PCM Cooling

energies
Article
Passive Cooling Analysis of an Electronic Chipset Using
Nanoparticles and Metal-Foam Composite PCM: An
Experimental Study
Faisal Hassan 1 , Abid Hussain 1 , Furqan Jamil 2 , Adeel Arshad 3 and Hafiz Muhammad Ali 4,5, *
1 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila 47050, Pakistan
2 School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, Perth, WA 6027, Australia
3 Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Environment,
Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
4 Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
5 Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy and Power Systems (IRC-REPS), King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: hafiz.ali@kfupm.edu.sa
Abstract: Thermal management of electronic components is critical for long-term reliability and
continuous operation, as the over-heating of electronic equipment leads to decrement in performance.
The novelty of the current experimental study is to investigate the passive cooling of electronic
equipment, by using nano-enriched phase change material (NEPCM) with copper foam having
porosity of 97%. The phase change material of PT-58 was used with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs)
and magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles (NPs), having concentrations of 0.01 wt.% and 0.02 wt.%.
Three power levels of 8 W, 16 W, and 24 W, with corresponding heating inputs of 0.77 kW/m2 ,
1.54 kW/m2 and 2.3 kW/m2 , respectively, were used to simulate the heating input to heat sink for
Citation: Hassan, F.; Hussain, A.; thermal characterization. According to results, at 0.77 kW/m2 heating input the maximum base
Jamil, F.; Arshad, A.; Ali, H.M. temperature declined by 13.03% in 0.02 wt.% GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam case. At heating input of
Passive Cooling Analysis of an 1.54 kW/m2 , the maximum base temperature reduction of 16% was observed in case of 0.02 wt.%
Electronic Chipset Using
GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam and 13.1% in case of 0.02 wt.% MgO-NEPCM/copper foam. Similarly,
Nanoparticles and Metal-Foam
at heating input of 2.3 kW/m2 , the maximum temperature of base lessened by 12.58% in case of
Composite PCM: An Experimental
0.02 wt.% GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam. The highest time to reach the set point temperature of 50 ◦ C,
Study. Energies 2022, 15, 8746.
60 ◦ C, and 70 ◦ C was in case of GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam composites, while at all power levels
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228746
MgO-NEPCM/copper foam gave comparable performance to GNPs based composite. Similar trend
Academic Editor: Jude O. Iroh was observed in the study of enhancement ratio in operation time. From the results, it is concluded
Received: 27 September 2022 that the copper foam incorporation in NEPCM is an effective measure to mitigate the heat sink base
Accepted: 17 November 2022 temperature and can provide best cooling efficiency at low and higher heating loads.
Published: 21 November 2022
Keywords: phase change materials; nanoparticles; metal foam; thermal management; electronic equipment
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
1. Introduction
With the advancement in electronic industry and miniaturization of electronic chipsets,
the problem of high heat generation in electronic equipment has arisen, due to which the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. electronic equipment efficiency and life cycle are negatively influenced. Generally, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. maximum allowable temperature for electronic chips to avoid damage due to overheating
This article is an open access article spans from 85 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C. For cooling of electronic equipment, various approaches are
distributed under the terms and utilized like the use of thermal paste, air cooling, with fins, liquid cooling, nanofluids,
conditions of the Creative Commons
heat pipes, vapor chamber, phase change material and porous media. The thermal energy
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
storage material, i.e., PCM, is extensively researched for removing unwanted heat and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
keeping the temperature within acceptable limits in electronic cooling [1]. Active cooling
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 8746. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228746 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 8746 2 of 27
is typically used in nearly all equipment with a heat sink added to the circuit, but this
method is insufficient to meet the demands of modern electronic equipment due to power
consumption, noise, and poor performance. Passive cooling for steady and intermittent
loads using a PCMs-based heat sink, on the other hand, has shown the ability to reduce
peak temperatures and increase operating time within a given temperature range [2].
Researchers have explored the thermal optimization in PCMs by NPs, metal foams, shape
stabilization, extruded surfaces, geometry variations, orientation variations in testing rigs,
encapsulation, eutectic PCMs and heat pipes [3].
Iradukunda et al. [4] inspected the topology optimized heat sinks with sorbitol PCM
for thermal evaluation for electronic equipment cooling. Results revealed that the topology
optimized heat sink with PCM gave an enhancement factor of 3.5 in a temperature span of
50 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C, while the hybrid heat sink at cyclic heat input of 50 W lowered the peak
temperature by 18.9 ◦ C in comparison to baseline model. Mozafari et al. [5] studied the
single and multiple PCM filled heat sinks for thermal control of electronic equipment. PCMs
used in the study were RT44, n-Eicosane and RT58. According to results, the RT44 based
heat sink gave least peak temperature and maximum melting period for single PCM case.
Eicosane/RT44 PCM case enhanced the operational time from 3.3% to 12% compared
to single RT44 or n-eicosane case. Rasool Kalbasi [6] investigated the PCM filled heat
sink with forced convection. According to results, forced convection dissipated the PCM
heat quickly to ambient, and hybrid heat sink performance at heat transfer coefficient of
50 W/m2 /K was comparable to air cooled heat sink of 100 W/m2 /K. Xie et al. [7] studied
the effect of natural convection on PCM packed heat sink using unique tree-shaped fins and
conventional plate fins. The effects of parameters such as fin types, metal volume fraction,
and orientations were studied for natural convection heat transfer. Results showed that the
upward orientation resulted in better natural convection; increase in metal volume fraction
negatively influenced the natural convection while improved conduction heat transfer,
and tree shaped fins enhanced natural convection, hence heat transfer. Dammak and
Hami [8] numerically optimized the PCM filled pin-fin heat sink for cooling of electronic
equipment. The volume fraction of pin fin was 9% and pin-fin number was 72. Results
showed that optimum design model took more time in latent heating phase, and highest
temperature decline of 30% was obtained in comparison to the conventional model. Prasad
et al. [9] investigated numerically the PCM based heat sinks under constant and variable
load conditions. Under constant load conditions both conventional and PCM based heat
sinks controlled the base temperature within the critical temperature, but under variable
load conditions conventional heat sink failed to maintain the base temperature within
SPT whilst the PCM based heat sink maintained the base temperature within set point
temperature. Similarly, hybrid heat sinks further improved the thermal performance as it
reduced the heat transfer coefficient by ten times less than that of the PCM based heat sink.
PCM have intrinsically low thermal conductivity, due to which heat transfer rate
from PCM is low. The studies involving NPs for improving the thermal performance
of PCMs for different applications are available in literature [10]. Farzanehnia et al. [11]
investigated the paraffin/MWCNTs NEPCM for active and passive thermal control of
electrical equipment. The use of NEPCM reduced solidification time by 6% than pure PCM,
and enhancement ratio in operating times of 3.47 and 5.55 were obtained for NEPCM and
PCM based cooling, respectively, in reaching the critical temperature of 60 ◦ C for forced
convection. Fan et al. [12] synthesized composite PCMs by combining 1-hexadecanol PCM
with NPs of carbon nanotubes and GNPs in different fractions. The transient performance
of a TES-based heat sink was investigated using the composite PCM. The use of carbon
nanotubes was found to be detrimental because of reduced natural convection during
the melting phase. However, the GNPs-based composite PCM enhanced the heat sink’s
transient thermal performance because it increased thermal conductivity and produced a
minimal viscosity rise. Kothari et al. [13] investigated the finned/unfinned heat sinks with
Al2 O3 NPs for thermal management. The results revealed that for unfinned heat sinks with
2% NPs in PCM, operating time increased by 25%, while for one fin heat sinks with 4% NPs
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 3 of 27
in PCM, operating time increased by 28%. A 6% concentration of NPs in PCM decreased

the latent heat of the PCM as well as the operating time. Pure PCM-based heat sink was
recommended for higher set point temperatures. Joseph and Smith [14] explored the hybrid
cooling using heat sink filled with graphene/paraffin NEPCM and forced convection.
Thermal conductivity of PCM enhanced by 60% for 0.5 wt.% of graphene nanoparticles.
Results indicated that the temperature reduction of 6 ◦ C was attained for passive cooling
using NEPCM mode under uniform heating load, and hybrid cooling resulted in energy
savings up to 23%. Jalil et al. [15] explored the effect of PCM and NEPCM for enhancement
of heat sink cooling performance. Experimentation was carried out by adjusting parameters
such as with and without PCM, mold thickness of 30 mm and 60 mm, power inputs of
11 W, 13 W, and 15 W, and air flow rates of 1.5 m/s, 2.5 m/s, and 3.4 m/s. According to the
findings, maximum temperature drop of 18 ◦ C was noticed in the case of the 60 mm PCM
mold, while 2% Al2 O3 NPs concentration was considered to be appropriate for improving
heat sink performance.
The thermal performance of PCMs is largely dependent on phase transition temper-
ature and enthalpy value. Porous metal foams are being researched for improving the
thermal response rate and to tackle the leakage issues of PCMs [16]. Marri et al. [17]
explored the thermal behavior of heat sink loaded with PCM saturated in aluminum foam
of varied porosity and PPI. It was observed that heat sink filled with PCM/metal foam
gave enhancement ratio of 4.4 to reach a critical temperature. The uneven PPI (increasing
from rear end to upper end) resulted in performance enhancement of 45% compared to
uniform pore per inch foam case to reach a set point temperature. Venkateshwar et al. [18]
studied n-octadecane PCM melting process under unidirectional pulsating thermal flux
for different aluminum metal foam morphologies. Results indicated that the 15 ◦ C surface
temperature reduction and temperature fluctuation reduced by more than 20% with the
positive gradient metal foam compared to uniform foam. Li et al. [19] prepared a slurry
by introducing 20% mass concentration of nano-encapsulated PCM particles in water for
passive thermal management. The nano encapsulated PCM consisted of paraffin core
and polystyrene as shell, which was infiltrated into copper metal foam. Results showed
that the maximum wall temperature reduction of 38% was observed in the case of metal
foam embedded NEPCM compared to pure NEPCM. Zhao et al. [20] prepared a low
melting alloy and coupled with carbon foam for the passive thermal control of electronic
equipment. According to results, the low melting alloy extended the operating time by
1.5 times and lowered the heater temperature by 13.4 K, as compared to RT-60 paraffin
case, during heating load condition. Arshad et al. [21] numerically studied the effects of
various PCM composites for passive cooling of electronics. Copper nanoparticles of 1%,
3% and 5% volume fraction and copper, aluminum, nickel metal foams were inserted in
heat sink. According to findings, the addition of 1% volume fraction of copper NPs along
with copper metal foam enhanced the heat transfer rate by 8.12% and reduced the melting
time duration by 18.10%. The NPs and metal foam based PCM composite presented lower
heat sink base temperature while the increase in NPs volume fraction reduced the latent
heating phase of PCM.
As literature indicates, the researchers have investigated pure PCMs and NEPCMs
filled heat sinks, heat pipes or cavities for thermal control of electronic equipment. However,
it is found that the research work involving the combined use of NPs and metal foam to
thermally optimize PCMs for thermal control purposes is not available. The focus of the
current study is to test the thermal management effectiveness of heat sink loaded with
NEPCM/metal foam. Current experimental study utilized graphene nanoplatelets and
magnesium oxide nanoparticles having non-metallic and metallic nature, respectively,
with copper foam for thermal enhancement of PT-58 PCM. For the first time, the present
study covers comparison of two nano-PCMs that include GNPs/PT-58 and MgO/PT-58
combined with copper foam for cooling of electronic equipment. Accordingly, the motive
behind this study is specially focused on enhancing heat transfer rate and subsequently
study covers comparison of two nano-PCMs that include GNPs/PT-58 and MgO/PT-58
combined with copper foam for cooling of electronic equipment. Accordingly, the motive
behind this study is specially focused on enhancing heat transfer rate and subsequently
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 4 of 27
cooling performance of heat sink to check the better configuration for base temperature
reduction, the enhanced the operational time and increase the reliability of system.
cooling performance
2. Experimental Setupof heat sink to check the better configuration for base temperature
reduction, the enhanced the operational time and increase the reliability of system.
The experimental setup consists of an aluminum heat sink with dimensions of 110 ×
1102.×Experimental
29 mm with Setup
a wall thickness of 4 mm. The heat sink is insulated with a fiber rubber
block from all sides to prevent
The experimental heat loss
setup consists of and allow for unidirectional
an aluminum heat sink with heat flow from
dimensions of bot-
110 × 110 × 29 mm with a wall thickness of 4 mm. The heat sink
tom to top. Heat sink is covered with a copper plate of 2 mm thickness, for improving is insulated with a heat
fiber rubber
dissipation block
rate. fromrubber
Silicon all sides to prevent
fiberglass heat lossheater
insulated and allow for unidirectional
(OMEGALUX heat
SRFG-404/10-P-
220V) of dimension 100 × 100 × 1.5 mm is used to imitate the heat generation by for
flow from bottom to top. Heat sink is covered with a copper plate of 2 mm thickness, an elec-
improving heat dissipation rate. Silicon rubber fiberglass insulated heater (OMEGALUX
trical chipset and adhered at the rear end of heat sink by thermal paste. Pre calibrated 8 K
SRFG-404/10-P-220V) of dimension 100 × 100 × 1.5 mm is used to imitate the heat gen-
type thermocouples (Omega, AWG-24, 0.5 mm wire diameter), temperature sensitivity
eration by an electrical chipset and adhered at the rear end of heat sink by thermal paste.
between (−50 to81350
Pre calibrated K type℃)thermocouples
are inserted in various
(Omega, points in
AWG-24, 0.5heat
mm sink
wire for temperature
diameter), temper-meas-
urement. The thermocouple
ature sensitivity between (−50temperatures
to 1350 ◦ C) areare recorded
inserted after points
in various everyin5heat s using Agilent
sink for
(34972A)
temperature measurement. The thermocouple temperatures are recorded after every 5supply
data acquisition unit. The silicon rubber heater is powered by DC power s
using Agilent
(Keysight (34972A) data
Technologies 6675A)acquisition unit. Therange
with a voltage siliconofrubber
0–120heater
V andisapowered
current by DC of 0–
range
18 power
A. To supply
evaluate (Keysight Technologies
the thermal 6675A) with
performance a voltage
of heat range heating
sink, three of 0–120 V and a 0.77
inputs current
kW/m ,
range of 0–18 A. To
1.54 kW/m , 2and 2.3 kW/m evaluate the
(8 W,thermal
16 W performance
and 24 W) of
are heat
opted sink,
whichthree heating
indicate inputs
the conven-
0.77 kW/m , 1.54 kW/m2 , and 2.3 kW/m2 (8 W, 16 W and 24 W) are opted which indicate
tional power levels for operating electronic equipment with low to high power ratings.
the conventional power levels for operating electronic equipment with low to high power
Ohm’s law is applied for voltage estimation and a multimeter is used to measure the elec-
ratings. Ohm’s law is applied for voltage estimation and a multimeter is used to measure
trical
the power from
electrical DCfrom
power supply. Before Before
DC supply. the start
theof experimentation,
start of experimentation, it was ensured
it was ensured that the
heat sink temperature was retained at 28 ℃.
that the heat sink temperature was retained at 28 C. Schematic diagram and photographic view
Schematic
◦ diagram and photographic
of view
the experimental setupsetup
of the experimental are are
presented
presentedininFigure
Figures11 and 2,Figure 2, respectively.
respectively. The exploded The ex-
ploded
view ofview
heatofsink
heat sink assembly
assembly for presentforstudy
present studyin
in shown inFigure
shown 3. in Figure 3.
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup.

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup.
2.1. Materials
Paraffin wax PT-58 phase change material is utilized as latent heat storage material.
The melting temperature of PT-58 was 58–60 ◦ C as mentioned in literature [14]. Copper
metal foam of dimensions 100 × 100 × 25 mm is employed as thermal conductivity
enhancer. Thermophysical properties of PCM, copper metal foam, heat sink material
(aluminum) and fiber rubber block are shown in Table 1. The heat sink cavity in empty and
closed form is shown in Figure 4. The aim of adding highly conductive NPs in the base
PCM is to augment the thermal conductivity of PCM and to improve the cooling efficiency
of heat sink [22].The increase in the value of “k” of NEPCM mainly relies on size, type
and concentration of NPs. The appropriate mixing of NPs in PCM improves the thermal
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 5 of 27
characteristics of base PCM. The two types of NPs utilized in the study are GNPs [23] and
15, x FOR PEER REVIEW MgO NPs [24], and samples of NPs are shown in Figure 5 and TEM images 5are of represented
28
in Figure 6 (Courtesy: Advanced Chemical Supplier Material LLC [23]; Nanostructured
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 28
and Amorphous Materials, Inc., Garland, TX, USA [24]). The thermophysical properties of
NPs are mentioned in Table 2.
Figure 2. Photographic View of Experimental Setup.
Figure 2. Photographic
Figure 2. PhotographicView
View of
of Experimental Setup.
Experimental Setup.
Figure 3. Exploded view of heat sink assembly.

Figure 3. Exploded view of heat sink assembly.
2.1. Materials Figure 3. Exploded view of heat sink assembly.

Paraffin wax PT-58 phase change material is utilized as latent heat storage material.
2.1. Materials
The melting temperature of PT-58 was 58–60 °C as mentioned in literature [14]. Copper
Paraffin wax
metal foam of dimensions 100 PT-58
× 100 phase change
× 25 mm material as
is employed is utilized
thermalas latent heat storage
conductivity en- material.
The melting temperature of PT-58 was 58–60 °C as mentioned in literature [14]. Copper
0.25 (Solid)
Thermal conductivity (W/m-K) 388 237 0.043
0.15 (Liquid)
890 (Solid)
Apparent density (Kg/m3) 276 2689 2500
810 (Liquid)
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 2.47 (Solid) 6 of 27
Specific Heat (J/g°C) 0.383 0.903 1.23
2.71 (Liquid)
Heat storage capacity (kJ/kg) – 225 – –
Porosity (%) Table 1. Thermophysical
97 Properties of copper
– foam, PCM and heat
– sink material [14,25,26].
–
Pore density (PPI) 35 – – –
Property Copper Foam PT58 Pure PCM Aluminum Rubber Block
Pore size (mm)
◦
2.8 – – –
Melting point ( C) 1057 58–60 660.4 –
0.25 (Solid)
Table 2. Nanoparticles Properties [23,24,27].
Thermal conductivity (W/m-K) 388 237 0.043
0.15 (Liquid)
NP Type GNPs MgO
890 (Solid)
Apparent density (Kg/m3 ) Color276 Grey powder 2689 White 2500
810 (Liquid)
Thermal conductivity 3000 (W/m K)
2.47 (Solid)
49.5 (W/m K)
Specific Heat (J/g◦ C) Particle0.383
size 2–7 µm 0.903 20 nm 1.23
2.71 (Liquid)
Heat storage capacity (kJ/kg) Thickness– 225 2–10 nm – - –
Specific surface area 20–40 m /g 50 m /g
Porosity (%) 97 – – –
Bulk density 0.10 g/cm3 0.1–0.3 g/cm
Pore density (PPI) 35 – – –
Purity >99% 99%
Pore size (mm) 2.8
Morphology –
Platelets morphology – Spherical –

Figure 4. Aluminum heat sink cavity: (a) Empty form; (b) Closed form.
Figure 4. Aluminum heat sink cavity: (a) Empty form; (b) Closed form.
Figure5.5.Sample
Figure Sample photographs
photographs of:
of: (a) Graphene nanoplatelets; (b) MgO NPs.
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 7 of 27
Figure 5. Sample photographs of: (a) Graphene nanoplatelets; (b) MgO NPs.
Figure 6. TEM images of GNPs [23] and MgO NPs [24].

Figure 6. TEM images of GNPs [23] and MgO NPs [24].
2.2. NEPCM
Table Preparation
2. Nanoparticles and Saturation
Properties [23,24,27].in Metal Foam
In this NPstudy,
Type
NEPCM and metal-foam/NEPCM GNPs
composite temperature
MgO
profiles are
explored for the thermal control of electronic equipment. PT-58 PCM is utilized in this
Color Grey powder White
study owing to its optimum melting temperature range and high latent heat storage ca-
pacity.Thermal
GNPs and conductivity
MgO NPs are used to 3000 (W/m K)
prepare the NEPCM. The NEPCM 49.5 (W/m is K)
prepared by
using a two-step
Particle method
size comprised of dispersal
2–7 µm and solidification steps [28,29]. The con-
20 nm
centrationsThickness
of NPs explored in this study2–10 are nm
0.01 wt% and 0.02 wt% of PCM. - Higher vol-
ume fractions of NPsarea
Specific surface are not employed20–40in them2study
/g to avoid further increase
50 m2 /g in the effec-
tive viscosity and agglomeration of NPs. The weight of solid PCM and NPs was measured
Bulk density 0.10 g/cm3 0.1–0.3 g/cm3
by digital analytical balance (Shimadzu ATY224). In preparation of NEPCM, PCM was
first melted by Purity
heating on hot plate magnetic >99%stirrer, maintained at 80 ℃, 99% and then NPs in
Morphology
various concentrations were mixed Platelets
with the morphology
molten PCM. The PCM/NPs Sphericalmixture was
continuously blended at 1100 rpm on hot plate magnetic stirrer (Corning PC-420D) for 30
min,
2.2. and
NEPCM thenPreparation
the surfactant Sodium dodecyl
and Saturation in Metal sulfate
Foam (SDS) was added to the mixture; the
amount of SDS surfactant added was about
In this study, NEPCM and metal-foam/NEPCM one third of NP’stemperature
composite concentration. Then
profiles arethe
mixture went through ultra-sonication using probe sonicator (Hielscher UP400St)
explored for the thermal control of electronic equipment. PT-58 PCM is utilized in this study at 24
KHz
owing forto30its
min and temperature
optimum was retained
melting temperature over
range andthehigh
melting point
latent heatof PCM. capacity.
storage The ultra-
sonication
GNPs andimproved
MgO NPs NPs solubility
are used in PCM,
to prepare removedThe
the NEPCM. agglomeration, broke the
NEPCM is prepared particles
by using a
two-step
into method and
the mixture, comprised of dispersal
dispersed and solidification
the particles steps [28,29].
homogeneously. The concentrations
The synthesis procedure of
of NPs explored in this study are 0.01 wt.% and 0.02 wt.% of PCM. Higher volume fractions
of NPs are not employed in the study to avoid further increase in the effective viscosity
and agglomeration of NPs. The weight of solid PCM and NPs was measured by digital
analytical balance (Shimadzu ATY224). In preparation of NEPCM, PCM was first melted
by heating on hot plate magnetic stirrer, maintained at 80 ◦ C, and then NPs in various
concentrations were mixed with the molten PCM. The PCM/NPs mixture was continuously
blended at 1100 rpm on hot plate magnetic stirrer (Corning PC-420D) for 30 min, and then
the surfactant Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added to the mixture; the amount of
SDS surfactant added was about one third of NP’s concentration. Then the mixture went
through ultra-sonication using probe sonicator (Hielscher UP400St) at 24 KHz for 30 min
and temperature was retained over the melting point of PCM. The ultrasonication improved
NPs solubility in PCM, removed agglomeration, broke the particles into the mixture, and
dispersed the particles homogeneously. The synthesis procedure of the NEPCM is shown
in Figure 7. Finally, the NEPCM suspension was poured into the porous copper metal foam
Energies 2022,
Energies 2022, 15,
15, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 88 of
of 28
28
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 8 of 27
the NEPCM
the NEPCM is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 7.7. Finally,
Finally, the
the NEPCM
NEPCM suspension
suspension waswas poured
poured into
into the
the
porous copper metal foam and cooled at room temperature to obtain
porous copper metal foam and cooled at room temperature to obtain the NEPCM/foam the NEPCM/foam
and cooled at
composite. Theroom temperature
stability to obtain
of prepared
prepared NEPCM thesamples
NEPCM/foam composite.
was analyzed
analyzed TheThe
visually. stability
samplesof
composite. The stability of NEPCM samples was visually. The samples
prepared
of GNPs NEPCM
GNPs and
and MgO samples
MgO NEPCM was
NEPCM samplesanalyzed
samples of visually.
of 0.01
0.01 wt% The
wt% and samples
and 0.02
0.02 wt%of GNPs
wt% after and MgO
after preparation, NEPCM
preparation, after
after 30
30
of
samples ofin0.01 wt.% and 0.02 wt.% after preparation, after 30 min and in solid state, are
min and
min and in solid state, are displayed in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.
displayed insolid state,
Figures are 9,
8 and displayed in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.
respectively.
Figure
Figure 7.Schematic
Figure7.7. Schematicillustration
Schematic illustrationof
illustration ofNEPCMs
of NEPCMspreparation.
NEPCMs preparation.
preparation.
Figure8.8.
Figure
Figure 8.GNPs
GNPssamples:
GNPs samples:[0.01
samples: [0.01
[0.01 wt.%
wt.%
wt.% (a)
(a) (a) after
after preparation;
preparation;
after (b) after
(b) after
preparation; (b) after 30 min;
30 min;
30 min; (c)
(c) in(c) in form];
solid
in solid form];
solid form]; [0.02
[0.02 wt.%
[0.02
wt.%
wt.% (d)
(d) after
after preparation;
preparation; (e)
(e) after
after 30
30 min;
min; (f)
(f) in
in solid
solid
(d) after preparation; (e) after 30 min; (f) in solid form]. form].
form].
The melting temperature of each nano-PCM after adding NPs in base PCM is shown
in Figure 10. It is clear that the melting temperature of GNPs/PCM based nano-PCM is
reduced most as compared to other MgO/PCM and base PCM.
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 9 of 27

Figure 9. MgO samples: [0.01 wt.% (a) after preparation; (b) after 30 min; (c) in solid form]; [0.02
wt.% (d) after preparation; (e) after 30 min; (f) in solid form].
in Figure 10. samples:
Figure 9.9.MgO
Figure MgO Itsamples:
is clear that
[0.01
[0.01 wt.%the(a)melting
wt.% (a) after
after temperature
preparation;
preparation; of after
(b)
(b) after GNPs/PCM
30 min;
30 min; based
(c) in(c) nano-PCM
in solid
solid form];form]; is
[0.02
[0.02 wt.%
wt.%
reduced(d) after
most preparation;
as compared (e) after
to 30
other min; (f)
MgO/PCM in
(d) after preparation; (e) after 30 min; (f) in solid form]. solid
andform].
base PCM.
in Figure 10. It is clear that the melting temperature of GNPs/PCM based nano-PCM is
reduced most as compared to other MgO/PCM and base PCM.
Figure10.
Figure 10. Melting
Melting temperature
temperatureof
ofPCM,
PCM,GNPs/PCM
GNPs/PCM based
based and MgO/PCM.
and MgO/PCM.
2.3.
2.3. Thermocouples
Thermocouples Positions
Positions
Highly
Highly sensitive
sensitive and
and pre
pre calibrated
calibrated 88 K K type
type thermocouples
thermocouples are are positioned
positioned around
around
Figure
the 10. Melting
base temperature
of the heat of PCM,
sink to GNPs/PCM
analyze based
heat and MgO/PCM.
the walls and base of the heat sink to analyze heat dissipation behavior of heat sink. The
walls and dissipation behavior of heat sink. The
thermocouples
thermocouples are are affixed
affixed to tothe
theheat
heatsinksink sidewalls
sidewalls andand base
base via via
1 mm 1 mm holes,
holes, usingusing
tem-
2.3. Thermocouples Positions
temperature-resistant epoxy adhesive to make
perature-resistant epoxy adhesive to make themthem immovable
immovable and leakage
and leakage proof.proof. The
The posi-
Highly
positioning
tioning ofsensitive
of thermocouples andinpre
thermocouples incalibrated
heat heat
sinksink 8is K
is according typeto
according thermocouples
a to a previous
previous are
study positioned
study
donedone
on aon around
a heat
heat sink
sink
thethe
of ofsame
theand
walls same dimensions
base
dimensions of the heat
[30]. [30].
To sink Totomeasure
measure analyze
the base the
heatbase temperature,
dissipation
temperature, behavior
two twoofthermocouples
heat sink.
thermocouples T1,The
T2,
T1, T2, 33.3 mm apart, are implanted in 3 × 1 mm 2 slots at the base of the heat sink. The
thermocouples are affixed to the heat sink sidewalls and base via
33.3 mm apart, are implanted in 3 × 1 mm slots at the base of the heat sink. The thermo- 1 mm holes, using tem-
thermocouples T3, T4 T3,
perature-resistant
couples are T4positioned
epoxyareadhesive
positioned atmm,
atto 8make 8 mm,
themT5,T5,
T6 T6 positioned
immovable atat16
and leakage
positioned 16 mm
mm and
proof.
and T7,
The T8
posi-
T7, T8
positioned at 24 mm over in
tioning of thermocouples theheatbasesinkof heat sink. For
is according to accurate
a previoustemperature
study donemeasurement
on a heat sink
within the heat
of the same sink, the [30].
dimensions thermocouples
To measureat the the walls
base are implanted
temperature, two 20 mm inside theT1,
thermocouples T2,
heat
33.3 mm apart, are implanted in 3 × 1 mm slots at the base of the heat sink. The thermo-
sink. The temperature was evaluated using the average temperature of two thermocouples
couples T3, T4 are positioned at 8 mm, T5, T6 positioned at 16 mm and T7, T8
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 10 of 27

positioned at 24 mm over the base of heat sink. For accurate temperature measurement
within the heat sink, the thermocouples at the walls are implanted 20 mm inside the heat
sink. The temperature was evaluated using the average temperature of two thermocou-
mounted at the same height during the experimentation, and the ambient temperature was
ples mounted at the same height during the experimentation, and the ambient tempera-
kept at 28 ◦ C. Table 3 presents the thermocouples positioning details. Figure 11 depicts
ture was kept at 28 ℃. Table 3 presents the thermocouples positioning details. Figure 11
the various isometric views of heat sink with thermocouple locations positioned inside
depicts the various isometric views of heat sink with thermocouple locations positioned
heat sink.
inside heat sink.
Table 3. Location of thermocouples.
Table 3. Location of thermocouples.
Name T1, T2 T3, T4 T5, T6 T7, T8
Name 𝐓𝟏, 𝐓𝟐 𝐓𝟑, 𝐓𝟒 𝐓𝟓, 𝐓𝟔 𝐓𝟕, 𝐓𝟖
Location of thermocouples Heat sink base 8 mm 16 mm 24 mm
Location of thermocouples Heat sink base 8 mm 16 mm 24 mm
Figure 11. Various isometric views of heat sink depicting thermocouples positions.
Figure 11. Various isometric views of heat sink depicting thermocouples positions.
2.4. Thermal Management Analysis
2.4. Thermal Management
A comparison Analysis
between 90 min charging and 90 min discharging of heat sink is con-
ducted by employing different
A comparison between 90 min arrangements
charging and of90
heat
minsink, e.g., empty
discharging heatsink
of heat sink,is PCM,
con-
PCM/copper foam (copper foam), NEPCM, NEPCM/copper foam packed
ducted by employing different arrangements of heat sink, e.g., empty heat sink, PCM, heat sink. The
thermal evaluation
PCM/copper uses three
foam (copper power
foam), levelsNEPCM/copper
NEPCM, of 8 W, 16 W and 24 W.
foam The heat
packed heat sink
sink.isThe
dis-
chargedevaluation
thermal in the same way
uses as it
three is charged,
power with
levels of 8 W,insulating
16 W andsidewalls
24 W. The and base
heat sinkenabling
is dis-
one-dimensional
charged in the sameheat
wayflow
as itfrom bottomwith
is charged, to top for thermal
insulating analysis,
sidewalls and and
basecopper
enabling plate
one-of
2 mm thickness covered the heat sink top to improve heat dissipation.
dimensional heat flow from bottom to top for thermal analysis, and copper plate of 2 mm
The covered
thickness cases considered for thermal
the heat sink management
top to improve of heat sink are:
heat dissipation.
• 0.01cases
The wt.%considered
GNPs enhanced PT-58 management
for thermal (G1-NEPCM)of
with
heatand without
sink are: copper foam;
•• 0.02 wt.% GNPs enhanced PT-58 (G2-NEPCM) with and without
0.01 wt% GNPs enhanced PT-58 (G1-NEPCM) with and without coppercopperfoam;
foam;
•• 0.01 wt.% MgO enhanced PT-58 (M1-NEPCM) with and without copper
0.02 wt% GNPs enhanced PT-58 (G2-NEPCM) with and without copper foam; foam;
•• 0.02wt%
0.01 wt.%MgO
MgOenhanced
enhancedPT-58
PT-58(M1-NEPCM)
(M2-NEPCM)with
withand
andwithout
withoutcopper
copperfoam;
foam.
• 0.02 wt% MgO enhanced PT-58 (M2-NEPCM) with and without copper foam.
Enhancement Ratio in Operational Time
The enhancement
Enhancement ratio which
Ratio in Operational indicates the increase in operational time duration
Time
of thermal system. It is presented by the fraction of time required by NEPCM and
The enhancement ratio which indicates the increase in operational time duration of
thermal system. It is presented by the fraction of time required by NEPCM and
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 11 of 27
NEPCM/copper foam enhanced heat sink to achieve a specific set point temperature
to that of heat sink with no PCM and given by Equation (1):
tNEPCM, NEPCM/CF
ξ= (1)
t no PCM
2.5. Experimental Uncertainty Analysis

Uncertainty in experimentation happens as a result of either human or instrument inac-
curacy. To guarantee that the results are valid, incorrect data can sometimes be recognized
and eliminated promptly after analysis.
To estimate uncertainty in experimental parameters, Kline and McClintock [31] de-
veloped a root-sum-square combination for the individual variables. A variable can be
expressed as Equation (2)
x = xmeasured ± δx (2)
where,
x = final value of the variable;
xmeasured = measured value of variable;
δx = uncertainty in the value of measured variable due to fluctuation in the readings and
scale of instrument.
The experimental findings xR depend on various measured variables, each having
distinct uncertainty value.
xR = f(x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . . . . . xn ) (3)
To estimate the uncertainty δxR of resultant variable xR , the expression given by

Kline and McClintock [31] is,
s
2 2 2
∂f ∂f ∂f
δxR = δx + δx2 + . . . + δxn (4)
∂x1 1 ∂x2 ∂xn
Equation (9) can be given as:
δxR
q
= (X1 δx1 )2 + (X2 δx2 )2 + . . . + (Xn δxn )2 (5)
xR
where,
∂f/∂xn
Xn = (6)
xR
In the present scenario, the uncertainty in heating input is estimated as it is a cru-
cial variable for heat sink thermal evaluation. Parameters concerning heating input are
summarized as:
q = f(V, I, A) (7)
where,
A = f(L, W) (8)
Thus, Equation (9) is given as,
q = f(V, I, W, L) (9)
The net fractional uncertainty of the heating input is evaluated by considering the
uncertainties of employed voltage and current, as well as the length and width of the
surface area as from Equation (10).
Energies
Energies 2022, FOR 15,
15, x2022, 8746
PEER REVIEW 12 of 28 12 of 27
δq
= XδqδV=+ XXδI + X δW + X δL (10)
p
q v δV + XI δI + XW δW + XL δL (10)
q
where where
∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q
∂V ∂I ∂W
X = ; X = ; XvX= =q ; q XI = ;q ;X =XW q= q ; XL = ∂L
q q q
The symbols δV, δI, δW
The symbols δV,and
δI, δL
δWareanduncertainties in voltage,
δL are uncertainties current,
in voltage, width width
current, and and length
length of of
heat sink
heat sinksurface
surfacearea, respectively.
area, respectively.Investigations
Investigationsareare
done
doneforfor
highest and
highest andlow-
lowest heating
est heating input values. Uncertainties for current and voltage are gauged to be 0.015
input values. Uncertainties for current and voltage are gauged to be 0.015 and 3.1 × 10−8 , and
3.1 × 10 and
, andforforlength
lengthand
andwidth
widthof of heating
heating surface
surface are
are0.002
0.002mmand and0.0015
0.0015m,m,respec-
respectively. The
tively. The current parameter has the highest level of uncertainty, accounting
current parameter has the highest level of uncertainty, accounting for about for about
80% of the total
80% of the total estimated
estimated uncertainty,
uncertainty, whereaswhereas the voltage
the voltage parameterparameter
has justhas just alevel
a minor minor of uncertainty.
level of uncertainty.
The highestThe andhighest
lowestand lowest uncertainties
uncertainties in heatingin heating
input wereinput were calculated
calculated to be 6.91% and 4.5%,
to be 6.91% and 4.5%, respectively.
respectively. Furthermore,Furthermore,
assessment assessment
is done threeis done
timesthree timesvalue
on every on every
of heating input
value of heating input to assess the discrepancy of findings. The variation in findings was
to assess the discrepancy of findings. The variation in findings was determined to be not
determined to be not more than 1.15% in any instance.
more than 1.15% in any instance.
3. Results3.and Discussion
Results and Discussion
3.1. Validation of Experimentation
3.1. Validation Setup
of Experimentation Setup
Before scrutinizing the results,the
Before scrutinizing theresults,
experimental setup is verified
the experimental setup by comparative
is verified by comparative
analysis of an empty heat sink to those of prior studies conducted
analysis of an empty heat sink to those of prior studies conducted by Leongby Leong et al. [32] and et al. [32]
Tariq et al. [33]. The validation of the current study is compared with the paper
and Tariq et al. [33]. The validation of the current study is compared with the paper by by Leong
et al. [32],Leong
as theetsame trend
al. [32], as can
the be seen
same fromcan
trend thisbe
reference
seen from paper.
thisThe Figurepaper.
reference 6 in theThe Figure 6
referencein paper of Leong et al. [32] has the same temperature trend
the reference paper of Leong et al. [32] has the same temperature trend with empty heat sink. with empty
The temperature variation in empty heat sink for Leong et al. [32]
heat sink. The temperature variation in empty heat sink for Leong et al. [32]was around 26–55 ℃, was around
which is the same◦ trend in the current research. Heat sink with inner
26–55 C, which is the same trend in the current research. Heat sink with inner dimensions of 102 × dimensions
102 × 25 ofmm and heating input of 8 W (0.77 kW/m ) are used to relate
2 the
102 × 102 × 25 mm and heating input of 8 W (0.77 kW/m ) are used to relate the results. results. To
validate the results, the
To validate thesame
results,experimental protocols are protocols
the same experimental maintained. areFrom Figure 12From
maintained. it Figure 12
can be noticed that the current study and prior studies present a close agreement.
it can be noticed that the current study and prior studies present a close agreement. The The
deviation of 6 to 7% in temperature profile is due to difference in ambient conditions and
deviation of 6 to 7% in temperature profile is due to difference in ambient conditions and
heating input variations. As a result, further research is being conducted to assess the heat
heating input variations. As a result, further research is being conducted to assess the heat
sink effectiveness under different scenarios.
sink effectiveness under different scenarios.
Figure 12. Validation of present experimental setup with the previous studies [32,33].
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 13 of 27
Figure 12. Validation of present experimental setup with the previous studies [36,37].
3.2. Results and Discussion
3.2.
TheResults and Discussion
thermal effectiveness of heat sink is estimated by applying various heating inputs
The thermal
(0.77 kW/m 2 , 1.54 effectiveness
kW/m2 , 2.3of heat sink
kW/m 2 ) atisthe
estimated
base ofby applying
heat sink byvarious heating
silicon rubberin-heater.
puts (0.77 kW/m , 1.54 kW/m , 2.3 kW/m ) at the base of heat sink by silicon rubber
The 90 min of charging and 90 min of discharging are considered to investigate the effect heater.
The 90 min of charging and 90 min of discharging are considered to investigate the effect
of different configurations of NEPCM and copper foam. The experimentation is done at a
of different configurations of NEPCM and copper foam. The experimentation is done at a
controlled environment temperature of 28 ◦ C.
controlled environment temperature of 28 ℃.
3.2.1. Base Temperature Comparison of Heat Sink with GNPs Composites
3.2.1. Base Temperature Comparison of Heat Sink with GNPs Composites
In In
this
thisstudy,
study, heat sinkfilled
heat sink filled with
with PCM,PCM, NEPCM
NEPCM composites
composites with
with 0.01 wt%0.01and wt.%
0.02 and
0.02wt%
wt.% NPs is considered with and without copper foam. The heating inputs are varied tovaried
NPs is considered with and without copper foam. The heating inputs are
to observe
observe thetheinfluence
influence of low
of low to high
to high heating
heating loads
loads on on the different
the different configurations
configurations of heat of
heat sink.
sink. TheThe
basebase of heat
of heat sink sink
has twohasthermocouples,
two thermocouples,
and the and the value
average average valuetwo
of these of these
twothermocouples
thermocouples is used
is used for baseline
for baseline comparison
comparison of heat
of heat sink. The sink. The base temperature
base temperature varia-
tions in heat
variations sinksink
in heat filledfilled
with with
PCM,PCM,GNPs GNPs
enhanced PCM, PCM
enhanced PCM,andPCM
NEPCMandincorporated
NEPCM incorpo-
in copper
rated foamfoam
in copper are presented in Figure
are presented 13. The13.
in Figure dashed
The lines represent
dashed the transient
lines represent thetem-
transient
perature variations in heat sink packed with PCM and NEPCM while the
temperature variations in heat sink packed with PCM and NEPCM while the solid lines rep- solid lines rep-
resent
resent thethe temperaturevariations
temperature variations ininheat
heatsink
sinkpacked
packed with PCM
with and and
PCM NEPCM
NEPCM composites
composites
incorporated in copper foam.
incorporated in copper foam.
Figure 13. Charging and discharging analysis of various configurations of GNPs/PCM composites
Figure 13. Charging and discharging analysis of various configurations of GNPs/PCM composites at
at heating inputs of: (a) 0.77 kW/m ; (b) 1.54 kW/m ; (c) 2.3 kW/m .
heating inputs of: (a) 0.77 kW/m2 ; (b) 1.54 kW/m2 ; (c) 2.3 kW/m2 .
From Figure 13a, it is noted that when the empty heat sink reached the 60.77 ◦ C temper-
ature at the end of charging period for 0.77 kW/m2 , the maximum temperature reduction
to 52.8 ◦ C was observed in the case of G2-NEPCM/copper foam composite. The inclusion
of PCM, G1-NEPCM and G2-NEPCM in heat sink lowered the base temperature by 2.65 ◦ C,
3.49 ◦ C and 4.87 ◦ C, respectively. While the PCM/copper foam, G1-NEPCM/copper foam
and G2-NEPCM/copper foam lowered the base temperature by 4.26 ◦ C, 6.45 ◦ C and 7.92 ◦ C,
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 14 of 27
respectively. With the increase in concentration of NPs, the thermal responsiveness of PCM
improved, with a moderate decrease in TES capacity, while the introduction of metal foam
further enhanced the cooling performance of heat sink. For PCM and NEPCM composites,
there was no phase change but only sensible heating until the end of charging period.
The Figure 13b shows the influence of heating input of 1.54 kW/m2 ; at the completion
of charging the empty heat sink reached a temperature of 86.2 ◦ C, PCM lowered the tem-
perature up to 5.1 ◦ C, while the insertion of G1-NEPCM and G2-NEPCM lowered the base
temperature by 6.45 ◦ C and 7.82 ◦ C. Similarly, the PCM/copper foam, G1-NEPCM/copper
foam and G2-NEPCM/copper foam composites resulted in temperature reductions of
9.21 ◦ C, 11.1 ◦ C and 13.8 ◦ C, respectively. The same trend further proves the fact that the
copper foam is effective in improving heat sink performance as compared to NPs. The
melting of PCM starts early in the case of metal foam, but the latent heating phase of PCM,
NEPCM is enhanced due to metal foam. While in the case of PCM and NEPCM composites,
the melting region is very small while after the latent heating phase a sharp increase in
temperature profile can be observed, thus the viability of PCM is only before the latent
heating is complete, but still the temperature of enhancement cases was much below the
empty heat sink case.
To study the heat sink thermal behavior at high heating load, the heating input
of 2.3 kW/m2 was imparted, as depicted in Figure 13c. For empty heat sink case the
temperature at the completion of the charging phase was 113.2 ◦ C, and at the end of
discharging temperature was 38.4 ◦ C. At this power level, the introduction of PCM, G1-
NEPCM and G2-NEPCM lowered the base temperature by 3.3 ◦ C, 6.13 ◦ C and 7.81 ◦ C,
respectively. Similarly, by filling heat sink with PCM/copper foam, G1-NEPCM/copper
foam and G2-NEPCM/copper foam lessened the base temperature by 9.41 ◦ C, 12.58 ◦ C
and 14.32 ◦ C, respectively. The increase in NPs concentration in PCM lowered the base
temperature, but the reduction was not much as at high heating load the NEPCM and
NEPCM/copper foam composites completed their latent heating phase around 45 min
of charging and underwent post-sensible heating. Similarly, at high heating load the
stability of NPs in fully melted NEPCM started to deteriorate due to agglomeration and
sedimentation, hence base temperature reduction was less effective.
The PCM and NEPCM composite with copper foam performance was much better
than the simple PCM and NEPCM cases. Moreover, the discharging of NEPCM/copper
foam composites was smoother than PCM and NEPCM cases. At the completion of the
discharging phase, the empty heat sink achieved lower temperature than all cases due
to the fact that heat transfer in the case of PCM composites is fast in the start, as PCM or
NEPCM was in melting state, but slowed down after the PCM is solidified. The heat sink
performance was mainly controlled by the melting behavior of PCM and NEPCM. In the
case of PCM or NEPCM, the melting began at the bottom layer, which was in direct contact
with the heat sink surface. Heat transfer in this layer was due to conduction, then further
heat transfer in subsequent layers, not in direct contact with heat sink surface, took place by
convection heat transfer. The inclusion of copper foam promoted the uniform heat transfer,
as heat was transmitted by conduction within the copper foam. Due to conduction heat
transfer in copper foam, the melting of PCM began early as compared to simple PCM or
NEPCM cases. Then, due to natural convection, the melt fraction of PCM/NEPCM rose
gradually until melting was complete. The main points of the above discussion can be
summarized as:
• At heating input of 0.77 kW/m2 , the maximum temperature reduction of 13.03% was
observed in the case of G2-NEPCM/copper foam as compared to empty heat sink.
The discharing of NEPCM/copper foam case was better than that of simple PCM
and NEPCM cases. The melting of PCM or NEPCM composites was not noticed in
this case;
• For heating input of 1.54 kW/m2 , maximum temperature reduction was 16% for G2-
NEPCM/copper foam, while for G2-NEPCM case temperature decline of 9.1% was
obsered as compared to empty heat sink case. For NEPCM and NEPCM/copper foam
The discharing of NEPCM/copper foam case was better than that of simple PCM and
NEPCM cases. The melting of PCM or NEPCM composites was not noticed in this
case;
• For heating input of 1.54 kW/m , maximum temperature reduction was 16% for G2-
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 NEPCM/copper foam, while for G2-NEPCM case temperature decline of 9.1%15was of 27
obsered as compared to empty heat sink case. For NEPCM and NEPCM/copper foam
cases a sharp increase in temperature was noticed after the completion of the latent
heating phase;
cases a sharp increase in temperature was noticed after the completion of the latent
• At heating input of 2.3 kW/m , maximum base temperature was reduced by 12.48%
heating phase;
and 6.89% for G2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam insertion. The increase in
• At heating input of 2.3 kW/m2 , maximum base temperature was reduced by 12.48%
volume fraction of NPs from 0.01 to 0.02 wt% improved the heat transfer rate in both
and 6.89% for G2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam insertion. The increase in
cases of with and without copper foam.
volume fraction of NPs from 0.01 to 0.02 wt.% improved the heat transfer rate in both
cases of with and without copper foam.
3.2.2. Base Temperature Comparison of Heat Sink with MgO Composites
3.2.2. The
Baseinfluence
Temperatureof theComparison
introductionof ofHeat
MgOSinkNPs with
in 0.01 wt%Composites
MgO and 0.02 wt% in PCM with
and The
without copper foam, at different heating loads, is
influence of the introduction of MgO NPs in 0.01 wt.% given in Figure
and14. MgO
0.02 wt.%NPsinther-
PCM
mal conductivity is lower as compared to GNPs, so the variations in heat
with and without copper foam, at different heating loads, is given in Figure 14. MgO sink thermal
performance
NPs are observed.isFrom
thermal conductivity lower Figure 14a, at the
as compared ending so
to GNPs, of the
charging process
variations for 0.77
in heat sink
kW/m , maximum temperature reduction by the M1-NEPCM and M2-NEPCM
thermal performance are observed. From Figure 14a, at the ending of charging process was 3.75
℃ ,0.77
for 4.66 ℃
andkW/m , respectively,
2 , maximum while the
temperature temperature
reduction by thereduction
M1-NEPCM in the
andcase of M1-
M2-NEPCM
NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam was 5.13 ℃ and
was 3.75 ◦ C, and 4.66 ◦ C, respectively, while the temperature reduction in the case5.91 ℃, respec-
of M1-
tively.
NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam was 5.13 ◦ C and 5.91 ◦ C, respectively.
Figure 14. Charging and discharging analysis of various configurations of MgO/PCM composites at
heating inputs of: (a) 0.77 kW/m2 ; (b) 1.54 kW/m2 ; (c) 2.3 kW/m2 .
In Figure 14b, at heating input of 1.54 kW/m2 , the heat sink with M1-NEPCM and M2-
NEPCM reduced the base temperature by 6.22 ◦ C and 7.18 ◦ C, hence depicting much better
performance than empty heat sink and PCM filled heat sink. For M1-NEPCM/copper
foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam cases, the base temperature lessened by 9.82 ◦ C
and 11.35 ◦ C, respectively, as compared to empty heat sink. The performance of MgO
composites can be examined at 40 min time duration, at which the empty heat sink reached
77 ◦ C, while M1-NEPCM with and without copper foam reached about 61.72 ◦ C and
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 16 of 27
64.72 ◦ C, respectively, while M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam, reached 60.28 ◦ C
and 63.26 ◦ C, respectively.
At heating input of 2.3 kW/m2 , the case depicted in Figure 14c, the M1-NEPCM
and M2-NEPCM dropped the heat sink base temperature by 4.81 ◦ C and 6.04 ◦ C, respec-
tively, while M1-NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam cases resulted in
temperature reduction of 11.27 ◦ C and 13.22 ◦ C, respectively. At high heating input, the
NEPCM/copper foam composite better performance was noticed, owing to high thermal
conductivity of copper foam and increase in thermal response rate of PCM due to usage
of both the MgO NPs and copper foam. The temperature profiles of different cases of
heat sink revealed that the addition of NPs ensured a positive influence on heat transfer
enhancement and base temperature reduction. For example, in case of M2-NEPCM at 24 W
heating load and at 40 min of charging, the base temperature difference compared to empty
heat sink was 19 ◦ C, and for M2-NEPCM/copper foam the temperature difference was
28 ◦ C. However, this trend is just up to complete melting of NEPCM, after melting phase
sharp increase in temperature was noticed. The contours of temperature for the pure PCM,
NEPCM, with and without copper foam, showed that the usage of copper foam lessened the
heat sink base temperature and gave the homogenous temperature curve due to uniform
heat transfer inside PCM and NEPCM. Some key points of the above discussion are:
• For a heating load of 0.77 kW/m2 , the maximum temperature of base was reduced by
9.7% and 7.6% for M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam, respectively. At the
end of discharging for NEPCM/copper foam composite gave lower temperature than
simple NEPCM cases due to better heat dissipation rate.
• At heating input of 1.54 kW/m2 , maximum temperature of base was decreased by
11.38% and 13.38% for M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam, respectively. The
combined usage of MgO NPs and copper foam gave smooth PCM melting profile and
offered lower base temperatures;
• Similarly, at heating input of 2.3 kW/m2 for M2-NEPCM, with and without copper
foam, temperature reduction of 11.62% and 5.3% was noticed. At high heating load,
PCM was completely melted for both NEPCM and NEPCM/copper foam cases, thus
increasing the heat sink base temperature considerably. The discharging at this load
was better in the case of M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam cases.
3.2.3. Spatial Variations in Temperature in Heat Sink

To explore the influence of temperature dispersion in heat sink at heating input of
2.3 kW/m2 , the two cases G2-NEPCM and M2-NEPCM/copper foam are employed; both
cases are depicted in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. The base of heat sink with T1 and
T2 thermocouples was taken as reference point, while the thermocouples T3, T4 and T5,
T6 and T7, T8 were implanted at the height of 8 mm, 16 mm, and 24 mm, respectively,
and positioned 20 mm inside the heat sink from the walls. The average value of two ther-
mocouples was taken at the respective height to depict the spatial temperature variations
inside heat sink. The area before the melting of PCM commences is pre-sensible heating
region while the area after the melting of PCM is post-sensible heating. The temperature
increase is sharp after the phase change heating area of the curve. The desired area of PCM
is phase change heating, or latent heating region, during which the temperature increase is
not sharp. From both figures it is noticed that the latent heating area is small in the case
of G2-NEPCM, while for M2-NEPCM/copper foam case the latent heating region is more.
The reason is that the PCM melting became smoother and more prolonged due to uniform
heat distribution by copper foam. The copper foam hindered the convection heat transfer
of NEPCM and promoted conduction heat transfer.
area
atureofincrease
PCM isisphase changeFrom
not sharp. heating,
bothorfigures
latent itheating region,
is noticed thatduring which
the latent the temper-
heating area is
ature increase is not sharp. From both figures it is noticed that the latent
small in the case of G2-NEPCM, while for M2-NEPCM/copper foam case the latent heat- heating area is
small in theiscase
ing region more. of The
G2-NEPCM,
reason iswhile forPCM
that the M2-NEPCM/copper
melting becamefoam case the
smoother andlatent
moreheat-
pro-
ing region is more. The reason is that the PCM melting became smoother
longed due to uniform heat distribution by copper foam. The copper foam hindered the and more pro-
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 longed due heat
convection to uniform
transferheat distribution
of NEPCM by copperconduction
and promoted foam. The copper foam hindered
heat transfer. 17 of 27 the
convection heat transfer of NEPCM and promoted conduction heat transfer.
Figure 15. Spatial temperature distribution within heat sink filled with G2-NEPCM at 2.3 kW/m .
2.
15. Spatial
Figure 15.
Figure Spatialtemperature
temperaturedistribution within
distribution heatheat
within sink sink
filledfilled
with G2-NEPCM at 2.3 kW/m
with G2-NEPCM at 2.3 kW/m .
16. Spatial
Figure 16.
Figure Spatialtemperature
temperaturedistribution within
distribution heat
within sinksink
heat filled withwith
filled M2-NEPCM/copper foamfoam at
M2-NEPCM/copper
at 2.3 kW/m 2.
Figure 16.
2.3 kW/m . Spatial temperature distribution within heat sink filled with M2-NEPCM/copper foam at
2.3 kW/m .
The NEPCM is totally melted at the completion of the charging process, and when the
discharging process begins, heat absorbed by melted NEPCM is promptly rejected during
pre-sensible cooling phase. After about 30 min of discharging, the solidification of PCM
starts, and then NEPCM slowly dissipates heat and at the end of discharging process PCM
becomes completely solidified.
the discharging process begins, heat absorbed by melted NEPCM is promptly rejected
during pre-sensible cooling phase. After about 30 min of discharging, the solidification of
PCM starts, and then NEPCM slowly dissipates heat and at the end of discharging process
PCM becomes completely solidified.
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 18 of 27
In both cases a considerable temperature difference is examined at the base of heat
sink at various heights. A uniform temperature is observed to rise and fall in both charg-
ing and discharging cases for base, and at different heights inside the heat sink, the tem-
In both
perature casesare
profiles a considerable
uniform duetemperature difference
to heat rejection is examined
of heat sink to theatrubber
the base of heat
block and top
sink at various heights. A uniform temperature is observed to rise and fall in both charging
copper plate. Therefore, for improving heat transfer and cooling of heat sink, the thermal
and discharging cases for base, and at different heights inside the heat sink, the temperature
resistance should be minimal. The purpose of providing rubber block in this study is to
profiles are uniform due to heat rejection of heat sink to the rubber block and top copper
provide controlled ambient conditions for uniform heat transfer from bottom of heat sink
plate. Therefore, for improving heat transfer and cooling of heat sink, the thermal resistance
to top copper plate. The purpose of providing rubber block in this study is to provide
should be minimal.
controlled ambient conditions for uniform heat transfer from bottom of heat sink to top
3.2.4.
copper Effect
plate.of Different Heating Inputs on Heat Sink
To explore the influence of various heating inputs over the NEPCM/copper foam,
3.2.4. Effect of Different Heating Inputs on Heat Sink
two cases are illustrated which are G2-NEPCM with and without copper foam, and M2-
NEPCM To explore
with and the without
influencecopper
of various heating
foam. inputs
The base over the NEPCM/copper
temperature foam,
variation in G2-NEPCM
two cases are illustrated which are G2-NEPCM with and without
with and without copper foam is shown in Figure 17. For transient heating of heat copper foam, and M2-sink at
NEPCM with and without copper foam. The base temperature variation in G2-NEPCM
0.77 kW/m heating input the sensible heating took place, and NEPCM absorbed heat
with and without copper foam is shown in Figure 17. For transient heating of heat sink
owing to latent heat capacity; the heat sink achieved a steady state temperature profile for
at 0.77 kW/m2 heating input the sensible heating took place, and NEPCM absorbed heat
both
owing charging
to latentand heatdischarging
capacity; thecases. While
heat sink at heating
achieved load state
a steady of 1.54 kW/m , the
temperature sharp in-
profile
crease in temperature can be observed during the first 20 min of
for both charging and discharging cases. While at heating load of 1.54 kW/m , the sharp charging,2 then the tem-
perature
increase inincrease
temperaturerate slowed
can bedown before
observed the complete
during the first 20melting
min of of NEPCM.
charging, Forthe
then heating
input of 2.3 kW/m
temperature increase , the slope
rate slowedof temperature
down before curve is small for
the complete NEPCM/copper
melting of NEPCM.foam For case
2 , the slope of temperature curve is small for NEPCM/copper
as compared
heating inputto of NEPCM
2.3 kW/m case. At higher heating load due to complete melting of NEPCM,
foam
the case as compared
temperature to NEPCM
rises sharply case.
till the At of
end higher heating
charging load due
process. Due totocomplete melting con-
higher thermal
of NEPCM,
ductivity of the temperature
copper rises sharply
foam, employed tillGNPs
with the end of charging
based NEPCM, process.
the heatDuetransfer
to higher rate of
thermal conductivity of copper foam, employed with GNPs based
NEPCM enhanced, and higher heat dissipation rate from heat sink was achieved. The NEPCM, the heat transfer
rate of NEPCM enhanced, and higher heat dissipation rate from heat sink was achieved.
temperature contours NEPCM/copper foam showed the temperature reduction and tem-
The temperature contours NEPCM/copper foam showed the temperature reduction and
perature uniformity profile as compared to NEPCM cases.
temperature uniformity profile as compared to NEPCM cases.
Figure 17.
Figure Chargingand
17. Charging anddischarging
dischargingcurves
curvesfor
forG2-NEPCM
G2-NEPCM and
andG2-NEPCM/copper
G2-NEPCM/copperfoam
foamatatdiffer-
different
ent heating
heating inputs.
inputs.
The effect of different heating inputs on M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam,
is shown in Figure 18; the trends are similar to GNPs cases, but the temperature reduction
in base is more prominent in the case of GNPs composites due to the higher thermal
conductivity of GNPs.
The effect of different heating inputs on M2-NEPCM, with and without copper foam,
is shown in Figure 18; the trends are similar to GNPs cases, but the temperature reduction
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 in base is more prominent in the case of GNPs composites due to the higher19 thermal
of 27 con-
ductivity of GNPs.
Figure 18.
Figure Charging and
18. Charging anddischarging
dischargingcurves
curvesforfor
M2-NEPCM andand
M2-NEPCM M2-NEPCM/copper foamfoam
M2-NEPCM/copper at at dif-
different heating inputs.
ferent heating inputs.
Metal foam inclusion in PCM and NEPCM gave the best performance among the
givenMetal foamininclusion
approaches both highin
andPCM and generation
low heat NEPCM gave the best
rates. This performance
comparison among the
reveals that
given
the use of metal foam can be the most effective way to improve the performance of the reveals
approaches in both high and low heat generation rates. This comparison
that theperformance
cooling use of metaloffoam can be
heat sink, as athe most effective
significant way
reduction to improve
in baseline the performance
temperature was of
the cooling
observed thatperformance
was caused byofthe
heat sink,
delay as a melting
in PCM significant reduction in baseline temperature
phase.
was observed that was caused by the delay in PCM melting phase.
3.2.5. Analysis of Operational Time Variations for Various Target Temperatures
3.2.5.To explore the
Analysis effect of various
of Operational enhancements
Time in heat
Variations for sink, three
Various Targettarget temperatures
Temperatures
are selected to figure out the best possible configurations of heat sink. The Figure 19
To explore
presents the effect
the influence of variousofenhancements
of introduction in heat sink, three
NEPCM and NEPCM/copper foamtarget temperatures
in achieving
are
the target temperature of 50 C. For 8 W power level, the empty heat sink took only 19 pre-
selected to figure out the◦ best possible configurations of heat sink. The Figure
sents thetoinfluence
17.4 min reach theof ◦ C, whereas heat
50introduction of NEPCM and
sink filled NEPCM/copper
with pure PCM took foam in achieving
33.05 min, and the
target
G2-NEPCMtemperature of 50 ℃.took
and M2-NEPCM For 45.07
8 W power
min and level, the empty
42.1 min, heat sink
respectively, took only
to achieve target17.4 min
◦ C. Similarly, the G2-NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper
to reach theof5050℃,
temperature whereas heat sink filled with pure PCM took 33.05 min, and G2-
foam took 64.4 min and 52.42 ◦ C.
NEPCM and M2-NEPCM tookmin, respectively,
45.07 min and 42.1to reach target temperature
min, respectively, of 50 target
to achieve tem-
At 16 W power level, NEPCM/copper foam composites took more time to reach 50 ◦C
perature of 50 ℃. Similarly, the G2-NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam
compared to NEPCM cases. Furthermore, at 24 W empty heat sink took only 1 min to reach
took 64.4 min and 52.42 min, respectively, to reach target temperature of 50 ℃. At 16 W
50 ◦ C while G2-NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam took 6.8 min and
power
4.3 min,level, NEPCM/copper foam composites took more time to reach 50 ℃ compared
respectively.
to NEPCM cases. Furthermore, at 24 W empty heat sink took only 1 min to reach 50 ℃
while G2-NEPCM/copper foam and M2-NEPCM/copper foam took 6.8 min and 4.3 min,
respectively.
x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 2020of
of 28
27
Figure 19. Time to attain target temperature of 50 ◦℃ for heat sink filled with PCM, NEPCM and
Figure 19.
Figure Time to
19. Time to attain
attain target
target temperature
temperature of 50 ℃
of 50 C for
for heat
heat sink
sink filled
filled with
with PCM,
PCM, NEPCM and
NEPCM and
NEPCM/copper foam composites.
To achieve
To achieve the target
target temperature of of 60 ◦℃, Figure 20
20 shows the
the influence
influence ofof various
various
To achieve the
the target temperature
temperature of 60 C, Figure
60 ℃, Figure 20 shows
shows the influence of various
configurations
configurations ofof heat
of heat sink.
heat sink. At
sink.At 8 W,
At8 8W, the
W,the heat
theheat sink
heatsink
sinkwith
with enhancements
enhancements did not achieve 60
configurations with enhancements diddid
notnot achieve
achieve 60
℃ ◦temperature,
60 temperature,
C temperature, at 16 W power level the empty heat sink took 11.5 min to achieve target
℃ at at
1616WW power
power level
level theempty
the emptyheat
heatsink
sinktook
took11.5
11.5min
minto to achieve
achieve target
target
temperature of
temperature 60 ◦℃.
of 60 C. The introduction
The introduction of of NPs
NPs inin PCM
PCM increased
increased the
the time
time toto achieve
achieve the
the
temperature of 60 ℃. The introduction of NPs in PCM increased the time to achieve the
target temperature,
target temperature, but but the
the increase waswas prominent for for 0.02 wt.%
wt% of
of NPs.
NPs. The
The heat
heat sink
sink
target temperature, but the increase
increase was prominent
prominent for 0.020.02 wt% of NPs. The heat sink
packed with
packed with G2-NEPCM/copper foam took 46.1 min, and M2-NEPCM/copper foam took
packed with G2-NEPCM/copper
G2-NEPCM/copper foam foam took
took 46.1
46.1 min,
min, and
and M2-NEPCM/copper
M2-NEPCM/copper foam foam took
took
38.98 min
38.98 min to
to achieve
achieve target
target temperature
temperature of 60 ◦℃.
of 60 C.
38.98 min to achieve target temperature of 60 ℃.
20. Time to attain target temperature of 60 ◦℃

Figure 20. heat sink
C for heat sink filled
filled with
with PCM,
PCM, NEPCM
NEPCM and
Figure 20. Time to
NEPCM/copper attain target temperature of 60 ℃ for heat sink filled with PCM, NEPCM and
foam
composites.
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 21 of 27
Figure 21 demonstrates the influence of various enhancements in heat sink in attain-

Figure 21 demonstrates the influence of various enhancements in heat sink in attaining
ing target temperature of◦ 70 ℃. At 16 W power level, empty heat sink took 23.4 min to
target temperature of 70 C. At 16 W power level, empty heat sink took 23.4 min to reach
reach 70 ℃. The PCM and PCM/copper foam took 41 min and 69 min, respectively, to
70 ◦ C. The PCM and PCM/copper foam took 41 min and 69 min, respectively, to reach
reach 70 ℃. The NEPCM cases attained target temperature before the NEPCM/copper
70 ◦ C. The NEPCM cases attained target temperature before the NEPCM/copper foam
foam cases. The G2-NEPCM/copper foam took a maximum time of 78 min to attain 70 ℃.
cases. The G2-NEPCM/copper foam took a maximum time of 78 min to attain 70 ◦ C. For
ForW24
24 Wempty
case, case, heat
empty
sinkheat sinkthe
reached reached the target in
target temperature temperature in 5.7 min, G2-
5.7 min, G2-NEPCM/copper
NEPCM/copper foam took 33.5 min to reach 70 ℃ temperature, while M2-NEPCM/cop-
foam took 33.5 min to reach 70 ◦ C temperature, while M2-NEPCM/copper foam reached
per foam
target reached target
temperature temperature
in 24.94 min. Based in on
24.94 min.temperature
target Based on target temperature
analysis analysis
of heat sink, the
of heat sink, the maximum time span was achieved in lower power level cases
maximum time span was achieved in lower power level cases due to high heat absorption due to high
heat absorption
capacity of PCM,capacity
while atofhigher
PCM, power
while atlevels,
higher power
base levels, base
temperature rosetemperature
sharply duerose
to
sharply due to complete melting
complete melting of PCM and NEPCM. of PCM and NEPCM.
◦ C for heat sink filled with PCM, NEPCM and

Figure 21. Time to
Figure 21. to attain
attain target
target temperature
temperature of 70 ℃
of 70 for heat sink filled with PCM, NEPCM and
NEPCM/copper
NEPCM/copper foamfoam composites.
composites.
The
The results
results indicated
indicated that
that the
the effect
effect of
of copper
copper foam
foam waswas more
more significant
significant even
even atat high
high
heating
heating loads. From the target temperature figures, it is obvious that inclusion of metal
loads. From the target temperature figures, it is obvious that inclusion of metal
foam
foam offered
offered significant
significant improvement
improvement in in heat
heat transfer
transfer and
and base
base temperature reduction.
temperature reduction.
Another notable phenomenon is the substantial lag in PCM or NEPCM
Another notable phenomenon is the substantial lag in PCM or NEPCM latent heating latent heating phase
with the porous copper foam, in comparison with the pure PCM
phase with the porous copper foam, in comparison with the pure PCM or NEPCM cases.or NEPCM cases. The
cause for lag
The cause forinlag
melting was due
in melting wasto conduction
due to conductionheat transfer of copper
heat transfer foam inside
of copper solid
foam inside
PCM,
solid PCM, which leads to more uniform temperature distribution through the PCM.the
which leads to more uniform temperature distribution through the PCM. As As
result, the PCM
the result, the PCMor NEPCM
or NEPCM tooktook
moremore
timetime
to complete
to completethe latent heating
the latent phase.
heating phase.
3.2.6. Enhancement Ratio in Operational Time for Various NEPCMs Composites
3.2.6. Enhancement Ratio in Operational Time for Various NEPCMs Composites
Enhancement ratio is defined as the ratio of time required to achieve a specific target
Enhancement ratio is defined as the ratio of time required to achieve a specific target
temperature of heat sink filled with PCM/NEPCM composites to that of the empty heat
temperature of heat sink filled with PCM/NEPCM composites to that of the empty heat
sink. The enhancement ratio for various arrangements of heat sink is estimated at target
sink. The enhancement
temperatures of 50 ◦ C, ratio
60 ◦ Cfor various
and 70 ◦ C.arrangements of heat sinkof
For target temperature is 50
estimated
◦ C caseatshown
target
temperatures of 50 ℃, 60 ℃ and 70 ℃. For target temperature of 50
in Figure 22, G2-NEPCM/copper foam case gave maximum enhancement ratios of 3.7, ℃ case shown in
Figure 22, G2-NEPCM/copper foam case gave maximum enhancement ratios
4 and 6.78 at 8 W, 16 W and 24 W, respectively. For M2-NEPCM/copper foam case, the of 3.7, 4 and
6.78 at 8 W, 16ratio
enhancement W and 24 W,3.2
of 3.01, respectively. Forachieved
and 3.94 was M2-NEPCM/copper
at 8 W, 16 W foam
and 24 case, the enhance-
W, respectively.
ment ratio of 3.01, 3.2 and 3.94 was achieved at 8 W, 16 W and 24 W, respectively.
Energies2022,
Energies 2022,15,
15,8746
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22
22 of 27
28
Figure 22. Enhancement ratios comparison for various heat sink configurations at operational time
Figure
Figure 22. Enhancement ratios comparison for various heat sink configurations at operational time
of 50 ◦℃.22. Enhancement ratios comparison for various heat sink configurations at operational time
of 50 ℃.
of 50 C.
From Figure
From Figure 23,
23, for
for target
targettemperature
temperatureof 6060℃, maximum
◦ C, enhancement ratios of 3.2
and From
6.9 were Figure 23,
observed for
fortarget temperature
G2-NEPCM/copper ofoffoam
60 ℃,casesmaximum
maximum
for 16 W
enhancement
enhancement
and 24 W,
ratios
ratios of
of 3.2
respectively.
3.2 and 6.9
and 6.9 were were observed for G2-NEPCM/copper foam cases for 16 W and 24 W, respec-
Similarly,
tively. theobserved
Similarly,
for G2-NEPCM/copper
enhancement
the enhancementratio of 2.6 of
ratio and
2.64.9
and
foam
was cases forfor
4.9noticed
16 M2-NEPCM/copper
was noticed
W and 24 W, respectively.
for M2-NEPCM/copper foam
Similarly,
cases for the
16 W enhancement
and 24 W, ratio of 2.6
respectively. and
The 4.9 was
findings noticed
revealed for M2-NEPCM/copper
that using NPs in PCM foam
does
foam
cases cases
for 16for
W 16 W24
and andW,24 W, respectively.
respectively. The The findings
findings revealed
revealed that that using
using NPs NPs
in PCMin PCM
does
not lead to positive effect on heat sink temperature decline, especially after
does not lead to positive effect on heat sink temperature decline, especially after complete complete melt-
not lead
ing. On theto positive effect on heat sinkfoam
temperature decline, especially after complete melt-
melting. Onother hand,
the other using
hand, copper
using in PCM
copper foam and NEPCM
in PCM and NEPCM showed the
showed uniform heat
the uniform
ing. On
transfer the other
behavior hand,
as wellusing
as copper
melting foam
time in PCM
enhancement. and NEPCM showed the uniform heat
heat transfer behavior as well as melting time enhancement.
transfer behavior as well as melting time enhancement.
Figure 23. Enhancement

Figure 23. Enhancement ratios
ratios comparison
comparison for
for various
various heat
heat sink
sink configurations
configurations at
at operational
operational time
time
Figure
of
of 60 C.23. Enhancement ratios comparison for various heat sink configurations at operational time
60 ◦℃.
of 60 ℃.
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 23 of 27
For
For target temperature of
target temperature 70 ◦℃
of 70 shown in
C shown in Figure
Figure 24,
24, the
the G2-NEPCM/copper
G2-NEPCM/copper foam foam
and M2-NEPCM/copper foam presented almost the same enhancement
and M2-NEPCM/copper foam presented almost the same enhancement ratioratio
at 16 at
W 16
heat-
W
ing load. But for 24 W case, G2-NEPCM/copper foam gave enhancement ratio of
heating load. But for 24 W case, G2-NEPCM/copper foam gave enhancement ratio of 5.9, 5.9, while
M2-NEPCM/copper
while M2-NEPCM/copper foam offered enhancement
foam offered ratio ofratio
enhancement 4.1 of
in 4.1
achieving the target
in achieving tem-
the target
perature of 70 ℃.
temperature of 70 C.◦
Enhancement ratios
Figure 24. Enhancement ratios comparison
comparison for
for various
various heat sink
sink configurations at operational time
of 70 ◦℃.
C.
From thethe enhancement

enhancementratio ratiostudy,
study,it is
it obvious
is obviousthatthat
the heat sink sink
the heat thermal performance
thermal perfor-
is best in
mance is cases
best inof cases
NEPCM/copper
of NEPCM/copperfoam composites, while thewhile
foam composites, performance of NEPCM
the performance of
based heat
NEPCM sinkheat
based is also
sinkbetter than
is also other
better thancases.
otherThe latent
cases. TheTES capacity
latent of PCMof
TES capacity is PCM
greater
is
than thethan
greater sensible heat capacity,
the sensible due todue
heat capacity, which the contribution
to which of theofPCM
the contribution in theinheat
the PCM the
transfer
heat is contingent
transfer on the
is contingent melting
on the process.
melting process. With thethe
With increase
increasein in
NPs
NPsconcentration,
concentration,a
slight TES capacity drop was noticed for PCM enhanced with GNPs
a slight TES capacity drop was noticed for PCM enhanced with GNPs and MgO. Charging and MgO. Charging
performance was better when GNPs were used, compared to when MgO NPs were used.
performance was better when GNPs were used, compared to when MgO NPs were used.
3.3. Comparison of Experimental Results with the Literature
3.3. Comparison of Experimental Results with the Literature
The studies utilizing PCMs, NEPCMs, PCM packed in metal foam for thermal man-
The studies utilizing PCMs, NEPCMs, PCM packed in metal foam for thermal man-
agement of electronic equipment, are available in the literature. The present study involved
agement of electronic equipment, are available in the literature. The present study in-
the thermal management of heat sink using GNPs and MgO NEPCM saturated with copper
volved the thermal management of heat sink using GNPs and MgO NEPCM saturated
foam. The purpose of the study is to lower heat sink base temperature and enhance the
with copper foam. The purpose of the study is to lower heat sink base temperature and
optimal operating time duration. The comparison of the current study with the previous
enhance the optimal operating time duration. The comparison of the current study with
studies [11,34–40] (as shown in Figure 25) indicates the viability of NEPCM/copper foam
the previous studies [11,34–40] (as shown in Figure 25) indicates the viability of
composite. The present study gave better performance than most of the studies because of
NEPCM/copper foam composite. The present study gave better performance than most
better thermal performance due to combined use of NEPCMs and copper foam. The maxi-
of the studies because of better thermal performance due to combined use of NEPCMs
mum temperature reduction of 14.32 ◦ C was observed in the case of G2-NEPCM/copper
and copper foam. The maximum temperature reduction of 14.32 ℃◦ was observed in the
foam case, while from the literature the temperature reduction of 14 C was noticed for the
case of G2-NEPCM/copper
studies foamfinned
[36,40] which employed case, while fromwith
heat sinks the literature
NEPCMs.the temperature
The improvementreduction
in heat
of 14 ℃ was noticed for the studies [36,40] which employed finned heat sinks
sink cavity, or the use of forced convection, can further improve the capacity of current with
NEPCMs. The improvement in heat
study in terms of thermal management. sink cavity, or the use of forced convection, can fur-
ther improve the capacity of current study in terms of thermal management.
Energies2022,
Energies 2022,15,
15,8746
x FOR PEER REVIEW 24
24 of 28
of 27
Figure 25.
Figure 25. Thermal
Thermal Management
Management performance comparisons of the present study
study with
with the
the recent
recent
studies [11,34–40].
studies [11,34–40].
4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
Thermal management of
Thermal management ofelectronic
electronicequipment
equipmentis is crucial
crucial forfor optimal
optimal andand efficient
efficient op-
operation. The literature studies utilized pin fins, PCMs, NEPCMs, PCM/porous
eration. The literature studies utilized pin fins, PCMs, NEPCMs, PCM/porous foams for foams
for thermal
thermal management
management analysis.
analysis. TheThe current
current experimental
experimental study
study is first
is the the first ofkind
of its its kind
uti-
utilizing NEPCM along with copper foam for investigating the thermal
lizing NEPCM along with copper foam for investigating the thermal management effec- management
effectiveness of heat
tiveness of heat sink.sink. The PCM
The PCM used used
in theinstudy
the study was PT-58,
was PT-58, and NPsand ofNPs of GNPs
GNPs and MgOand
MgO withwt%
with 0.01 0.01 and
wt.%0.02
andwt%
0.02 were
wt.% utilized.
were utilized. The heating
The heating inputsinputs utilized
utilized for thermal
for thermal char-
characterization were 0.77 kW/m 2 , 1.54 kW/m2 , and 2.3 kW/m2 . The introduction of NPs
acterization were 0.77 kW/m , 1.54 kW/m , and 2.3 kW/m . The introduction of NPs and
and copper
copper foamfoam in PCM
in PCM waswas intended
intended to augment
to augment the thermal
the thermal conductivity
conductivity of PCM
of PCM andand
im-
improve
prove the thermal responsiveness of heat sink. The important results drawn from the
the thermal responsiveness of heat sink. The important results drawn from the
study
study are:
are:
•• From the baseline comparison of heat sink it is noticed that the G2-NEPCM/copper
From the baseline comparison of heat sink it is noticed that the G2-NEPCM/copper
foam performed best among all configurations at all heating inputs. The reason is high
foam performed best among all configurations at all heating inputs. The reason is
thermal conductivity of GNPs, NPs and copper foam.
high thermal conductivity of GNPs, NPs and copper foam.
• The increase in NPs concentration in PCM improved the cooling capacity of heat
• The increase in NPs concentration in PCM improved the cooling capacity of heat sink
sink and lowered the base temperature. For G2-NEPCM and M2-NEPCM, base
and lowered the base temperature. For G2-NEPCM and M2-NEPCM, base tempera-
temperature reduced by 8.03% and 7.6% at 0.77 kW/m2 , 9.1% and 8.3% at 1.54 kW/m2 ,
ture reduced by 8.03% and 7.6% at 0.77 kW/m , 9.1% and 8.3% at 1.54 kW/m , and
and 6.9% and 5.3% at 2.3 kW/m2 , respectively.
6.9% and 5.3% at 2.3 kW/m , respectively.
• The introduction of copper foam in NEPCM further lowered the base temperature
• The introduction of copper foam in NEPCM further lowered the base temperature
and delayed the latent heating phase of PCM. In the case of G2-NEPCM/copper foam,
and delayed the latent heating phase of PCM. In the case of G2-NEPCM/copper foam,
maximum temperature reductions of 7.92 ◦ C, 13.85 ◦ C and 13.26 ◦ C were observed at
maximum temperature reductions of 7.92 ℃, 13.85 ℃ and 13.26 ℃ were observed
heating inputs of 0.77 kW/m2 , 1.54 kW/m2 and 2.3 kW/m2 , respectively. While at
1.54heating
at kW/minputs of 0.77
2 and 2.3 kW/m kW/m , 1.54input,
2 heating kW/mM2-NEPCM
and 2.3 kW/m , respectively.
lowered While
the heat sink at
base
1.54 kW/m and 2.3 kW/m heating input, M2-NEPCM lowered the
temperature by 11.35 ◦ C and 13.66 ◦ C, which was better than all configurations. Theheat sink base
temperature
reason was the 11.35 ℃melting
byNEPCM was℃,
and 13.66 notwhich was better
commenced than
in this all configurations. The
case.
• reason was the NEPCM melting was not commenced in this case.
Time required to achieve different target temperatures for various configurations of
• Timesink
heat required to achieve
revealed that at 8different
W powertarget
level,temperatures
G2-NEPCM/copper for various
foamconfigurations
took 64.4 min toof
heat sink ◦ revealed that at 8 W power level, G2-NEPCM/copper
reach 50 C target temperature. While at 16 W power level, the G2-NEPCM/copper foam took 64.4 min
to reach
foam 50 ℃best
showed target temperature.
performance andWhile at 16
took 78 minWinpower level,target
achieving the G2-NEPCM/cop-
temperature of
per◦ C.
70 foam
Theshowed best performance
M2-NEPCM/copper foamand took 78
achieved mintemperature
target in achievingoftarget
70 ◦ Ctemperature
in 74.8 min.
of 70 ℃. The M2-NEPCM/copper foam achieved target temperature of 70 ℃ in 74.8
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 25 of 27
For 24 W power level, GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam took the highest time to achieve
target temperatures of 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 70 ◦ C;
• The enhancement ratio study of heat sink indicated that dominance of NEPCM/copper
foam-based heat sinks in general, and GNPs-NEPCM/copper foam specifically. The
highest enhancement ratio of 5.8, 6.9 and 5.9 was observed for G2-NEPCM/copper
foam at target temperatures of 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C, respectively, at 24 W power level.
• The overall cooling performance of heat sink was better in the case of NEPCM/copper
foam composites as compared to PCM and NEPCM cases. The reason is that the
copper foam helped to dissipate heat more uniformly and improved the heat transfer
rate of PCM inside heat sink.
• The combined usage of NPs and metal foam is a good solution to mitigate the high
heat load. The different types of NPs could have different influence on the thermal
performance of PCM. The use of copper foam for thermal management exhibited
better performance, even when simple PCM was used. The high thermal conductivity
of copper foam improved the conduction and convection heat transfer in the PCM
and NEPCM.
Author Contributions: Methodology, A.A. and F.J.; Formal analysis, F.H. and A.H.; Investigation,
F.H.; Resources, A.H.; Writing—original draft, F.H.; Writing—review & editing, A.A. and F.J.; Super-
vision, A.H.; Conceptualization, H.M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
Al2 O3 Aluminium Oxide
CuO Copper Oxide
GNPs Graphene Nanoplatelets
Fe2 O3 Iron Oxide
Mn(NO3 )2 Magnesium Nitrate
MgO Magnesium Oxide
min Minute
MWCNTs Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes
NEPCM Nano enriched PCM
NPs Nanoparticles
PCM Phase Change Materials
PPI Pores Per Inch
TES Thermal Energy Storage
TiO2 Titanium Dioxide
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
wt.% Weight Percent
Symbols
k Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
P Power (W)
q Heating input (kW/m2 )
Tmax Maximum Temperature after Charging Phase (K)
VPCM Volume of PCM (mm3 )
I Current (A)
L Length of Heating Surface (mm)
W Width of Heating Surface (mm)
mpcm Mass of PCM (g)
Vs Volume of Heat Sink (mm3 )
T1–T8 Thermocouple Locations
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 26 of 27
V Voltage (V)
T Temperature (◦ C)
G Thermal Conductance (W/k)
Greek Symbols
ε Porosity
ψPCM Volume Fraction of PCM
ρ Density
δ Uncertainty Value
ξ Enhancement Ratio in operation time
ϕ Weight fraction of Nanoparticles
References
1. Hua, W.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, X. Research on Passive Cooling of Electronic Chips Based on PCM: A Review. J. Mol. Liq. 2021,
340, 117183. [CrossRef]
2. Sahoo, S.K.; Das, M.K.; Rath, P. Application of TCE-PCM Based Heat Sinks for Cooling of Electronic Components: A Review.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 59, 550–582. [CrossRef]
3. Ghosh, D.; Ghose, J.; Datta, P.; Kumari, P.; Paul, S. Strategies for Phase Change Material Application in Latent Heat Thermal
Energy Storage Enhancement: Status and Prospect. J. Energy Storage 2022, 53, 105179. [CrossRef]
4. Iradukunda, A.-C.; Vargas, A.; Huitink, D.; Lohan, D. Transient Thermal Performance Using Phase Change Material Integrated
Topology Optimized Heat Sinks. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2020, 179, 115723. [CrossRef]
5. Mozafari, M.; Lee, A.; Mohammadpour, J. Thermal Management of Single and Multiple PCMs Based Heat Sinks for Electronics
Cooling. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2021, 23, 100919. [CrossRef]
6. Kalbasi, R. Introducing a Novel Heat Sink Comprising PCM and Air—Adapted to Electronic Device Thermal Management. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 2021, 169, 120914. [CrossRef]
7. Xie, J.; Choo, K.F.; Xiang, J.; Lee, H.M. Characterization of Natural Convection in a PCM-Based Heat Sink with Novel Conductive
Structures. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 2019, 108, 104306. [CrossRef]
8. Dammak, K.; El Hami, A. Thermal Reliability-Based Design Optimization Using Kriging Model of PCM Based Pin Fin Heat Sink.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2021, 166, 120745. [CrossRef]
9. Sunku Prasad, J.; Anandalakshmi, R.; Muthukumar, P. Numerical Investigation on Conventional and PCM Heat Sinks under
Constant and Variable Heat Flux Conditions. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 2020, 87, 454–462. [CrossRef]
10. Cheng, P.; Chen, X.; Gao, H.; Zhang, X.; Tang, Z.; Li, A.; Wang, G. Different Dimensional Nanoadditives for Thermal Conductivity
Enhancement of Phase Change Materials: Fundamentals and Applications. Nano Energy 2021, 85, 105948. [CrossRef]
11. Farzanehnia, A.; Khatibi, M.; Sardarabadi, M.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Experimental Investigation of Multiwall Carbon Nan-
otube/Paraffin Based Heat Sink for Electronic Device Thermal Management. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 179, 314–325.
[CrossRef]
12. Fan, L.-W.; Zhu, Z.-Q.; Zeng, Y.; Xiao, Y.-Q.; Liu, X.-L.; Wu, Y.-Y.; Ding, Q.; Yu, Z.-T.; Cen, K.-F. Transient Performance of a
PCM-Based Heat Sink with High Aspect-Ratio Carbon Nanofillers. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2015, 75, 532–540. [CrossRef]
13. Kothari, R.; Sahu, S.K.; Kundalwal, S.I. Investigation on Thermal Characteristics of Nano Enhanced Phase Change Material
Based Finned and Unfinned Heat Sinks for Thermal Management System. Chem. Eng. Process.-Process Intensif. 2021, 162, 108328.
[CrossRef]
14. Joseph, M.; Sajith, V. Graphene Enhanced Paraffin Nanocomposite Based Hybrid Cooling System for Thermal Management of
Electronics. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2019, 163, 114342. [CrossRef]
15. Jalil, J.M.; Mahdi, H.S.; Allawy, A.S. Cooling Performance Investigation of PCM Integrated into Heat Sink with Nano Particles
Addition. J. Energy Storage 2022, 55, 105466. [CrossRef]
16. Aramesh, M.; Shabani, B. Metal Foams Application to Enhance the Thermal Performance of Phase Change Materials: A Review
of Experimental Studies to Understand the Mechanisms. J. Energy Storage 2022, 50, 104650. [CrossRef]
17. Marri, G.K.; Balaji, C. Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Effect of Porosity and PPI Gradients of Metal Foams on
the Thermal Performance of a Composite Phase Change Material Heat Sink. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2021, 164, 120454. [CrossRef]
18. Venkateshwar, K.; Tasnim, S.H.; Simha, H.; Mahmud, S. Influence of Metal Foam Morphology on Phase Change Process under
Temporal Thermal Load. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2020, 180, 115874. [CrossRef]
19. Li, W.; Zhang, D.; Jing, T.; Gao, M.; Liu, P.; He, G.; Qin, F. Nano-Encapsulated Phase Change Material Slurry (Nano-PCMS)
Saturated in Metal Foam: A New Stable and Efficient Strategy for Passive Thermal Management. Energy 2018, 165, 743–751.
[CrossRef]
20. Zhao, L.; Xing, Y.; Wang, Z.; Liu, X. The Passive Thermal Management System for Electronic Device Using Low-Melting-Point
Alloy as Phase Change Material. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 125, 317–327. [CrossRef]
21. Arshad, A.; Jabbal, M.; Faraji, H.; Talebizadehsardari, P.; Bashir, M.A.; Yan, Y. Thermal Performance of a Phase Change Material-
Based Heat Sink in Presence of Nanoparticles and Metal-Foam to Enhance Cooling Performance of Electronics. J. Energy Storage
2022, 48, 103882. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 8746 27 of 27
22. Lin, Y.; Jia, Y.; Alva, G.; Fang, G. Review on Thermal Conductivity Enhancement, Thermal Properties and Applications of Phase
Change Materials in Thermal Energy Storage. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 2730–2742. [CrossRef]
23. Graphene Nanoplatelets (2–10 nm) Supplier—ACS Material. Available online: https://www.acsmaterial.com/graphene-
nanoplatelets-2-10nm.html (accessed on 29 October 2021).
24. NanoAmor, Amorphous Products|Nanoscale Products|Nanopowder|Nanoparticles—Magnesium Oxide Nanopowder (MgO,
99+%, 20 Nm). Available online: https://www.nanoamor.com/inc/sdetail/2543 (accessed on 29 October 2021).
25. Ali, H.M.; Saieed, A.; Pao, W.; Ali, M. Copper Foam/PCMs Based Heat Sinks: An Experimental Study for Electronic Cooling
Systems. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2018, 127, 381–393.
26. Jamil, F.; Ali, H.M.; Nasir, M.A.; Karahan, M.; Janjua, M.M.; Naseer, A.; Ejaz, A.; Pasha, R.A. Evaluation of Photovoltaic
Panels Using Different Nano Phase Change Material and a Concise Comparison: An Experimental Study. Renew. Energy 2021,
169, 1265–1279. [CrossRef]
27. Venugopal, J.; Prathap, L.; Rao, C.M.M.P.; Alagesan, J.; Manjunatha, L.H.; Gangodkar, D.; Mohanavel, V.; Sathyamurthy, R.
Synthesis and Characterization of Paraffin Wax with Carbon Nanotubes and Magnesium Oxide. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 313–320.
[CrossRef]
28. Eanest Jebasingh, B.; Valan Arasu, A. A Comprehensive Review on Latent Heat and Thermal Conductivity of Nanoparticle
Dispersed Phase Change Material for Low-Temperature Applications. Energy Storage Mater. 2020, 24, 52–74. [CrossRef]
29. Jurčević, M.; Nižetić, S.; Arıcı, M.; Ocłoń, P. Comprehensive Analysis of Preparation Strategies for Phase Change Nanocomposites
and Nanofluids with Brief Overview of Safety Equipment. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 122963. [CrossRef]
30. Rehman, T.-; Ali, H.M. Thermal Performance Analysis of Metallic Foam-Based Heat Sinks Embedded with RT-54HC Paraffin: An
Experimental Investigation for Electronic Cooling. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2020, 140, 979–990. [CrossRef]
31. Kline, S.J. Describing Uncertainty in Single Sample Experiments. Mech. Eng. 1953, 75, 3–8.
32. Leong, K.Y.; Chew, S.P.; Gurunathan, B.A.; Ahmad, K.Z.K.; Ong, H.C. An Experimental Approach to Investigate Thermal
Performance of Paraffin Wax and 1-Hexadecanol Based Heat Sinks for Cooling of Electronic System. Int. Commun. Heat Mass
Transf. 2019, 109, 104365. [CrossRef]
33. Tariq, S.L.; Ali, H.M.; Akram, M.A.; Janjua, M.M. Experimental Investigation on Graphene Based Nanoparticles Enhanced Phase
Change Materials (GbNePCMs) for Thermal Management of Electronic Equipment. J. Energy Storage 2020, 30, 101497. [CrossRef]
34. Alshaer, W.G.; Rady, M.A.; Nada, S.A.; Palomo Del Barrio, E.; Sommier, A. An Experimental Investigation of Using Carbon
Foam–PCM–MWCNTs Composite Materials for Thermal Management of Electronic Devices under Pulsed Power Modes. Heat
Mass Transf. 2017, 53, 569–579. [CrossRef]
35. Alshaer, W.G.; Nada, S.A.; Rady, M.A.; Del Barrio, E.P.; Sommier, A. Thermal Management of Electronic Devices Using Carbon
Foam and PCM/Nano-Composite. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 2015, 89, 79–86. [CrossRef]
36. Alimohammadi, M.; Aghli, Y.; Alavi, E.S.; Sardarabadi, M.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Experimental Investigation of the Effects of
Using Nano/Phase Change Materials (NPCM) as Coolant of Electronic Chipsets, under Free and Forced Convection. Appl. Therm.
Eng. 2017, 111, 271–279. [CrossRef]
37. Bahiraei, F.; Fartaj, A.; Nazri, G.-A. Experimental and Numerical Investigation on the Performance of Carbon-Based Nanoen-
hanced Phase Change Materials for Thermal Management Applications. Energy Convers. Manag. 2017, 153, 115–128. [CrossRef]
38. Sharma, S.; Micheli, L.; Chang, W.; Tahir, A.A.; Reddy, K.S.; Mallick, T.K. Nano-Enhanced Phase Change Material for Thermal
Management of BICPV. Appl. Energy 2017, 208, 719–733. [CrossRef]
39. Kumar, A.; Kothari, R.; Sahu, S.K.; Kundalwal, S.I. A Comparative Study and Optimization of Phase Change Material Based Heat
Sinks for Thermal Management of Electronic Components. J. Energy Storage 2021, 43, 103224. [CrossRef]
40. Kumar, A.; Kothari, R.; Sahu, S.K.; Kundalwal, S.I. Thermal Performance of Heat Sink Using Nano-Enhanced Phase Change
Material (NePCM) for Cooling of Electronic Components. Microelectron. Reliab. 2021, 121, 114144. [CrossRef]

PCM Cooling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PCM Cooling

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PCM Cooling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the novelty of the current experimental study?

What is the novelty of the current experimental study?

What heating inputs were used to simulate heating to the heat sink?

What heating inputs were used to simulate heating to the heat sink?

energies

Energies 2022, 15, 8746. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228746 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

in PCM, operating time increased by 28%. A 6% concentration of NPs in PCM decreased

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup.

Figure 2. Photographic View of Experimental Setup.

Figure 3. Exploded view of heat sink assembly.

2.1. Materials Figure 3. Exploded view of heat sink assembly.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 28

Figure 6. TEM images of GNPs [23] and MgO NPs [24].

Energies 2022, 15, 8746 8 of 27

Energies 2022, 15, 8746 9 of 27

Energies 2022, 15, 8746 10 of 27

2.5. Experimental Uncertainty Analysis

To estimate the uncertainty δxR of resultant variable xR , the expression given by

Equation (9) can be given as:

3.2.3. Spatial Variations in Temperature in Heat Sink

20. Time to attain target temperature of 60 ◦℃

Figure 21 demonstrates the influence of various enhancements in heat sink in attain-

◦ C for heat sink filled with PCM, NEPCM and

Figure 23. Enhancement

From thethe enhancement

You might also like