scale, or over long periods
of time. There is no precise scientific definition for this term, but it is often used to refer to the
emergence or modification of taxa at or above the genus level. The origin or adaptive radiation of a
higher taxon, such as vertebrates, could be called a macroevolutionary event.

macromutation: Mutation of large phenotypic effect, one that produces a phenotype well outside the
range of variation previously existing in the population.

malaria: A sometimes-fatal disease transferred to humans by mosquitoes, infecting the bloodstream.

Malthus, Thomas: A British economist and demographer best known for his treatise on population
growth, which states that people will always threaten to outrun the food supply unless reproduction is
closely monitored. His theory was in opposition to the utopians of the 18th century.

mammals: The group (specifically, a class) of animals, descended from a common ancestor, that share
the derived characters of hair or fur, mammary glands, and several distinctive features of skeletal
anatomy, including a particular type of middle ear. Humans, cows, and dolphins are all mammals.

mammary glands: Only found in mammals, these are specialized glands that can produce milk for
feeding young.

mandible: A part of the bony structure of a jaw. In vertebrates, it is the lower jaw; in birds, the lower bill;
in arthropods, one of the paired appendages closest to the mouth.
Margulis, Lynn: A biologist who developed the serial endosymbiosis theory of origin of the eukaryotic
cell. Although now accepted as a plausible theory, both she and her theory were ridiculed by
mainstream biologists for a number of years.

marsupial mammals: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals whose females give birth to young at a
very early stage of development. These newborns complete their development while sucking in a pouch,
which is a permanent feature on the female. Examples include kangaroos and opossums.

mastodon: An extinct elephant-like mammal.

Mayr, Ernst: Mayr's work has contributed to the synthesis of Mendelian genetics and Darwinian
evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept. Mayr has been universally
recognized and acknowledged as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century.

McGinnis, William: A professor of biology at the University of California, San Diego. Discover (with Mike
Levine) of homeoboxes, the sequences of DNA that are characteristic of homeotic genes, which play a
central role in specifying body development. His current research uses both genetics and biochemistry
to examine such questions as how molecular variations in the Hox genes that specify the head-tail
pattern of an organism can generate variety in animal shapes during evolution, and what the molecular
changes were that allowed single-celled animals to become multicellular.

meiosis: A special kind of cell division that occurs during the reproduction of diploid organisms to
produce the gametes. The double set of genes and chromosomes of the normal diploid cells is reduced
during meiosis to a single haploid set in the gametes. Crossing-over and therefore recombination occur
during a phase of meiosis.

meme: The word coined by Richard Dawkins for a unit of culture, such as an idea, skill, story, or custom,
passed from one person to another by imitation or teaching. Some theorists argue that memes are the
cultural equivalent of genes, and reproduce, mutate, are selected, and evolve in a similar way.

Mendelian inheritance: The mode of inheritance of all diploid species, and therefore of nearly all
multicellular organisms. Inheritance is controlled by genes, which are passed on to the offspring in the
same form as they were inherited from the previous generation. At each locus an individual has two
genes -- one inherited from its father and the other from its mother. The two genes are represented in
equal proportions in its gametes.

Mendel, Gregor: An Austrian monk whose plant breeding experiments, begun in 1856, led to insights
into the mechanisms of heredity that are the foundation of genetics today. His work was ignored in his
lifetime and only rediscovered in 1900. See Mendelian inheritance.

messenger RNA (mRNA): A kind of RNA produced by transcription from the DNA and which acts as the
message that is decoded to form proteins.

metabolism: The chemical processes that occur in a living organism in order to maintain life. There are
two kinds of metabolism: constructive metabolism, or anabolism, the synthesis of the proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats which form tissue and store energy; and destructive metabolism, or catabolism,
the breakdown of complex substances, producing energy and waste matter.

metamorphosis: One or more changes in form during the life cycle of an organism, such as an amphibian
or insect, in which the juvenile stages differ from the adult. An example is the transition from a tadpole
to an adult frog. The term "complete metamorphosis" is applied to insects such as butterflies in which
the caterpillar stage is distinct from the adult. "Incomplete metamorphosis" describes the life histories
of insects such as locusts in which the young go through a series of larval stages, each of which bears
similarities to the adult. Metamorphosis in both insects and amphibians is controlled by hormones, and
often involves considerable destruction of larval tissues by enzymes.

metazoans: All animals that are multicellular and whose cells are organized into tissues and organs. In
the simplest metazoans only an inner and outer layer can be distinguished.

microbe: A nonscientific and very general term, with no taxonomic significance, sometimes used to refer
to microscopic (not visible to the unaided eye) organisms. The term often refers to bacteria or viruses
that cause disease or infection.

microevolution: Evolutionary changes on the small scale, such as changes in gene frequencies within a
population.
Miller, Geoffrey: Author of The Mating Mind, Miller is known for his research on evolutionary
psychology and sexual selection. He believes that our minds evolved not only as survival machines, but
also as courtship machines -- at least in part, to help us attract a mate and pass on genes.

Miller, Ken: A cell biologist and professor of biology at Brown University. Miller's academic research
focuses on the structure and function of biological membranes. He is the coauthor of widely used high
school and college biology textbooks, and he has also written Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search
for Common Ground Between God and Evolution.

Miller, Veronica: A German virologist whose research has focused on HIV-AIDS. Miller was the first
researcher to announce that an interruption in drug treatment among AIDS patients may result in
reversion of drug-resistant virus to its wild type. This led other researchers and clinicians to explore
"structured treatment interruptions" among some patients as an experimental treatment option.

mimicry: A case in which one species looks more or less similar to another species. See Batesian mimicry
and Müllerian mimicry.

mitochondrial DNA: DNA found in the mitochondrion, a small round body found in most cells. Because
mitochondria are generally carried in egg cells but not in sperm, mitochondrial DNA is passed to
offspring from mothers, but not fathers.

mitochondrion: A kind of organelle in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria produce enzymes to convert food
to energy. They contain DNA coding for some mitochondrial proteins.

mitosis: Cell division. All cell division in multicellular organisms occurs by mitosis except for the special
division called meiosis that generates the gametes.

Müllerian mimicry: A kind of mimicry in which two poisonous species evolve to look like one another.
modern synthesis: The synthesis of natural selection and Mendelian inheritance. Also called neo-
Darwinism.

molecular clock: The theory that molecules evolve at an approximately constant rate. The difference
between the form of a molecule in two species is then proportional to the time since the species
diverged from a common ancestor, and molecules become of great value in the inference of phylogeny.

molecular geneticists: Scientists who study genes and characters through work with the molecules that
make up and interact with DNA.

mollusk: An invertebrate that has a fleshy, muscular body. The phylum Mollusca includes snails, bivalves,
squids, and octopuses.

"monkey trial": In 1925, John Scopes was convicted and fined $100 for teaching evolution in his Dayton,
Tenn., classroom in the first highly publicized trial concerning the teaching of evolution. The press
reported that although they lost the case, Scopes's team had won the argument. The verdict had a
chilling effect on teaching evolution in the classroom, however, and not until the 1960s did it reappear in
schoolbooks.

monogamy: A reproductive strategy in which one male and one female mate and reproduce exclusively
with each other. Contrast with polygyny and polyandry.

monophyletic group: A set of species containing a common ancestor and all of its descendants, and not
containing any organisms that are not the descendants of that common ancestor.

monotremes: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals whose females lay eggs. The young hatch and
continue to develop in the mother's pouch, which is present only when needed. Two species of spiny
anteater and the duck-billed platypus are the only living monotremes.
Moore, James: The author, with Adrian Desmond, of an authoritative biography of Charles Darwin,
Moore has made a 20-year study of Darwin's life. With degrees in science, divinity, and history, he has
taught the history of science at Harvard University and at the Open University in the U.K.

morphology: The study of the form, shape, and structure of organisms.

Mueller, Ulrich G.: A zoologist and professor whose research aims at understanding microevolutionary
forces and macroevolutionary patterns that govern the evolution of organismal interactions, particularly
the evolution of mutualisms and the evolution of social conflict and cooperation. Mueller's current
research focuses on the coevolution between fungus-growing ants and their fungi and the evolutionary
ecology of halictine bees.

Murray, Charles: An author and policy analyst who has written many controversial and influential books
on social policy. He is coauthor with Richard J. Herrnstein of The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class
Structure in American Life (1994). He has also written Losing Ground: American Social Policy 1950-1980
(1984), which argues for the abolishment of the welfare system, The Underclass Revisited (1999), and
Income, Inequality and IQ (1998).

mutation: A change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA. Mutations can
be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.

Nagel, Ronald: A hematologist and professor at Albert Einstein College of Medicine. His research
includes molecular, biochemical, and physiological studies of genetic red blood cell defects, including
sickle cell.

natural selection: The differential survival and reproduction of classes of organisms that differ from one
another in one or more usually heritable characteristics. Through this process, the forms of organisms in
a population that are best adapted to their local environment increase in frequency relative to less well-
adapted forms over a number of generations. This difference in survival and reproduction is not due to
chance.
Neanderthal: A hominid, similar to but distinct from modern humans, that lived in Europe and Western
Asia about 150,000 to 30,000 years ago.

Nelson, Craig: A professor of biology and environmental affairs at Indiana University in Bloomington. His
research focuses on evolutionary ecology.

neo-Darwinism: (1) Darwin's theory of natural selection plus Mendelian inheritance. (2) The larger body
of evolutionary thought that was inspired by the unification of natural selection and Mendelism. A
synonym of the modern synthesis.

nervous system: An organ system, composed of a network of cells called neurons, that allows an animal
to monitor its internal and external environment, and to move voluntarily or in response to stimulation.

neural: Related to nerves and neurons.

neutral drift: Synonym of genetic drift.

neutral mutation: A mutation with the same fitness as the other allele or alleles at its locus.

neutral theory (and neutralism): The theory that much evolution at the molecular level occurs by genetic
drift.

Newton, Isaac: An English physician and mathematician, considered the culminating figure of the
scientific revolution of the 17th century. He is best known for his explanation of gravity and for laying
the foundation for modern physical optics.

niche: The ecological role of a species; the set of resources it consumes and habitats it occupies.
Nilsson, Dan-Erik: Professor Nilsson heads the Functional Morphology Division of the Department of
Zoology at Lund University in Sweden. His main research interest is the optics and evolution of
invertebrate eyes.

Nilsson, Lennart: A Swedish photographer who began as a photojournalist, Nilsson soon began exploring
new techniques such as the use of endoscopes and electron microscopes to photograph the inner
mysteries of the human body. He published a book entitled A Child is Born of his photographs of the
beginning of life, and made a number of films, including the mini-series Odyssey of Life, a coproduction
between WGBH/NOVA and SVT Swedish Television.

nitrogen fixation: A chemical process by which nitrogen in the atmosphere is assimilated into organic
compounds. Only certain bacteria are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which then becomes available to
other organisms through the food chains.

nomadic: Having to do with nomads, people who live in no fixed place but move in search of food or
grazing land for their animals; of a wandering lifestyle.

notochord: A flexible skeletal rod running the length of the body in the embryos of the chordates
(including the vertebrates). In some simpler types, such as sea-squirts, only the free-swimming larva has
a notochord; in others, such as the lancelets and lampreys, the notochord remains the main axial
support, and in vertebrates it is incorporated into the backbone as the embryo develops.

Novacek, Michael J.: Paleontologist with the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Novacek's
research interests include evolution of and relationships among organisms, particularly mammals. He is
the author of Dinosaurs of the Flaming Cliffs, an account of AMNH's Gobi Desert expeditions.

nucleotide: A unit building block of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a sugar and phosphate
backbone with a base attached.

nucleus: A region of eukaryotic cells, enclosed within a membrane, containing the DNA.
numerical taxonomy: In general, any method of taxonomy using numerical measurements. In particular,
it often refers to phenetic classification using large numbers of quantitatively measured characters.

Nurse, Paul: A pioneer in genetic and molecular studies who revealed the universal machinery for
regulating cell division in all eukaryotic organisms, from yeasts to frogs to human beings.

O'Brien, Stephen J.: A geneticist at the National Cancer Institute whose research interests include the
evolutionary history of the immunological response in mammals to retroviruses like HIV. With his
colleagues, he discovered a mutation that can protect individuals from infection by HIV, the virus that
causes AIDS.

order: The taxonomic classification level between class and family. For example, within the class
Mammalia, there are several orders, including the meat-eaters, who make up the order Carnivora; and
the insect-eaters, grouped together in the order Insectivora. The orders in turn are divided into families;
the order Carnivora includes the families Felidae (the cats), Canidae (the dogs), and Ursidae (the bears),
among others. See also taxon.

organelle: Any of a number of distinct small structures found in the cytoplasm (and therefore outside
the nucleus) of eukaryotic cells (e.g., mitochondrion and chloroplast).

organisms: Living things.

orthogenesis: The erroneous idea that species tend to evolve in a fixed direction because of some
inherent force driving them to do so.

Owen, Richard: A 19th-century British comparative anatomist, who coined the word "dinosaur" to
describe a breed of large, extinct reptiles. He was the first to propose that dinosaurs were a separate
taxonomic group. Owen opposed Darwin's theory of evolution, but ultimately his work helped support
evolutionary arguments.
ozone layer: The region of the atmosphere, generally 11-26 km (7-16 miles) above Earth, where ozone
forms in high concentrations. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation, shielding Earth from its
damaging effects.

paleoanthropologist: A scientist who uses fossil evidence to study early human ancestors.

paleobiology: The biological study of fossils.

paleontologist: A scientist who studies fossils to better understand life in prehistoric times.

paleontology: The scientific study of fossils.

Pangaea: A supercontinent which began to break apart into the modern continents about 260 million
years ago, causing the isolation (and separate evolution) of various groups of organisms from each
other.

panmixis: Random mating throughout a population.

paradox: A seemingly absurd or contradictory, though often true, statement.

parapatric speciation: Speciation in which the new species forms from a population contiguous with the
ancestral species' geographic range.

paraphyletic group: A set of species containing an ancestral species together with some, but not all, of
its descendants. The species included in the group are those that have continued to resemble the
ancestor; the excluded species have evolved rapidly and no longer resemble their ancestor.
parasite: An organism that lives on or in a plant or animal of a different species, taking nutrients without
providing any benefit to the host.

Parish, Amy: A biological anthropologist and primatologist whose research focuses on the social
behavior of bonobos ("pygmy chimpanzees," or Pan paniscus). In addition to comparative work with
chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and endocrinological investigations, Dr. Parish studies reciprocity in
chimpanzees, bonobos, and hunter-gatherers.

parsimony: The principle of phylogenetic reconstruction in which the phylogeny of a group of species is
inferred to be the branching pattern requiring the smallest number of evolutionary changes.

parthenogenesis: Development from an egg cell that has not been fertilized. The term for a certain form
of asexual reproduction that is found in some lizards, insects (notably among aphids), and certain other
organisms.

particulate: (as property of theory of inheritance) A synonym of atomistic.

paternity: The identity of the father of an offspring.

pathogen: A microorganism that causes disease.

pathological: Related to or caused by disease.

penicillin: The first antibiotic discovered, penicillin is derived from the mold Penicillium notatum. It is
active against a wide variety of bacteria, acting by disrupting synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.

peripatric speciation: A synonym of peripheral isolate speciation.

peripheral isolate speciation: A form of allopatric speciation in which the new species is formed from a
small population isolated at the edge of the ancestral population's geographic range. Also called
peripatric speciation.

pesticide-resistant insects: Insects with the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of
pesticides. These resistant variants increase in frequency over time if pesticides remain present in their
environment.

Petrie, Marion: A behavioral ecologist at the University of Newcastle in the U.K., Dr. Petrie's research
interests include the links between sexual selection and speciation, and how males and females assess
genetic quality in a mate.

phenetic classification: A method of classification in which species are grouped together with other
species that they most closely resemble phenotypically.

phenetic species concept: A concept of species according to which a species is a set of organisms that
are phenotypically similar to one another. Compare with biological species concept, cladistic species
concept, ecological species concept, and recognition species concept.

phenotype: The physical or functional characteristics of an organism, produced by the interaction of

genotype and environment during growth and development.

phenotypic characters: Individual traits that can be observed in an organism (including appearance and
behavior) and that result from the interaction between the organism's genetic makeup and its
environment.

pheromone: A chemical substance produced by some organisms and emitted into the environment to
communicate with others of the same species. Pheromones play an important role in the social behavior
of certain animals, especially insects and some mammals. They are used to mark out territories, to
attract mates, to lay trails, and to promote social cohesion and coordination in colonies. Examples are
the sex attractants secreted by moths to attract mates and the queen substance produced by queen
honeybees, which controls the development and behavior of worker bees. Pheromones are usually
volatile organic molecules which are effective at very low concentrations, as little as one part per million.
photoreceptor cell: A cell, functionally part of the nervous system, that reacts to the presence of light. It
usually contains a pigment that undergoes a chemical change when light is absorbed. This chemical
change stimulates electrical changes in the photoreceptor that, when passed along and processed by
other neurons, form the basis of vision.

photosynthesis: The fundamental biological process by which green plants make organic compounds
such as carbohydrates from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water using light energy from the Sun. The
process has two main phases: the light-dependent light reaction responsible for the initial capture of
energy, and the light-independent dark reaction in which this energy is stored in the chemical bonds of
organic molecules. Because virtually all other forms of life are directly or indirectly dependent on green
plants for food, photosynthesis is the basis for almost all life on Earth.

phylogeny: The study of ancestral relations among species, often illustrated with a "tree of life"
branching diagram, which is also known as a phylogenetic tree.

phylum (plural phyla): One of the highest levels of taxonomic classification. See taxon.

phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic organisms that, like plants, use photosynthesis to capture and
harness solar energy.

Pickford, Martin: A paleontologist at the College de France in Paris. In 2000, Pickford and Brigitte Senut
discovered Orrorin tugensis, a proto-hominid dated at 6 million years old.

Pinker, Steven: A psychologist and professor with a special interest in language, linguistic behavior, and
cognitive science. Pinker's publications include the popular science books The Language Instinct and
How the Mind Works.

placental mammals: A group (specifically, an order) of mammals in which the young develop inside the
mother, attached to her and nourished by a specialized structure called the placenta. In placental
mammals, the young are born in an advanced stage of development. Compare with marsupial and
monotreme.
placoderm: An extinct bottom-dwelling fish that was among the first to develop jaws and paired fins.

plankton: Minute or microscopic animals (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) that float and drift in
water, usually near the surface. In the top meter or two of water, both in the sea and in freshwater,
small plants can photosynthesize, and abundant microscopic life can be observed. Many organisms that
are sessile (attached to a surface) as adults disperse by means of a planktonic larval stage.

plan of nature: The philosophical theory that nature is organized according to a plan. It has been
influential in classification, and is a kind of idealism.

plasmid: A genetic element that exists (or can exist) independently of the main DNA in the cell. In
bacteria, plasmids can exist as small loops of DNA and be passed between cells independently.

plate tectonics: The theory that the surface of Earth is made of a number of plates, which have moved
throughout geological time to create the present-day positions of the continents. Plate tectonics
explains the location of mountain building, as well as earthquakes and volcanoes. The rigid plates consist
of continental and oceanic crust together with the upper mantle, which "float" on the semi-molten layer
of the mantle beneath them, and move relative to each other across the planet. Six major plates
(Eurasian, American, African, Pacific, Indian, and Antarctic) are recognized, together with a number of
smaller ones. The plate margins coincide with zones of seismic and volcanic activity.

Poisson distribution: A frequency distribution for number of events per unit time, when the number of
events is determined randomly and the probability of each event is low.

polyandry: A reproductive system in which one female mates with many males. Seahorses and jacanas
are examples of polyandrous species, which are less common than monogamous or polygynous species.

polygyny: Reproductive strategy in which one male mates with several females. Lions, peacocks, and
gorillas all have polygynous mating systems. Compare with polyandry and monogamy.
polymorphism: A condition in which a population possesses more than one allele at a locus. Sometimes
it is defined as the condition of having more than one allele with a frequency of more than five percent
in the population.

polyphyletic group: A set of species descended from more than one common ancestor. The ultimate
common ancestor of all species in the group is not a member of the polyphyletic group.

polyploid: An individual containing more than two sets of genes and chromosomes.

population: A group of organisms, usually a group of sexual organisms that interbreed and share a gene
pool.

population genetics: The study of processes influencing gene frequencies.

postulate: A basic principle.

postzygotic isolation: A form of reproductive isolation in which a zygote is successfully formed but then
either fails to develop or develops into a sterile adult. Donkeys and horses are postzygotically isolated
from one another; a male donkey and a female horse can mate to produce a mule, but the mule is
sterile.

prezygotic isolation: A form of reproductive isolation in which the two species never reach the stage of
successful mating, and thus no zygote is formed. Examples would be species that have different
breeding seasons or courtship displays, and which therefore never recognize one another as potential
mates.

primate: A mammal belonging to the order Primates (about 195 species), which includes prosimians,
monkeys, apes, and humans. Primates probably evolved from insectivorous climbing creatures like tree
shrews and have many adaptations for climbing, including five fingers and five toes with opposable first
digits (except in the hind feet of humans). They have well-developed hearing and sight, with forward-
facing eyes allowing binocular vision, and large brains. The young are usually produced singly and
undergo a long period of growth and development to the adult form. Most primates are arboreal, but
the great apes and humans are largely terrestrial.

prokaryote: A cell without a distinct nucleus. Bacteria and some other simple organisms are prokaryotic.
Compare with eukaryote. In classificatory terms, the group of all prokaryotes is paraphyletic.

proofreading enzymes: Mistakes during DNA replication can be recognized and repaired by proofreading
enzymes. A mismatched nucleotide may occur at the rate of one per 100,000 base pairs, causing a pause
in replication. DNA repair enzymes perform a proofreading function and reduce the error rate to one per
billion. Many complex mechanisms have evolved to repair damage and alterations in DNA, which can
occur as a result of damage from ultraviolet radiation, X-rays etc. as well as from errors during
replication. (Over 50 genes have been found in yeast to be involved in repair mechanisms).

prosimian: One of the group of primates that includes lemurs and lorises; the other two primate groups
are tarsoids and anthropoids.

protein: A molecule made up of a sequence of amino acids. Many of the important molecules in a living
thing -- for example, all enzymes -- are proteins.

protozoa: A group of unicellular, usually microscopic, organisms now classified in various phyla of the
kingdom Protoctista. They were formerly regarded either as a phylum of simple animals or as members
of the kingdom Protista. Most feed on decomposing dead organic matter, but some are parasites,
including the agents causing malaria (Plasmodium) and sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma), and a few
contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis, like plants.

pseudogene: A sequence of nucleotides in the DNA that resembles a gene but is nonfunctional for some
reason.

pupa (plural pupae): The third stage of development in the life cycle of some insects, including flies,
butterflies (in which it is the chrysalis), ants, bees, and beetles. During the pupal stage locomotion and
feeding cease and metamorphosis from the larva to the adult form takes place. The adult emerges by
cutting or digesting the pupal case after a few days or several months.
purine: A kind of base in the DNA; adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.

pyrimidine: A kind of base. In DNA, cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are pyrimidines. In RNA, cytosine (C) and
uracil (U) are pyrimidines.

quantitative character: A character showing continuous variation in a population.

radioactivity: The emission of energy due to changes in the nucleus of an atom. Such spontaneously
released radiation is a characteristic of certain elements and at some levels can be harmful.

radiometric dating: A dating technique that uses the decay rate of radioactive isotopes to estimate the
age of an object.

Rak, Yoel: An Israeli paleoanthropologist and anatomist whose research interests include facial
morphology of fossil hominids. Rak was part of the team that found a 2.3-million-year-old skull fragment
from the genus Homo at Hadar, Ethiopia.

random drift: Synonym of genetic drift.

random mating: A mating pattern in which the probability of mating with another individual of a
particular genotype (or phenotype) equals the frequency of that genotype (or phenotype) in the
population.

recanted: Withdrew a statement or opinion; disavowed a former assertion.

recapitulation: A partly or wholly erroneous hypothesis stating that an individual, during its
development, passes through a series of stages corresponding to its successive evolutionary ancestors.
According to the recapitulation hypothesis, an individual thus develops by "climbing up its family tree."

receptors: Proteins that can bind to other specific molecules. Usually on the surface of a cell, receptors
often bind to antibodies or hormones.

recessive: An allele (A) is recessive if the phenotype of the heterozygote (Aa) is the same as the
homozygote (aa) for the alternative allele (a) and different from the homozygote for the recessive (AA).
The allele (a) controls the heterozygote's phenotype and is called dominant. An allele may be partly,
rather than fully, recessive; in that case, the heterozygous phenotype is nearer to, rather than identical
with, the homozygote for the dominant allele.

recognition species concept: A concept of species according to which a species is a set of organisms that
recognize one another as potential mates; they have a shared mate recognition system. Compare with
biological species concept, cladistic species concept, ecological species concept, and phenetic species
concept.

recombination: An event, occurring by the crossing-over of chromosomes during meiosis, in which DNA
is exchanged between a pair of chromosomes of a pair. Thus, two genes that were previously unlinked,
being on different chromosomes, can become linked because of recombination, and linked genes may
become unlinked.

reinforcement: An increase in reproductive isolation between incipient species by natural selection.

Natural selection can directly favor only an increase in prezygotic isolation; reinforcement therefore
amounts to selection for assortative mating between the incipiently speciating forms.

relative dating: The process of ordering fossils, rocks, and geologic events from oldest to youngest.
Because of the way sedimentary rocks form, lower layers in most series are older than higher layers,
making it possible to determine which fossils found in those layers are oldest and which are youngest.
By itself, relative dating cannot assign any absolute age to rocks or fossils.
reproductive character displacement: The increased reproductive isolation between two closely related
species when they live in the same geographic region (sympatry) as compared with when they live in
separate geographic regions. A kind of character displacement in which the character concerned
influences reproductive isolation, not ecological competition.

reproductive isolation: Two populations or individuals of opposite sex are considered reproductively
isolated from one another if they cannot together produce fertile offspring. See prezygotic isolation and
postzygotic isolation.

retina: The back wall of the eye onto which images are projected. From the retina, the information is
sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

ribosomal RNA (rRNA): The kind of RNA that constitutes the ribosomes and provides the site for
translation.

ribosome: The site of protein synthesis (or translation) in the cell, mainly consisting of ribosomal RNA.

ring species: A situation in which two reproductively isolated populations (see reproductive isolation)
living in the same region are connected by a geographic ring of populations that can interbreed.

RNA: Ribonucleic acid. Messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA are its three main forms.
These act as the intermediaries by which the hereditary code of DNA is converted into proteins. In some
viruses, RNA is itself the hereditary molecule.

Saag, Michael: Dr. Saag is director of the AIDS Outpatient Clinic and associate professor of medicine at
the University of Alabama, Birmingham. He is also associate director for clinical care and therapeutics at
the UAB AIDS Center. Dr. Saag's research activities focus on both clinical and basic aspects of the human
immunodeficiency virus. He serves on several state and national advisory panels, including the
NIH/NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group Executive Committee.
sagittal crest: A ridge of bone projecting up from the top midline of the skull, running from front to back.
It serves as a muscle attachment area for the muscles that extend up the side of the head from the jaw.
The presence of a sagittal crest indicates extremely strong jaw muscles.

Schneider, Chris: A biologist and professor at Boston University whose research focuses on the evolution
of vertebrate diversity in tropical systems and the scientific basis for conservation of tropical diversity.
He uses a variety of molecular genetic methods, such as DNA sequencing, to study speciation,
systematics, and biogeography of terrestrial vertebrates, with an emphasis on reptiles and amphibians.

Schultz, Ted R.: An ant systematist at the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Schultz studies the evolution of the
symbiosis between fungus-growing ants and the fungi they cultivate.

science: A way of knowing about the natural world based on observations and experiments that can be
confirmed or disproved by other scientists using accepted scientific techniques.

Scopes, John: The 24-year-old teacher in the public high school in Dayton, Tenn., who was the defendant
in the "monkey trial" of 1925. He agreed to be the focus of a test case attacking a newly passed
Tennessee state law against teaching evolution or any other theory denying the biblical account of the
creation of man, and was arrested and tried, with the American Civil Liberties Union backing his defense.

Scott, Eugenie C.: A human biologist specializing in medical anthropology and skeletal biology. As
executive director of the National Center for Science Education, Scott is an advocate of church/state
separation in schools, and speaks widely about science, evolution, and natural selection.

Scott, Matthew P.: A professor and researcher whose work in developmental biology explores how
homeotic genes orchestrate differentiation and multicellular organization.

sedimentary rocks: Rocks composed of sediments, usually with a layered appearance. The sediments are
composed of particles that come mostly from the weathering of pre-existing rocks, but often include
material of organic origin; they are then transported and deposited by wind, water, or glacial ice.
Sedimentary rocks are deposited mainly under water, usually in approximately horizontal layers (beds).
Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the erosion and deposition of pre-existing rocks and are
classified according to the size of the particles. Organically formed sedimentary rocks are derived from
the remains of plants and animals (for example, limestone and coal). Chemically formed sedimentary
rocks result from natural chemical processes and include sedimentary iron ores. Many sedimentary
rocks contain fossils.

selection: Synonym of natural selection.

selectionism: The theory that some class of evolutionary events, such as molecular or phenotypic
changes, have mainly been caused by natural selection.

selective pressures: Environmental forces such as scarcity of food or extreme temperatures that result in
the survival of only certain organisms with characteristics that provide resistance.

Senut, Brigitte: An anatomist at France's National Museum of Natural History. In 2000, Senut and Martin
Pickford discovered Orrorin tugensis, a proto-hominid dated at 6 million years old.

separate creation: The theory that species have separate origins and never change after their origin.
Most versions of the theory of separate creation are religiously inspired and suggest that the origin of
species occurs by supernatural action.

sexually dimorphic: When males and females of a species have considerably different appearances,
which may include size, coloration, or other features, such as special plumage.

sexual selection: A selection on mating behavior, either through competition among members of one
sex (usually males) for access to members of the other sex or through choice by members of one sex
(usually females) of certain members of the other sex. In sexual selection, individuals are favored by
their fitness relative to other members of the same sex, whereas natural selection works on the fitness
of a genotype relative to the whole population.

sex chromosome: The chromosome or chromosomes that influence sex determination. In mammals,
including humans, the X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes (females are XX, males XY).
Compare with autosome.
Shubin, Neil: A paleontologist who is known for his work on early tetrapods (any creature with four
limbs). He presented a hypothesis of general patterns of the development of tetrapod limbs which
changed the way scientists think about this field. The study of limbs is crucial to evolutionary science;
one example of why this is important is that human development would have been impossible without
limbs.

sickle cell anemia: A disease in which poorly formed red blood cells cannot bind correctly to oxygen,
resulting in low iron, blood clotting, and joint pain.

Simpson, George Gaylord: One of the most influential paleontologists of the 20th century and a leading
developer of the modern synthesis. He wrote hundreds of technical papers in addition to many widely
read popular books and textbooks, and was a leading expert on Mesozoic, Paleocene, and South
American mammals.

Small, Meredith: A professor of anthropology. Her research interests include primate behavior and
ecology; mating strategies; reproduction; and the evolution of human behavior. Small's publications
include Female Choices: Sexual Behaviour of Female Primates, What's Love Got to Do With It?, and The
Evolution of Human Mating.

Smith, John Maynard: An eminent evolutionary biologist and author of many books on evolution, both
for scientists and the general public. A professor emeritus at the University of Sussex, his research
interests include evolution of human mitochondrial DNA sequences and investigation of evidence for
extensive recombination.

Smith, Tom: An ornithologist and conservation biologist, Smith is executive director of the Center for
Tropical Research at San Francisco State University. His work combines basic research in ecology and
evolutionary science with applied research in conservation biology. Among other issues, Smith is
interested in the role of ecological gradients in speciation and maintaining species diversity.

social Darwinism: A doctrine that applies the principles of selection to the structure of society, asserting
that social structure is determined by how well people are suited to living conditions.
spacer region: A sequence of nucleotides in the DNA between coding genes.

speciation: Changes in related organisms to the point where they are different enough to be considered
separate species. This occurs when populations of one species are separated and adapt to their new
environment or conditions (physiological, geographic, or behavioral).

species: An important classificatory category, which can be variously defined by the biological species
concept, cladistic species concept, ecological species concept, phenetic species concept, and recognition
species concept. The biological species concept, according to which a species is a set of interbreeding
organisms, is the most widely used definition, at least by biologists who study vertebrates. A particular
species is referred to by a Linnaean binomial, such as Homo sapiens for human beings.

sponge: A member of the phylum Porifera, marine and freshwater invertebrates that live permanently
attached to rocks or other surfaces. The body of a sponge is hollow and consists basically of an
aggregation of cells between which there is little nervous coordination, although they do have
specialized sets of cells that perform different functions. One set of cells causes water to flow in through
openings in the body wall and out through openings at the top; food particles are filtered from the
water by these cells. Other cells construct a stiffening skeletal framework of spicules of chalk, silica, or
fibrous protein to support the body.

stabilizing selection: A form of selection that tends to keep the form of a population constant.
Individuals with the mean value for a character have high fitness; those with extreme values have low
fitness.

stepped cline: A cline with a sudden change in gene or character frequency.

stromatoporoid: Stromatoporoids, once thought to be related to the corals, are now recognized as being
calcareous sponges. Sponges similar to fossil stromatoporoids are found in the oceans today. Like
modern sponges, stromatoporoid created currents to pump water in and out of their body, where they
filtered out tiny food particles. Fossil stromatoporoids can be massive, chocolate-drop in shape, tabular,
encrusting, cylindrical, or even arm-shaped ("ramose"). There are two main groups of fossil
stromatoporoids that lived in different eras, the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic. After their appearance in
the Ordovician, the Paleozoic stromatoporoids were dominant reef builders for over 100 million years.
The second group of stromatoporoids, from the Mesozoic, may represent a distinct group with a similar
growth form. They were also important contributors to reef formation, especially during the Cretaceous.

subduction zone: A zone where rocks of an oceanic plate are forced to plunge below much thicker
continental crust, along margins between adjoining plates. As the plate descends it melts and is released
into the magma below Earth's crust. Such a zone is marked by volcanoes and earthquakes. See plate
tectonics.

substitution: The evolutionary replacement of one allele by another in a population.

supernatural: Relating to phenomena that cannot be described by natural laws, cannot be tested by
scientific methodology, and are therefore outside the realm of science.

symbiosis: A relationship of mutual benefit between two organisms that live together.

sympatric speciation: Speciation via populations with overlapping geographic ranges.

sympatry: Living in the same geographic region. Compare with allopatry.

syntax: The rules by which words are combined to form grammatical sentences.

systematics: A near synonym of taxonomy.

tarsier: One of three species of small nocturnal primate belonging to the genus Tarsius, found in
Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and the Philippines. They have a naked tail measuring 130-270 mm (about 5-
11 inches) long, which makes up about half the total length of their bodies (220-460 mm, or 8-19
inches). Tarsiers have enormous eyes, large hairless ears, and gripping pads at the end of their digits.
They are mainly arboreal, using both hands to seize insects and small vertebrates such as lizards.
taxon (plural taxa): Any named taxonomic group, such as the family Felidae, or the genus Homo, or the
species Homo sapiens. Also, a formally recognized group, as distinct from any other group (such as the
group of herbivores, or the group of tree-climbers).

taxonomy: The theory and practice of biological classification.

terrestrial: Living on land.

tetrapod: A member of the group made up of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

thecodont: The thecodonts were a diverse group of Triassic reptiles that included large four-legged
carnivores, armored herbivores, small, agile two- and four-legged forms, and crocodile-like aquatic
reptiles. They gave rise to crocodiles, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs. The term Thecodontia is no longer
used, as they are a paraphyletic group. The thecodonts are therefore an evolutionary grade of animals,
rather than a clade. Most palaeontologists now use the term "basal archosaur" to refer to thecodonts.
As a group, they are defined by certain shared ancestral features, such as teeth in sockets, an
archosaurian characteristic that was inherited by the dinosaurs. The name thecodont is actually Latin for
"socket-tooth." Members of the group show a general trend toward a more upright, less sprawling
stance, with the hindlimbs especially being progressively positioned more directly beneath the body,
until some could walk upright on two legs.

theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that typically incorporates
many confirmed obserations, laws, and successfully verified hypotheses.

theropod: The theropod (meaning "beast-footed") dinosaurs are a diverse group of bipedal dinosaurs.
They include the largest terrestrial carnivores ever to have lived, as well as many quite small species.
Theropods typically share a number of traits, including hollow, thin-walled bones and modifications of
the hands and feet (three main fingers on the hand, and three main (weight-bearing) toes on the foot).
Most theropods had sharp, recurved teeth for eating flesh, and claws on the ends of all of the fingers
and toes. Some of these characters were lost or modified in some groups later in theropod evolution.
Theropod fossils are fairly rare and often fragmentary. Fossils of small theropods are especially rare,
since small bones are harder to find and are weathered away easily.
Thiagarajan, Sivasailam: The president of Workshops by Thiagi, Inc., his organization helps people
improve their performance through games and simulations.

trait: A characteristic or condition.

transcription: The process by which messenger RNA is read from the DNA forming a gene.

transfer RNA (tRNA): A type of RNA that brings the amino acids to the ribosomes to make proteins.
There are 20 kinds of transfer RNA molecules, one for each of the 20 main amino acids. A transfer RNA
molecule has an amino acid attached to it, and contains the anticodon corresponding to that amino acid
in another part of its structure. In protein synthesis, each codon in the messenger RNA combines with
the appropriate tRNA's anticodon, and the amino acids are arranged in order to make the protein.

transformism: The evolutionary theory of Lamarck in which changes occur within a lineage of
populations, but in which lineages do not split (i.e., no speciation occurs, at least not in the sense of the
cladistic species concept) and do not go extinct.

transition: A mutation changing one purine into the other purine, or one pyrimidine into the other
pyrimidine (i.e., changes from A to G, or vice versa, or changes from C to T, or vice versa).

transitional fossil: A fossil or group of fossils representing a series of similar species, genera, or families,
that link an older group of organisms to a younger group. Often, transitional fossils combine some traits
of older, ancestral species with traits of more recent species (for instance, a series of transitional fossils
documents the evolution of fully aquatic whales from terrestrial ancestors).

translation: The process by which a protein is manufactured at a ribosome, using messenger RNA code
and transfer RNA to supply the amino acids.

transversion: A mutation changing a purine into a pyrimidine, or vice versa (i.e., changes from A or G to
C or T and changes from C or T to A or G).
trilobite: An extinct marine arthropod common from the Cambrian to Permian eras (570-245 million
years ago). Trilobite fossils are abundant in rocks of this period. Trilobites were 10-675 mm long, and
their flattened oval bodies were divided into three lobes by two longitudinal furrows. They had a single
head shield, which bore a pair of antennae and, in many species, insect-like compound eyes. This was
followed by more than 20 short body segments, each with a pair of forked appendages. Many trilobites
apparently burrowed in sand or mud, preying on other animals or scavenging.

tuberculosis: An infection of the lungs, accompanied by fever and a loss of appetite, caused by the
bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

tunicate: A group of simple chordates, including sea squirts (class Ascidacea) that live attached to rocks,
and the salps (class Thaliacea) that float in the sea. Tunicates are small marine animals, cylindrical,
spherical, or irregular in shape, ranging from several millimetres to over 30 cm in size. They have a
saclike cellulose tunic covering the body; water is drawn in through a siphon and food particles are
filtered out. The free-swimming tadpole-like larvae show the major characteristics of all chordates. They
subsequently undergo metamorphosis, losing their chordate features and becoming adults. One group
(class Larvacea) retain their larval characteristics throughout life.

typology: (1) The definition of classificatory groups by phenetic similarity to a "type" specimen. A
species, for example, might be defined as all individuals less than x phenetic units from the species' type.
(2) The theory that distinct "types" exist in nature, perhaps because they are part of some plan of
nature. (See also idealism.) The type of the species is then the most important form of it, and variants
around that type are noise, or "mistakes." Neo-Darwinism opposes typology because in a gene pool no
one variant is any more important than any others.

unequal crossing-over: A crossing-over in which the two chromosomes do not exchange equal lengths of
DNA; one receives more than the other.

Van Valen, Leigh: An evolutionary biologist who came up with the model of the Red Queen -- the living
chess piece that Alice encounters in Through the Looking Glass who must keep running as fast as she can
to stay in the same place -- as a metaphor to explain evolutionary patterns. His studies involve genetics
and systematics, and involve a wide range of topics, including the evolution of biotas and of mammals.

variance: A measure of how variable a set of numbers are. Technically, it is the sum of squared
deviations from the mean divided by (n-1) (the number of numbers in the sample minus one). Thus, to
find the variance of the set of numbers 4, 6, and 8, we first calculate the mean, which is 6. We then sum
the squared deviations from the mean (4 - 6)2 + (6 - 6)2 + (8 - 6)2, which comes to 8, and divide by (n-1)
(which is 2 in this case). The variance of the three numbers is 8/2 = 4. The more variable the set of
numbers, the higher the variance. The variance of a set of identical numbers (such as 6, 6, and 6) is zero.

Vermeij, Geerat J.: Biologist at the Center for Population Biology of the University of California, Davis,
and author of Privileged Hands: A Scientific Life. Vermeij, blind since age 3, combines autobiography and
description of the evolutionary "arms race" between intertidal predator and prey species. Wider
research interests include economic relationships between organisms and ecosystems and their
implications for human organisms.

vertebrates: The group (specifically, a subphylum) of animals, descended from a common ancestor, that
share the derived character of an internal skeleton made of bone or cartilage.

vestigial: Any structures that have been greatly reduced in size and function over evolutionary time to
the extent that they now appear to have little or no current function.

virulence: The disease-producing ability of a microorganism.

virus: A kind of intracellular parasite that can replicate only inside a living cell. In its dispersal stage
between host cells, a virus consists of nucleic acid that codes for a small number of genes, surrounded
by a protein coat. (Less formally, according to Medawar's definition, a virus is "a piece of bad news
wrapped in a protein.")

vitamin A: A member of a chemically heterogeneous class of organic compounds that are essential, in
small quantities, for life.
Von Mutius, Erika: A pediatrician and allergist, Dr. von Mutius's research interests include the
epidemiology of childhood asthma and allergies with a focus on environmental predictors and gene-
environment interactions.

Vrijenhoek, Robert: A senior scientist in the areas of evolutionary biology, marine biology, and
conservation, Vrijenhoek studies the ecological and evolutionary consequences of genetic diversity in
animals. His research efforts have focused on the evolutionary and ecological consequences of sexual
and asexual reproduction in Mexican poeciliid fish (genus Poeciliopsis), as well as invertebrates in deep-
sea hydrothermal vents.

Wake, David: A professor in the Department of Integrative Biology at the University of California,
Berkeley, Dr. Wake's research emphasizes analysis of evolutionary patterns and the processes that
produce them, ranging from functional morphology to evolutionary genetics and population ecology.
Amphibians and reptiles are the focus of his work.

Wallace, Alfred Russel: A British naturalist and contemporary of Charles Darwin. Wallace conducted
research on the Amazon River and studied the zoological differences between animal species of Asia and
Australia, developing a theory of evolution similar to Darwin's.

Ward, Peter Douglas: Professor of geological sciences at the University of Washington in Seattle, where
he is also adjunct professor of zoology and of astronomy. Author of several books on biodiversity and
the fossil record, including Rivers in Time: The Search for Clues to Earth's Mass Extinctions and Rare
Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe (with Donald Brownlee). He is the principal
investigator for the University of Washington's portion of the NASA Astrobiology Institute.

Wegener, Alfred: A German climatologist and geophysicist whose book, The Origins of Continents and
Oceans, was the first to propose the concept of continental drift (the forerunner to the theory of plate
tectonics), as well as to suggest a supercontinent called Pangaea, which Wegener suggested had
fragmented into the continents as we know them today. His ideas remained controversial until the
1960s, when they became widely accepted as new evidence led to the development of the concept of
plate tectonics.
White, Tim: A paleoanthropologist with University of California, Berkeley's Laboratory for Human
Evolutionary Studies, White is known for his meticulous fieldwork and analysis investigating early
hominid skeletal biology, environmental context, and behavior. With an international team of
colleagues, he discovered and named Ardipithecus ramidus and Australopithecus garhi.

wild type: The genotype or phenotype, out of a set of genotypes or phenotypes of a species, that is
found in nature. The expression is mainly used in lab genetics to distinguish rare mutant forms of a
species from the lab stock of normal individuals.

Wilford, John Noble: A New York Times reporter and winner of two Pulitzer Prizes for his national
reporting of science topics, and for his work on the Challenger explosion and the aftermath. While at the
Times he served as science correspondent, assistant national news editor, and director of science news.

Wilson, E.O.: A biologist and professor at Harvard University since 1955. Wilson has won two Pulitzer
Prizes for his books On Human Nature and The Ants, and has received numerous honors for his research
and conservation efforts.

wobble: The ability of the third base in some anticodons of tRNA to bond with more than one kind of
base in the complementary position in the mRNA codon.

Woese, Carl: A molecular biologist, Dr. Woese's identification of the Archaea as a distinctive group of
organisms changed the way life is classified on Earth and transformed our view of biology.

Wrangham, Richard: A primatologist, Dr. Wrangham's central interest is in the significance of

chimpanzee behavior, ecology, and life-history for understanding the common ancestor between
chimps and humans and subsequent human evolution.

young Earth creationism: The belief that the universe came into being only a few thousand years ago.
Most young Earth creationists interpret the Bible literally, including not just the special, separate
creation of human beings and all other species, but the historicity of Noah's flood.
zygote: The cell formed by the fertilization of male and female gametes.