Contemporary Issues

and Challenges

BLOCK 2
HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES

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Introduction to
HRM

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 Job Analysis
UNIT 5 JOB ANALYSIS*

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition and Nature of Job Analysis
5.3 Uses of Job Analysis
5.4 Methods for Collecting Job Analysis Information
5.4.1 Using other Job Analysis Methods
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 References
5.7 Key Words
5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.9 Unit End Questions

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to :
 discuss the importance of undertaking job analysis;
 explain the nature and use of Job Analysis; and
 describe various method for collecting Job analysis information.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
JoJo Soya Products Ltd.is a small manufacturing company that manufactures
and markets soya products available at local market. The Executive Director
notices that most staff appeared to be uncertain about their roles and those
relevant goals were never achieved. She hired an industrial psychologist in
order to fix this problem. This Industrial psychologist finds many areas of
improvement. She found that the role of production and planning was not for
everyone in the company.

Sales representatives were doing some purchases of raw materials although

there was a purchasing section under the Operations Department. Two
different departments maintain inventory control. The person in charge of
marketing and sales did not have the salesmanship skills to perform that task.
Based on the analysis, several jobs were redesigned and job descriptions
were written down for all positions. The Executive director then implemented
all the changes with the purpose of changing nature of jobs.

*
Dr. Mohsin Uddin, Academic Consultant, Discipline of Psychology,
IGNOU, Delhi
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Human Resource
Practices
One lacuna clearly observed in the above examples is lack of job analysis and
clarity of duties and responsibilities. A clear view of one’s roles should be a
basis for self-appraisal. It should make it simpler for Executive Director to
assign responsibilities. For instance, suppose youare the proprietor of the
startup company or organization, as a director you need to understand that
director duties. Understanding what creates a director job should help you to
perform your role and responsibilities more effectively.

Thus, before recruitment and selection techniques are used, it is necessary to

analyses the appropriate jobs. The objectives of this unit is to describe the
Nature and uses of Job Analysis, Methods for Collecting Job Analysis
Information.

5.2 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF JOB

ANALYSIS
As we know that, employees are the important pillars of an organization. As
matter of fact, the profit and loss of an organization is determined largely by
how well employees do their duties. Selecting the right person for right place
and job, capacity building and paying proper salary and benefits are therefore
of extreme importance. If someone ask you what makes an effective clinical
counsellor or what content might cover a capacity building for grassroots
worker. What is your reply? How could a director of the organization find out
what employee do at workplace? The answer to the above questions is, by
carrying out job analysis. Thus job analysis mainly helps us understand about
the job, the activities to be carried out as well as the skills required to carry
out the activities. For instance, as time goes by vegetable chef of the small
restaurant might assume additional duties like prepare pastries and desserts
that did not assigned before. If the restaurant needs to replace this chef but
does not have an up-to-date job analysis report for the position, it is unlikely
that the restaurant will be able to recruit a person with all the experience,
skills, talents and other features required to perform the job as it currently
exists.

It can be said that job analysis is a systematic and thorough examination of

job. It refers to a scientific and systematic study of a work in order to collect
all relevant information about the job. It is difficult to understand precisely
what the role of an employee requires before an employee can be selected or
trained and before employee, performance can be measured. Such an analysis
should also be carried out on a regular basis to ensure that employment
information is up to date. In other words, the process for determining the
duties, responsibilities and skill requirements of a job and the category of
employee who should be selected for it.

According to Mondy and Noe (1996), job analysis is the systematic process
of determining the skills, duties and knowledge recurred for performing job
in an organization. It is an essential and pervasive human resource technique.
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 Job Analysis
Brannick, Levine and Morgeson (2007) defined job analysis as a systematic
method of discovering the purpose of a job by dividing it into smaller units,
where one or more written products arise from the process in order to explain
what is achieved on the job or what skills are required to perform the job
effectively.

Dessler (2013, page 105) explained job analysis as “the the procedure
through which you determine the duties of the positions and the
characteristics of the people to hire for them”. Job analysis can be explained
as a process through which we collect information about a job. It is carried
out in terms of job description and job specification. Job description mainly
denotes the work activities that need to be carried out and job specification
specifies the skills and experience required. Thus, job description provides
information what constitutes the job and job specification provides details
about the kind of individuals that need to be hired for the job. Dessler (2013,
page 105) defined job description as “ a list of a job’s duties, responsibilities,
reporting, relationships, working conditions, and supervisory responsibilities”
and job specification as “a list of a job’s ‘human requirements’, that is the
requisite education, skills, personality, and so on”

Job analysis can be carried out by collection information about work related
activities, human behaviours, machines, tools, equipment etc required to
carry out the job, standards of performance, context of the job and human
requirements.
 Work related activities denote the actual activity that needs to be carried
out like marketing a product, counselling employees and so on.
 Human behaviours denote the behaviour that is required to perform the
job. For example communication, negotiation and so on.
 Machines, tools , equipment etc can also provide information about the
nature of job.
 Performance standards denotes the levels of quality and quantity related
to the job activities.
 Context of job denotes the working conditions, schedule, incentives and
so on.
 Human requirements mainly focus on the skills, expertise, knowledge,
experience, training etc. required to perform the job.
In order to monitor the production or service, that is, get the job done
successfully, the job analysis process requires in-depth investigation. The
mechanism helps to figure out what a specific department or section needs
and what a future employee or worker needs to offer. It also helps to decide
job specifics, including job description, job position, job overview, tasks
involved, working conditions, possiblerisk, resources, equipment and
supplies to be used by the existing/ potential employees or worker. The
process, however, is not merely confined to the determination of these
factors. It also applies to figuring out the professional or technical
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Practices
qualifications required to do the work. These include education, experience,
assessment, training, commitment, leadership skills, physical abilities,
communication skills, accountability, emotional and social quotient and
unusual sensory demand levels.These factors change depending on the type,
level of seniority, industry and risk involved in a specific job.jAs we learned
that, Job analysis provide information used for writing job details (a list of
what the job entails) and job specifications (what kind of employee to hire for
the particular job). The human resource manager or industrial psychologist
normally collects one or more of the following types of information via the
job analysis:

 Job context: Information on factors such as physical working

conditions, hazard, risk factor, job schedule, job rotation, and the
organizational and social background is included here, such as the
number of individuals with which the employee will usually associate.
Incentive and rewards information can also be included here.

 Human requirement: This includes information on the human

requirements of the job, such as work-related expertise or skills
(technical or professional education, training, work experience) and
essential personal characteristics (aptitudes, attitude, physical
characteristics, personality, interests, emotional and intelligence
quotient).

 Human behavior: The human resource management may collect

information about behaviours like communicating, problem solving and
decision-making.

 Job action: Collect information about job actual work, duties and
activities such as counselling, guidance, training, teaching and writing.
This list must include how, why and when the employee performs each
assignment.

 Equipment, machines, tools and working aid: This section contains

information on methods used, technical or professional skills dealt with
or applied (for-instance finance, accountancy, legislation, language
programming), and services provided (similarly counselling, guidance
and repairing).

 Performance criteria: The human resource manager (HRM) must need

data about performance level of the job in term of quality and quantity.
HRM will use these data to review the employee.

Check Your progress I

1) What is job analysis?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
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 Job Analysis
5.3 USES OF JOB ANALYSIS
The uses of job analysis are discussed as follows:

 Employee selection:How an employee will be selected is difficult to

imagine unless there is a specific work understanding of the duties and
responsibilities to be performed and the skills necessary to perform those
duties. It is necessary to select assessments or design interview questions
by defining those criteria, which will decide if a specific candidate has
the requisite expertise and skills to carry out the job requirements. For
instance height and good physical fitness requirement for Indian Army
and Physical attractiveness for frontline sales team.

 Training and development: Job analysis is useful for human resource

manager as far as it allows employee to understand what the mandatory
needs from a given job in terms of experience, aptitude and skills.
Depending on the work requirements, capacity building programmes and
skill upgradation strategies may be planned. Participant’s selection and
skill development content are also supported by job analysis reports.

 Job Description: Short report of duties and responsibilities contained in

the job description is one of the written products of job analysis. In
simple words, the job analysis is the written report and it is the method
of deciding the duties and job description. Job analysis acts as the basis
for many practices in the area of managing human resources planning,
including the selection of employee, capacity building, job design and
appraisal.

 Job Classification: Job analysis enables a human resource manager to

classify jobs into groups, sub groups and teams based on similarities in
duties and responsibilities. Job analysis is useful for determining salary,
incentives, benefits, transfer and promotions.

 Job evaluation: Job analysis information can be used to determine the

worth of a job. It is also help to human resource manager for fixing
salary whose jobs are similar in value to the company must have similar
pay if they do their task well.

 Performance appraisal: A performance appraisal compares every

employee real performance with her/his performance criteria. In order to
address job duties and performance criteria, human resource managers
use job analysis reports.

 Discovering unassigned duties and responsibilities: Job analysis can

help reveal unassigned duties and responsibilities. For instance, your
organizational head assigned so many task i.e. collection of raw material,
monitor production process and recruitment of new staff members. On
further discussion, you might have learned that none of the production
manager are responsible for recruitment drive.
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Human Resource
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 Organisational analysis: During the time of their duties, job analyst
often become aware of uncertain problems within the organization. For
instance, during a job analysis process discussion cum interview, sales
team members may inform that they does not know how they are being
evaluated and to whom they are supposed to discuss about daily issues
faced in the market. The finding of, such gap in the internal
communication can be used to fix the communication gap and help the
company for smooth functioning.

 Job design: The job analysis information can be used to define the best
way to do a job. Job design is the division of job tasks allocated to an
employee in an organization that determines what the employee is doing,
how, and why.

 Human resource planning: Job analysis provides a basis for human

resource planning and for suitable selection and recruitment of
employee. It reveals the personality and skills of employee required for a
job.

 Working condition: Job analysis provides information about unhealthy,

risk and hazardous working environmental condition in various jobs.

Check your Progress II

1) State any one use of job analysis.

…………………………………………………………………………….

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…………………………………………………………………………….

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5.4 METHODS FOR COLLECTING JOB

ANALYSIS INFORMATION
The method used to collect job details differs greatly in terms of
comprehensiveness and systematic rigour. In the following discussion, an
attempt is made to clarify some of the methods used more frequently, such as

Observation, interview and questionnaires have historically been the most

common methods. Emphasis is placed on the advantages and disadvantages
or drawback of each method.

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 Job Analysis
Existing data Interviews

Job
Participation Information Surveys

Job Diaries Observation

Fig. 5.1 Methods for Collecting Job Analysis Information

 Observation: In this method, a job analyst observe employees directly,

video or review report of employee performance report. Observation
provides firsthand information. Usually, the observer makes extensive
notes on the exact activities and duties conducted in the observational
process. To make detailed observations, however, the job analyst must
know what to look for. With the observation method, it is crucial that the
times chosen for observation are reflective of the routine of the
employee, especially if the job requires that during various times of the
hours, day, week or year, the employee can be engaged in different tasks.
For instance, a medical sales representative may deal with sales and
doctor visit report on Fridays, may spend most of Saturday updating
medicine stock figure and weekly report and may be almost entirely
occupied with finding newest stockiest for new products. This method
has both positive and negative aspect. On the positive side, the primary
data collected are accurate because of direct observation. On the other
side, sometimes observer bias can creep in. Further observer cannot
observe cognitive task such as problem solving and thinking skills. This
method requires that the entire range of activities be observable, which is
not possible for many jobs for instance, managerial job.

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Human Resource
Practices

Fig. 5.2 The job analyst uses observational techniques

 Interviews: Another form of job analysis is interviews. They can be

open ended such as could you tell us about what you do on the job.
Alternatively, they can use structured or standardised questions. Because
any one source of information can be biased, the job analyst may want to
get more than one perspective by interviewing the employee. The
employee’s immediate supervisor and employee subordinates. The job
analyst may also interview several employees within a section or unit or
organisation to get more information of the job and to see whether
various individual holding the same job title in organisation actually
perform similar work. The advantages of this method is job analyst
might ask follow up questions/comments, flexible and it is applicable to
all job tittle. One of the drawback of interviews, Job analyst miss
information out, especially when a task become automatic and difficult
to pull all information tighter.

Fig. 5.3 Interview is a common job analysis method.

 Surveys: In this method of job analysis usually associate the

administration of paper pencil questionnaire that the employee completes
and returns to job analyst. Such questionnaires consist of lists of job a
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 Job Analysis
task or other factor such as working condition. Survey consist of open-
ended question such as what technical skills required to operate this
automatic machine? Close ended question such as which of the job title
suite you?
i) Workshop Manager
ii) Machine operator
iii) Workshop supervisor
iv) Administrative assistant
The survey method has three advantages over the interview method:
1) Allows for a large collection of data
2) Cost effective
3) Time saving
One of the drawbacks of this method is that the information collected is
limited by the questions of the questionnaire or schedule.
 Job Diaries: Another method for job analysis is to have employee record
their daily activates in diary. It is known as the process of self-recording.
An advantage of the job diary is that it provides a detailed minute-to-
minute, hours- to – hours and day – to- day account of employee’s work
and it is good when jobs are difficult to observe such as Loco pilot( Train
Driver). Difficulties of job diary are:
i) Extra time to write diary
ii) Clarity of information/data provided
iii) Differing literacy levels of employees
iv) Analysing large amount of information/data
 Participation: In this method, a job analyst may want to conduct a
specific job or job activity to get a better understanding of how the job is
done. The advantages of this method is hands-on knowledge of the job
and how work or an operation relates to each other? The disadvantage to
this method is not for jobs that require a high degree of proficiency or
professional and technical skills.
 Existing data : Mostly large, well-established organization or Startup
Company usually have some data or report and records can be used in
the job analysis process i.e. previous job analysis report, employee
performance and task sheet for the post or an analysis. Sometime data
can be arranged from another organization, startup company,
Government database and Human Resource consultancy firm that has
conducted analysis from similar post. Always, existing data must be
reviewed to ensure that it conforms to the job as it is actually being
carried out and to assess if the existing data allows for the introduction of
new technology or process into the job.
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Human Resource
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5.4.1 Using other Job Analysis Methods
In the previous section, the most common method for Collecting Job
Analysis Information was discussed. In addition to these methods for
performing job analysis, there are number of unique standardized analysis
techniques. These technique have not only widely used but have also
provided a substantial amount of research on their effectiveness. We will
consider four of these specific techniques: the job element, the critical
incident technique, the Position Analysis Questionnaire and functional job
analysis.

a) Job Element Method: The Job Element Method (Primoff & Eyde,
1988) focuses mainly on industrial or unskilled jobs. In this method, a
job analysis method that analyze jobs in terms of the knowledge, skills,
abilities, and other characteristics ( KSAOs) required to perform the job.
This method is “person oriented” or personality based in that it focuses
on the characteristics of the individual who is performing the job(Foster,
Gaddis & Hogon, 2012).

b) Critical Incident Technique (CIT): The critical incident concept

developed by Flanagan (1954) includes the recall and analysis of specific
instances of employee behavior on the job, either good or bad. The
method includes gathering factual stories about job behaviors that are
crucial in performing the job effectively (Zemke & Karmlinger, 1982).

Three pieces of information needed from each critical incident are

presented by Flanagan:
 The context of behavior and details of the lead-up to the behavior
exhibited.
 The employee behavior
 The consequences of the behavior.

This tool is powerful because it gives a multi-dimensional view of the

activities, including acts that have taken place, interactions with other
staff members, verbal and non-verbal behaviour.

c) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ): The Position Analysis

Questionnaire (McCormick, Jenneret & Mecham, 1972) is a
questionnaire based on employees that measures job characteristics and
relates them to the behaviour of employees. 194 job elements are part of
the questionnaire. Six main areas are grouped into the items on the
questionnaire.

• Information input: Considers how the employee obtains the

relevant information to perform the job.
• Mental process: It is involves the thinking and decision-making
required in the job.
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 Job Analysis
• Physical activities: The employee has to perform, and the equipment
they will use as part of their role.
• Relationship with other persons: It is including reporting lines as
well as colleagues.
• Job context: Such as physical or social contexts, including working
in noisy environments.
• Other characteristics: Such as other activities required as part of
the job. The advantage of this method is that it can be used for a
limited number of employees, since the questionnaire is structured, it
is affordable and simple to use, allowing easy quantification.
Disadvantages - involve individuals misinterpreting their job and the
amount of time the questionnaire is administered.

Check your Progress III

1) Explain participation as a method of collecting job analysis information.

…………………………………………………………………………….

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5.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you learned about the nature of job analysis and uses of job
analysis. Gathering data for job analysis having multiple methods, which we
need to be aware of so that suitable method can be taken accordingly. It was
also discussed that using other job analysis methods. Finally, you learned
about how to do job analysis in the organization. Specially, use of job
analysis in the organization was discussed.

5.6 REFERENCES
Aamodt, M.G. (2013). Industrial Psychology, New Delhi: Cengage Learning
India Private ltd.

Aswathappa, A. (2002) Human Resource and Personnel Management: New

Delhi: Tata McGraw.

Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job and Work
Analysis: Methods, research, and applications for human resources
management. 2nd ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dessler, G(2016) Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, London:

Pearson Education Limited. 79
Human Resource
Practices
Flangan, J. C.(1954)the critical incident technique, Psychological Bulletin,
51, 327-358.

Foster, J, Gaddis, B & Hogan, J. (2012). Personality based job analysis . In

M.A. Wilson, W. Bennett G. G.

Gary, D & Biju, V.(2009) Human Resource Management, Pearson

Education, Dorling Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi

McCormick , E. J. Jenneret, P. R. & Mecham, R. C.(1972) A study of job

characteristics and job dimensions as based on the position analysis
qustionnare(PAQ), Journal of Applied Psychology, 56, 647-368.

McCormick, J. E & Daniel , I(1983) Industrial Psychology, London: George

Allen and Unwin.

Mckenna, E(2012) Business Psychology and Organsational Behaviour, 5 Ed.,

New York: Taylor & Francis.

Miner, J. B. (1992) Industrial Organisational Psychology, Singapore:

McGraw-Hill International Editions.

Mondy, RW & Noe, RM. (1996) Human Resource Management, 6 Ed., New
Jersey: Prentice –Hall

Primoff, E. S & Eyde, L. D(1988). Job element method . In S. Gael(Ed.), The

job analysis handbook for business, industry and government(pp. 807-824)
New York: John Wiley.

Riggio, R. E (2018) Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational Psychology,

New York: Routledge

Robbins, SP & De Cenzo, DA(1995). Fundamental of Management:

Essential concept and Applications. New Jersey: Prntice –Hall

Shanan, & G.M. Alliger(Eds.) The handbook of work analysis methods,

system, applications and science of work measurement in organisations ,
New York: Taylor & Francis.

Steptoe, G, W.(2014). Occupational Psychology, An applied Approach,

Pearson Education, Dorling Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi

Zemke, R & Kralinger, T(1982). Figuring things out: A trainer’s guide to

needs and task analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

5.7 KEY WORDS

Job Analysis: The process for determining the duties, responsibilities and
skill requirements of a job and the category of employee who should be
selected for it.

Job analyst: The person conducting the job analysis in the organization.
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 Job Analysis
5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your progress I

1) What is job analysis?

Brannick, Levine and Morgeson (2007) defined job analysis as a systematic

method of discovering the purpose of a job by dividing it into smaller
units, where one or more written products arise from the process in order
to explain what is achieved on the job or what skills are required to
perform the job effectively.

Check your Progress II

1) State any one use of job analysis.

Job analysis enables a human resource manager to classify jobs into

groups, sub groups and teams based on similarities in duties and
responsibilities. Job analysis is useful for determining salary, incentives,
benefits, transfer and promotions.

Check your Progress III

1) Explain participation as method of collecting job analysis information.

In participation, a job analyst may want to conduct a specific job or job

activity to get a better understanding of how the job is done. The
advantages of this method is hands-on knowledge of the job and how
work or an operation relates to each other? The disadvantage to this
method is not for jobs that require a high degree of proficiency or
professional and technical skills.

5.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define Job analysis. Explain the nature of job analysis
1) Critically examine the uses of job analysis in Organisation.
2) Discuss various methods of job analysis by mentioning illustrations from
surrounding organization.
3) Write short note on:
 Interviews
 Job Element Method
 Position Analysis Questionnaire

81
Human Resource
Practices UNIT 6 SELECTION *

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning of Selection
6.3 Techniques of Selection
6.4 Barriers to Effective Selection
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 References
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.9 Unit End Questions

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the meaning of selection in organization;
 explain the effectiveness of various selection methods; and
 identify the barriers in effective selection process.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The 2017 investigation into the accident of injured people caused by a
Radiant Private Limited Company staff bus in Hyderabad, Telangana, heard
that the driver had no reference check document to his official file and was
suspended from his former job.

Mr. Malla Reddy, who was suspended from the Jabbar Tour and Travel
Company, Khammam in October 2016, was driving the truck when three
pedestrians were injured in Andhra Pradesh's Khammam district. During a
cross-examination, it was revealed that there were no references to the
employment history of Mr. Reddy. This led to the sub-inspector alleging that
anyone at Radiant Private Limited Company conducting an incomplete
employment procedure.

The HR manager informed in the serious accident inquiry that records are
misfiled sometimes. Following the investigation, the HR manager and sub
inspector reviewed the selection process. The selection of "skilled candidate"
is discussed in much of the popular human resource literature, but this
accident highlights the significance of effective selection processes.

*
Dr. Mohsin Uddin, Academic Consultant, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Delhi
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 Selection
Let’s look at another example, In Mall Road, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, Smt
Hardeep manages a small restaurant. Hardeep is expected to employ the
waiting staff, among other tasks. She employed a Youngman last week who
looked decent but continued to shout at a customer who complained that her
order was incorrect. Hardeep decided she required to interview prospective
waiters in a more organized way.

What do you understand about the method of selection in the above

examples? Are they following effective selection method for their employee?
As we know that selection is commonly used term in organizational setup.
Now we have some ideas about it, let us see in this unit in detail.

6.2 MEANING OF SELECTION

Selection is mainly used to determine who will join the organization.
Selection is the first step of the overall recruitment process and is concerned
with selecting the candidates best qualified for the job available from a list of
job applicants. A previous phase is recruiting activity, which includes the
recruitment of a pool of applicants for a vacancy, as well as the development
of a shortlist of candidates whose experience and potential are compatible
with the profile found in the work specification. At each step, the aim
remains the same: to find the job candidate who will develop into a valuable
employee and a good representative of your organisation. A person is an
advantage only if employee performs his/her job effectively and in
compliance with work standards. For example, A vivid case in point is
football clubs like the Bengaluru FC, Mohun Bagan, East Bengal, Kerala
Blasters who win or loose on their ability to select coaches, players, sports
psychologist and other supporting staff to win trophy.

Good selection decisions are an integral component of effective management

of Human Resource Management. Some would say that the most critical
aspect is these decisions. An employer's productivity increase can come from
improvements in incentive compensation programmes, better training or
better job design, but such changes may not have much effect unless the
employer has the required employee with the right KSAs(Knowledge, Skills
and Abilities) in place.

Conventional human resource principles clearly define the meaning of

successful job selection offer the best perspective on selection:

 Good capacity building is not going to compensate for poor

selection: The implication here is that if the right employee with the
appropriate KSAs are not selected for work, it is very difficult for the
organisation to recover later by attempting to capacity building that
employee without the right ability, interest or other KSA deficiencies.

 Selecting the best employee: If the right employee is not selected, there
is an opportunity cost and that cost is that the "right employee" has gone
somewhere else. 83
Human Resource
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As we know that, there are no two employee alike; intelligence, interest,
physical features, and personality characteristics vary. The selection process
leads to the hiring of individuals with the skills and qualifications to perform
the job that has fallen vacant in the organisation.

The selection is supported by two key principles:

• Individual differences: Attracting a wide choice of candidates will be of

little use unless there is a way of measuring how people differ. People
can vary in many ways, Such as attitude, experience, intelligence,
psychological, physical characteristics, social skills, and so on.

• Prediction: Recognition of the way people differ must be extended to a

projection of workplace performance.

Let us now look at various definitions of selection.

Thomas S. Stone (1989 ) define selection as a process of differentiation

between candidates to identify (and employ) those who have a greater
probability of success in a job.The selection process involves dividing all
candidates into two groups, viz. those selected and those rejected(Dale
Yoder, 1967). According to Robbins and Decenzo (2002), selection is the
process of screening job candidates to ensure that the most suitable
candidates hired.

BOX 6.1 RECRUITMENT

As we discuss about selection, we also need to know about another term that
is recruitment. Recruitment can be explained as process that involves
developing a pool of applicants who possess necessary qualification as per
the requirement of the job position and these applicants are interested in
working for the organisation and the organisation may select certain
individuals from this pool of applicants. Thus, recruitment is a process that
precedes selection.

Recruitment can be internal or external.

In internal recruitment, the organisation looks within the organisation for

suitable candidates for certain job positions. Internal recruitment can be
carried out through job postings, recommendations by immediate supervisor
and so on.

In external recruitment, the organisations looks outside the organisation for

suitable candidates. Some of the methods for external recruitment include
advertisements, employment agencies, college, university or institute
placements, electronic recruitment, recruitment with the use of social media.

Aswathappa (2015, page 221) defined selection as “ the process of

differentiating between applicants in order to identify and hire those with a
greater likelihood of success in a job”.
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 Selection
Bohlander and Snell (2013) defined selection as a process that involves
choosing individuals who possess relevant and necessary qualification so that
the present or projected job openings can be filled.

DeNisi et al (2014, page 107) stated that selection “is concerned with identifying the
best candidate or candidates for a job from among the pool of qualified qpplicants
developed during the recruiting process.

It is evident from the above definitions that selection is the process of

selecting the most appropriate candidates for the current position or for the
future position from a pool of candidates. For example, the skills and
abilities expected of a receptionist are different from those required of a
restaurant manager. In terms of their knowledge, skills, abilities, experience,
age and education, candidates often vary. Therefore, the purpose of the
assessment is to determine which candidate is ideally suited for a particular
position.

Check Your Progress I

1) What is selection?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

6.3 TECHNIQUES OF SELECTION

Let us start with question, how organisations select employee for jobs? We
will look at the different techniques and assessment processes of employees
to select employee decisions in suitable jobs. Throughout the debate, bear in
mind that the purpose is straight forward to try to collect information that will
predict who will be the best employee from the pool of candidates. You need
to ensure that your selection decision is the right one for your organisation
before we look at the following techniques.

1) Resume: The resume is one of the most popular tools candidates use to
provide background information. Resume, also called Curriculum Vitae
(CV) by some, vary in style and length. Curriculum Vitae is generally
used for senior positions. Candidates will be asked to have a Resume or
CV for positions, which helps them to set out their experience,
qualifications and achievements. Importantly, it also provides the
organisation with an early opportunity to screen the candidates before
heading to the next selection point. The resume or CV approach enables
the candidate to design her or his own format and to submit the details
they deem necessary in the manner they think is appropriate. One of the 85
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benefits of the resume or CV technique is that it is quicker and less
expensive because there is no delay in sending out via email or social
media an application form and avoiding the cost of the postage. Some
employers prefer to use the CV because it demonstrates the candidate's
ability to gather thoughts and communicate clearly. The disadvantage of
a CV is that it enables the candidate to build the application to inflate
their strengths and obscure or omit any weaknesses or concerns.

It is also the case that several copies may be printed out by some
professional candidates and submitted to organisations indiscriminately,
while the work involved in completing the application form will test
their resolve and hence their seriousness.

2) Interview: The interview involves interaction between individuals and

has been referred to as a "purposeful conversation." In simple word, an
interview seeks information about a candidate and clarifies information
from other sources. In-depth interview is intended to combine all the
information from resume, psychometric or eligibility tests and reference
checks in order to make a decision. The interview is the most serious
stage of the selection process in many conditions due to the requisite
investigation and the sensor capacity to face-to-face communication. The
purpose or objectives of the interview consist of three components:

a) The interviewer seeks sufficient information to assess the suitability

of the candidate for the available position.

b) The candidate obtains the necessary information to make an

intelligent decision about accepting employment if offered; and

c) The interviewer tries to perform the interview in such a way that the
candidate can continue to have respect and goodwill towards the
organisation, regardless of the outcome of the interview.

As you may know from your own experience, there are several ways to
conduct interviews.

 Structured interview: The structured interview needs more

preparation time since questions that answer the particular work
requirements must be formulated in advance, information must be
given about the skills and qualifications being sought, examples of
the experience of the candidate must be gathered and the ability or
motivation of the candidate to do the job must be determined. An
interviewer in a structured format would ask the same essential
questions to all candidates.

 Unstructured interview: The unstructured interview requires little

preparation because the goals for selection may be unclear or vague,
questions are not prepared in advance and often the interviewer does
more talking than the candidates does.
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 Selection
 Telephone interviews: The interview takes place over the telephone
or cell phone. These, particularly for screening purposes, are
relatively common.

 One to one interviews: Only one person (usually from HR manager

or owner of the startup) interviews the candidate in a face-to-face
setting. For several years, this has been the traditional format for
interviews, but the objectivity of one person making the selection
decision has been called into questions and the panel interview has
been initiated.

 Panel interviews: A panel interviews a candidate. A delegate from

HR and the future manager are usually included in panel interviews.
However, depending on the industry and the place in question, there
can be as many as seven or eight panel members. More senior
positions with usually have more panel members.

 Virtual interviews : Virtual interviews are very popular nowadays.

It is a type of interview in which the interview is conducted using
technology. This can be in real time, where the interview takes place
just like a regular interview at a preferred date and time, except the
interviewer and interviewee can be in two different places, different
countries or in different continent. This is seen as a cost-effective
way to perform an interview.

Web-based "in-person" interview use is rising with tablet video

functionality and Skype; in recent years, an estimated number of
candidates have taken such interviews. Of course, such interviews
decrease travel and recruitment expenses. In response to
computerized oral, visual or written questions and/or circumstances,
a computerized selection interview is one in which the oral or keyed
replies of a job candidate are collected. Most of these interviews
present a variety of multiple-choice questions relating to
background, experience, education, expertise, skills and attitudes to
work.

For example, It might be feasible to hold a virtual interview if you

are applying for a job in Bengaluru. Instead of having an interview,
you fly to Bengaluru from your place. This helps the Bengaluru
interviewer to see you, and you can see the interviewer. Finally, a
two-way system that allows you to interact with the other person as
though you were in the same room is a virtual interview.

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Fig. 6.1: Virtual Interview

Let us now look into some of the strengths and weakness of the interview
technique

Strengths of interview: Strengths of interview are

 They are useful in evaluating the candidate's ability to communicate
and interact with other people.
 There is a possibility of collecting additional information from the
candidates.
 The interviewer can judge the candidate’s knowledge of the job.
 Interviewers allow candidates to ask organizational and job-related
questions.

Weaknesses of interview: Weaknesses of interview are

 The information obtained through the interview is not reliable.
 An interview is subjective.
 An interview can be influenced by bias or stereotypes.
 An interview procedure is not standardised.

3) Psychometric testing: One of the oldest, and perhaps most challenging,

selection methods is psychological testing. The concept most commonly
used to encompass all aspects of psychological assessment is
psychometric testing.

Literally,' psychometric' means mental measurement. The psychometric

test is a standardized test, administered in examination like settings,
aimed at objectively assessing the skill or aspects of a employ’s
personality. For selection and other human resource purposes, online
testing is also often used nowadays.

This is known as e-evaluation. Online testing is claimed to give

organisations the freedom to test at any time and any location in the
world, with the added advantage of being able to easily process the
application. The following distinctions can be made between various
forms of test.

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 Selection
 Ability and aptitude measures: Ability and aptitude tests assess
overall reasoning or particular ability/aptitude components, such as
abstract or mechanical, numerical and verbal skills. Various tests are
also developed to address various groups, such as technician,
professionals or administrative levels.For example, a numerical skill
test would be suitable for a statistician position that involves dealing
with numerical data. A diagrammatic reasoning test that looks at the
ability to understand logical processes might be suitable for a
software engineer.

 Personality assessment: In the past decade, there has been a

growing interest and study in using personality assessment in the
sense of selection (Morgeson et al., 2007). Personality assessment
attempts to measure the traits of personality in which a person lies.
Inferences can then be made about the possible behaviours and
responses of a person to specific situations. To match the right
candidate with the right jobs, it is important to understand how
personality affects behaviour and performance at workplace.

Various advantages may be provided through the use of personality

assessment in selection. The use of personality assessment in
selection can offer various benefits. Allowing an applicant to
provide his or her own perspective may reveal potential areas to
explore during an interview.

Let us now look into some of the strengths and weakness of the
Psychometric Testing techniques

Strengths of psychometric testing: The strengths of psychometric

testing are
 It is specific and relevant.
 At any point of selection, psychometric testing may be used.
 Highly cost and time saving
Weakness of psychometric testing: The weaknesses of psychometric
testing are
 May make a candidate nervous.
 Cultural barriers exist.
 Tests for personality can be time consuming and costly to
administer.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the advantages of psychometric testing.

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………
89
Human Resource
Practices 6.4 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE SELECTION
This section is about barriers to effective selection process. We have
discussed so far about the main objective of the selection is to select the most
suitable candidate for the position from a pool of candidates. In the selection
highlighted next, some common barriers were identified.

 Horns or Hallow effect: The interviewer must attempt to avoid the hallo
effect, which occurs when interviewer allows a prominent characteristic
to overshadow other evidence. The hallo effect is present if an
interviewer lets a candidate’s accomplishments in athletics overshadow
other characteristics, which leads the interviewer to hire the candidate
because “ athletes make good medical sales representative ” Devil’s
horns( reverse halo effect ) for instance improper dress or a poor grade
point average, can also affect an interviewer.

 Stereotypes: Stereotypes are prejudices or beliefs regarding the

characteristics of individuals in a particular group of people, who are
considered to share the same attributes. When HR manager stereotypes
the applicant, this can negative affect the outcome of the decision for the
candidate. For example, People who are obese can be referred to as idle
or Illiterates can be perceived to be less intelligent than literates.
Alternatively, the interviewer can keep a stereotyped image of the correct
candidate and judge all candidates against that image.

 Projection error: The HR manager ranks candidates more favourably

with characteristics, expertise or preferences similar to the other
candidates themselves. Also, the reverse is true.

 Biases: They must be able to understand their personal prejudices by the

human resource manager. Interviewers tend to prefer or select candidates
that they consider to be equal to themselves. Age, race, religion, gender,
socio economic status, previous job experience, personal history or other
variables may be identical. As the demographics of the workforce
change, interviewers will need to be even more conscious of the
similarity bias.

The selection of a candidate who falls below the requirements and the
rejection of a candidate who meets the standards suggest that a selection
decision may have been affected by personal bias. The reasons for choosing a
particular candidate should be regarded honestly by an interviewer. The
solution to the problem of partiality lies not in the affirmation that a person
does not have partiality, but in the demonstration that she/he can be
controlled.

Problem relating to test: Psychometric tests and questionnaires, most of

which are not valid, overwhelm the field of psychometric assessments. An
organisation must ensure that it has qualified psychologist who are able to
90 differentiate between valid assessments and incompetent ones. As we know
 Selection
that, Standard psychometric test is readily accessible, and before appearing
for the assessment, there's a great likelihood that a candidate who wants the
job will do their homework. To carry out the outcomes desired by the
organisation, they will change their answers, misleading the whole
experience for those concerned.

Problem related to recruitment process: Owing to inadequate recruiting

initiatives, selection procedures are often affected. If the employer does not
attract eligible candidates (in the recruiting process), it is clear that the right
candidates will not be chosen (in selection process). Therefore, inadequate
recruiting would certainly affect selection.

Check Your Progress III

1) What are stereotypes?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

BOX 6.2 PLACEMENT

Earlier in box 6.1, we discussed about recruitment that precedes selection.

Placement is a process that follows selection. After selection of the
candidates take place, the candidates are then places in job positions.
Aswathappa) 2015, page 244) defined placement as allocation of people to
jobs”. He further stated that placement includes “initial assignment of new
employees, promotion, transfer or demotion of present employees”.

6.5 LET US SUM UP

In the present Unit, we learned about the meaning of selection, the term
selection defined and explained in detail. Techniques (Resume, Interview and
Testing) of selection also discussed in detail. Barriers to effective selection
process were also discussed in detail.

6.6 REFERENCES
Aamodt, M.G. (2013). Industrial Psychology, New Delhi: Cengage Learning
India Private ltd.

Aswathappa, A. (2002) Human Resource and Personnel Management: New

Delhi: Tata McGraw.

Aswathappa, A. (2015) Human Resource and Personnel Management: New

Delhi: McGraw Hill Publication.
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Bohlander, G. W and Snell, S. A. (2013). Principles of Human Resource
Management. New Delhi: Cengage Learning.

Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job and Work
Analysis: Methods, research, and applications for human resources
management. 2nd ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Bratton, J and Gold, J(2017) Human Resource Management, Theory and

Practice, 6ed, London: PALGRAVE, Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Dale Yoder (1967) Personnel Management and Industrial Relations, Prentice

Hall of India, New Delhi.

DeNisi, A. S; Griffin, R. W and Sarkar, A. (2014). HR: A South- Asian

Perspective. New Delhi: Cengage Learning.

Dessler, G(2016) Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, London:

Pearson Education Limited.

Flangan, J. C.(1954)the critical incident technique, Psychological Bulletin,

51, 327-358.

Foster, J, Gaddis, B & Hogan, J. (2012). Personality based job analysis . In

M.A. Wilson, W. Bennett G. G.

Gary, D & Biju, V.(2009) Human Resource Management, Pearson

Education, Dorling Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi

H. Koontz and C.O’Donnell (1972)-Principles of Management, McGraw

Hill, New Delhi, P418.

Mathis, R. L and Jackson, J. H(2000) Human Resource Management, 9ed.,

Ohio: south –Western college Publishing

McCormick , E. J. Jenneret, P. R. & Mecham, R. C.(1972) A study of job

characteristics and job dimensions as based on the position analysis
qustionnare(PAQ), Journal of Applied Psychology, 56, 647-368.

McCormick, J. E & Daniel , I(1983) Industrial Psychology, London: George

Allen and Unwin.

Mckenna, E(2012) Business Psychology and Organsational Behaviour, 5 Ed.,

New York: Taylor & Francis.

Miner, J. B. (1992) Industrial Organisational Psychology, Singapore:

McGraw-Hill International Editions.

Mondy, RW & Noe, RM. (1996) Human Resource Management, 6 Ed., New
Jersey: Prentice –Hall

Morgeson, F.P.Campion, M.A., Dipboye, R.L. Hollenbeck, J. R., Murphy, K

and Schmitt, N(2007). Are we getting fooledagain? Coming to terms with

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limitations in the use of personality test for personnel selection, personnel
psychology, 60:1029-49.

Primoff, E. S & Eyde, L. D(1988). Job element method . In S. Gael(Ed.), The

job analysis handbook for business, industry and government(pp. 807-824)
New York: John Wiley.

Riggio, R. E (2018) Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational Psychology,

New York: Routledge

Robbins, S.P. and Decenzo, D.A. (2002)Fundamental of Management,

Pearson education, Delhi.

Robbins, SP & De Cenzo, DA(1995). Fundamental of Management:

Essential concept and Applications. New Jersey: Prntice –Hall

Shanan, & G.M. Alliger(Eds.) The handbook of work analysis methods,

system, applications and science of work measurement in organisations ,
New York: Taylor & Francis.

Steptoe, G, W.(2014). Occupational Psychology, An applied Approach,

Pearson Education, Dorling Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi

Thomas, S. Stone(1989), Understanding Personnel Management, CBS

collage Publishing.

Zemke, R & Kralinger, T(1982). Figuring things out: A trainer’s guide to

needs and task analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

6.7 KEY WORDS

Selection: Selection is the process of selecting the most appropriate
candidates for the current position or for the future position from a pool of
candidates.

Interview: It involves interaction between individuals and has been referred

to as a "purposeful conversation."

Resume: It is one of the most popular tools candidates use to provide

background information.

Stereotypes: Stereotypes are prejudices or beliefs regarding the

characteristics of individuals in a particular group of people.

93
Human Resource
Practices 6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress I

1) What is selection?

Selection can be explained as a process of differentiation between

candidates to identify (and employ) those who have a greater probability
of success in a job. (Thomas S. Stone, 1989).

Check Your Progress II

1) State the strengths of psychometric testing.

The strengths of psychometric testing are:
 It is specific and relevant.
 At any point of selection, psychometric testing may be used.
 Highly cost and time saving

Check Your Progress III

1) What are stereotypes?

 Stereotypes are prejudices or beliefs regarding the characteristics of

individuals in a particular group of people, who are considered to
share the same attributes.

6.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss in brief what you understand by selection.
2) Describe various techniques of selection.
3) Distinguish between structure and unstructured interview.
4) Explain the various barriers of selection.

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 Training and
UNIT 7 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT* Development

Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Meaning and Nature of Training and Development
7.2.1 Concepts of Training and Development

7.2.2 Importance of Training and Development

7.2.3 Need for Training and Development

7.3 Process of Training and Development
7.4 Methods of Training and Development
7.4.1 Cognitive Methods

7.4.2 Behavioural Methods

7.4.3 On-The-Job and Off-The-Job Training

7.4.4 Computer Based Training

7.4.5 Training and Development Techniques

7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 References
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.11 Unit End Questions

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading the unit, you should be able to:
 discuss themeaning and nature of training and development;
 explain the process of training and development; and
 discuss various methods of training.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Human resource and manpower is thought of as the total knowledge, skills,
creative abilities, talents and aptitudes of an organisation’s workforce, as well
as the values, attitudes and benefits of an individual involved. An
organisation’s performance and productivity are directly related to the quality
and quantity of its human resources.

To maintain the quality of human resource i.e. to perform its activities well,
every organisation needs to have well trained and experienced people. As the

*
Dr. Renuka Regani, Faculty, Department of Psychology, Osmania University, Hyderabad.
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employment in the fast growing present society becomes more complex the
importance of training and development also increases. In this unit we will be
dealing with training and development which are to enhance the skills and
knowledge of the human resources in an organisation. In fact training and
development will cover a large number of areas in terms of definitions, need
for training and development and functions of such training and
development. It also deals with types of training and techniques of training.

7.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT
In the present sub section of the unit, we will discuss about the concepts of
training and development and will also focus on the importance and need for
training and development.

7.2.1 Concepts of Training and Development

Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for
performing the job assigned to him. It is a short-term process. After an
employee is selected, placed and introduced in an organisation he must be
provided with training facilities so that he can perform his job efficiently and
effectively.

Development is a long-term educational process utilising an organised and

systematic procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and
theoretical knowledge for general purpose. It covers not only those activities
which improve job performance but also those activities which improves the
personality of an employee.

Training is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge,

sharpening of skills, concepts, rules or changing of attitudes and behaviours
to enhance the performance of employees.

Training knows how to reach what you want in life. It knows how to get
where you want to go. Training is having the knowledge to do what you are
dream of doing. It is a vision which one wants to achieve. Training is about
knowing where you stand at present and where you will be after some point
of time. Training is about the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities
through professional development.

Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behaviour. It is

the short term process which refers to instructions in technical and
mechanical operations.

Development is a related process which covers not only those activities

which improve job performance but also those which bring about personality
development, progress and actualisation of their potential capacities. It is a
long term educational process through which managerial personnel learn
conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose.
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 Training and
Training and development aids in organisational development, that is, Development
organisation gets more effective decision making and problem solving. It
helps in understanding and carrying out organisational policies. Training and
development helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, better
attitudes, and other aspects that successful workers and managers usually
display. Training and development demonstrates a commitment to keeping
employees on the cutting edge of knowledge and practice.

Understanding the phenomenon of employee training and development

requires understanding of all the changes that take place as a result of
learning. As the generator of new knowledge, employee training and
development is placed within a broader strategic context of human resources
management, that is, global organisational management, as a planned staff
education and development, both individual and group, with the goal to
benefit both the organisation and employees. Employee training and
development and the learning organisation increase competitive advantage,
the organisation needs to be able to create new knowledge, and not only to
rely solely on utilisation of the existing. Thus, the continuous employee
training and development has a significant role in the development of
individual and organisational performance. The strategic procedure of
employee training and development needs to encourage creativity, ensure
inventiveness and shape the entire organisational knowledge that provides the
organisation with uniqueness and differentiates it from the others.

Education is no longer the duty and privilege of those in higher positions and
skilled labour, but it is becoming the duty and need of everyone. The larger
the organisations, the more funds they spend on education and provide their
employees with greater and diverse possibilities of education and
development. Understanding the tremendous significance of education for the
modern organisation and confident that it represents a good and remunerative
investment, present day organisations set aside more and more resources for
this activity. Most of the organisations invest 3 to 5% of their revenue into
adult education. It is estimated that the organisations that desire to keep the
pace with changes need to provide their employees with 2% of total annual
fund of working hours for training and education. Thus, it is necessary to
accept the model of permanent, continuous learning. That truth has been
known for more than two centuries. Denis Diderot, a French philosopher and
literate of the Age of Enlightenment, wrote the following:

‘Education shouldn’t be finished when an individual leaves school, it should

encompass all the ages of life...to provide people in every moment of their
life with a possibility to maintain their knowledge or to obtain new
knowledge”.

The only way for present day organisations to survive is the imperative to
innovate or perish. Since this depends on the knowledge the organisation
possesses, this imperative could be read as: learn faster than competition. The
logical sequence is: knowledge creation – innovation – competitive 97
Human Resource
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advantage. If knowledge is good, is it not true that the more knowledge we
have, the better we are? Many organisations which consider knowledge as a
good thing are trapped into the pitfall of gathering as much knowledge as
possible.

Knowledge that is not necessary is exactly what it is: unnecessary. And the
efforts to obtain it are wasted efforts. The only important knowledge is the
knowledge with strategic importance to the company, knowledge that helps
to increase the value of the company, knowledge with significance to the
strategy of the company.

It is not about knowledge for the sake of knowledge, but rather knowledge
according to the needs, applicable knowledge, knowledge to create
innovation and competitive advantage.

Obtaining knowledge, learning, education, all could have a real effect on the
quality of labour only if they are harmonised with the needs of a particular
organisation, its goals and the goals of its employees. The further choice of
educational contents and educational methods, and the efficiency of
educational effectiveness control depend on clearly defined educational goals
and needs, answers to the questions of which knowledge is necessary to
realise the strategy and the survival of the organisation in general, which
employees need to possess this knowledge and will this knowledge solve
certain problems.

Employee training and development does not imply only obtaining new
knowledge, abilities and skills, but also the possibility to promote
entrepreneurship, introduce employees to changes, encourage the changes of
their attitude, introduce the employees to important business decisions and
involve them actively in the process of decision making. To precisely define
expectations and attract skilled workforce, more and more employment
advertisings offer a certain number of annual hours or days for education.
The most wanted resources are the people with particular knowledge, skills
and abilities. Managers must learn to manage them, and the organisations to
employ and retain them. Knowledge based organisations must preserve their
competitive advantage by retaining skilled workforce, workers of knowledge,
strengthening their motivation and improving the reward and compensation
systems according to the workers’ performances.

Within the context of learning organisation, it is not sufficient for the worker
only to add value to the organisation based on his knowledge, but he also has
to receive knowledge. He gives as much knowledge as he receives. For the
present day employees the wage by itself is not a sufficient incentive, but
they also need investment into themselves in a sense of investing in their
knowledge. Employees no longer do not work for money alone, nor can they
be influenced by traditional attractive financial packages.

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7.2.2 Importance of Training and Development Development

let us now look at the importance of training and development with the help
of the following points:

1) It optimises human resource utilisation: Training and development

helps in optimising the utilisation of human resource that further helps
the employee to achieve the organisational goals as well as their
individual goals. It also helps to provide an opportunity and broad
structure for thedevelopment of human resources technical and
behavioural skills in an organisation. It also helps employees attain their
personal growth. It also helps in increasing the job knowledge and skills
of employees at each level. It helps to expand the horizons of human
intellect and an overall personality of the employees.

2) Productivity: Training and development helps in increasing the

productivity of the employees that helps the organisation further to
achieve its long-term goal.

3) Team spirit: Training and development helps in inculcating the sense of

team work, team spirit, and inter-team collaborations. It helps in
inculcating the zeal to learn within the employees.

4) Organisation culture: Training and development helps to develop and

improve the organisational health culture and effectiveness. It helps in
creating the learning culture within the organisation.

5) Organisation climate: Training and development helps building the

positive perception and feeling about the organisation. The employees
get these feelings from leaders, subordinates, and peers.

6) Quality: Training and development helps in improving upon the quality

of work and work-life.

7) Healthy work environment: Training and development helps in

creating the healthy working environment. It helps to build good
employee, relationship so that individual goals aligns with organisational
goal.

8) Health and safety: Training and development helps in improving the

health and safety of the organisation thus preventing obsolescence.

9) Morale: Training and development helps in improving the morale of the

work force.

10) Image: Training and development helps in creating a better corporate

image.

11) Profitability: Training and development leads to improved profitability

and more positive attitudes towards profit orientation.

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7.2.3 Need for Training and Development
The need for training and development is because of the following reasons:

1) An increased use of new technology: in the present modern

organisations advanced technology has come into use such as computers
and equipment which need technological knowledge. To be familiar with
this kind of advanced technology employees need to be trained.

1) To give refresher training for old employees: Employees are given

refresher course which consists of issues of current scenario. By updating
old employees about latest technology or present situations helps the
organisations a great deal.

2) To make the employees work in an effective way: An employee can

work effectively if his/her skills are matching with the requirements of
the organisations. When a gap is found between employee skills and
organisational needs training can help to remove it.

3) Organisational viability and transformation process: The capability

of the organisation is influenced by the external pressures and the
external environment is continuously changing. Therefore the
organisation should train its employees to adapt to the changing external
environment.

4) To increase productivity and quality: The productivity and quality of

the organisation is increased when employees are up to date and skilful.

5) To improve health and safety: Most of the accidents in an organisation

occur because of the deficient skills of the employee. When proper
training is given to the employee to handle the equipment and machine in
organisation accidents are reduced.

Check Your Progress I

1) State any one need of training and development.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

7.3 PROCESS OF TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT
As the concept of training is clear, let us look at the process if training and
development. The main components of the process if training and
development include the following:
 Assessment of training and development needs
 Designing training and development programmes.
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  Implementation of the training and development programmes. Training and
Development
 Evaluation of the training and development programmes

We have discussed these in the following sub-sections:

 Assessment of Training and Development Needs

The success of training depends on the systematic needs assessment

programme. Needs assessment finds out which employee needs to be trained
and for what purpose they are trained. Therefore assessment phase sets the
objectives for the purpose of training and the competencies required in
trainees after completion of the training program.

The basis for needs assessment and source for gathering information and
depend mainly on purpose of training. And the need for training and
development can be identified based on the following:

1) Performance deficiency: When the purpose of training is to develop

employees’ performance in their present job, then the trainer looks at the
present performance and identifies the performance deficiency or the
areas where there can be a development. Sources of information here are
supervisors, client’s complaints, performance appraisal data objective
measures of output or quality and special tests given to find out the
present knowledge and skill of the employee.

2) Individual or group interviews: These interviews are used to

understand performance discrepancies and perceived training needs.
They are helpful for anticipating future training needs, for prioritising
training demands, or for ambiguous situations. The sources to gather
information here includes supervisors, the trainees themselves and
clients.

3) Assessment centres: This method is used when training is planned for

current employees who are going for a promotion or transfer. The trainer
will measure the demands of the future job and also assess if the ability
of the employees to meet those demands. This is done by tests or
supervisory ratings of relevant abilities.

4) Trainings for new employees: For new entrées training is designed

based on analysis of job content and assumed characteristics of
employees. The sources of collecting information here is scores on a job
knowledge selection test given to applicants for the job.

The success of training depends on the systematic needs assessment

programme. Needs assessment finds out which employee needs to be
trained and for what purpose they are trained. Therefore assessment
phase sets the objectives for the purpose of training and the competencies
required in trainees after completion of the training program.

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5) Individual analysis: The individual analysis attempts to determine
which employees should receive training and what their current levels of
skills and knowledge are. This can be done on an individual basis or on
the entire work group with a specific job title. The trainer should keep in
mind that that training should not be too simple or too complex.
Attention must be focused on the prerequisites of basic skills as well as
on existing job related skills and knowledge. Further, if individual
analysis indicates a wide range of trainee skills and knowledge, the
trainer can group employees into remedial groups and advanced groups
and choose a training method that allows for self paced training or
individualised instruction. This kind of variance should be recognised
and planned before the training begins so that all trainees can have an
appropriate and satisfying learning experience.

 Designing training and development programmes.

Once the need for training and development is assessed, it is time to design
the training and development programmes. In this context, the following
needs to be decided

- The participants of the programme: The participants of the training

programme can be identified based on recommendations by various
departments in the organisation or by immediate supervisors of the
employees, by self nomination or they can also be determined by the
Human Resource Management (HRM) department of the organisation.

- Who will carry out or implement thr programme: The trainers who
will be involved in providing the training programme, also need to be
identified. These could be the experts from within or outside the
organisation, members of HRM department immediate supervisors, other
employees in the organisation and so on.

- The methods and techniques that will be used: This is again an

important component of process of designing training and development
and will mainly depend on the objectives of the training. This will be
discussed in separate section in this unit.

- The level of training to be decided: The level of the training also needs
to be determined. Training programs can be at three different levels
(Aswathappa , 2015):

1) The first level is the lowest level and includes proving fundamental
knowledge or skills.

2) The next level mainly focuses on acquisition of ability to perform certain

work related activities and development of skills.

3) The last level can be termed as highest level, which focuses on

increasing operational proficiency.
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 - Learning principles to be employed: The training and
Training and
Development
development programmes need to focus in learning principles like
motivation of the employees, recognition of individual differences.
opportunities to practice, reinforcement, feedback, goals, schedules
of learning, meaning of material and transfer of learning
(Aswathappa , 2015, page 284, 285).

- Where the programme is to be conducted: Where the training

programme will be conducted also needs to be determined. The
training programme can be on the job, at the workplace but in
training room or off the site in some institution, university or
organisation.

 Implementation of the training and development programmes

Once the training programme is designed, it needs to be implemented. In this

regard there could be a number of issues that may arise. It could be difficult
to organise the training programmes during work hours as significant amount
of work hours could be lost that can affect the production and performance of
the organisation. Employees may also show resistance towards training and
development programmes or they may have negative attitude towards the
training and development programmes. Finding suitable trainers could also
become an issue. These aspects need to be dealt with effectively to ensure
smooth implementation if a training programme. While implementing the
training and development programme, it is important to focus on the location
and other facilities required for successful conduction of the programme. the
schedule of the training programme needs to be adequately prepared. The
action conduction the programme needs to be monitored and supervised
besides, the focus also needs to be on the trainees and their participation in
the programme.

 Evaluation of the training and development programmes

The basis of evaluation and the mode of collection of information necessary

for evaluation should be determined at the planning stage. The process o
training evaluation has been defined as “any attempt to obtain information on
the effects of training performance and to assess the value of training in the
light of that information.

There are four reasons to evaluate training

 To make decisions about the future use of a training program or
technique (for example,: continue, modify, eliminate)
 To make decisions about individual trainees(e.g.: certify as competent,
provide additional training)
 To contribute to a scientific understanding of the training process, and

 To further political or public relations purposes (e.g.: to increase the

credibility and visibility of the training function by documenting success)
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The above reasons may be summarised as decision making, feedback and
marketing, the need for evaluation is also important to know the efficiency or
cost effectiveness of the training method.

The training and development programmes can be evaluated based on the

following:

 Validity of the training and development programme: This denotes

whether the trainees learn during the programme or not. Thus, denoting,
whether the objectives of the training and development programmes
were achieved or not.

 Transfer validity: Whether there was transfer of what was learned

during the training to on the job. Thus, the focus is on whether the
performance of the employee has improved or not.

 Intra- organisational validity: This is denoted by comparing the

performance of new group of employees who received the training with
that of the original training group.

 Inter-organisaional validity: Whether a training and development

programme that was validated in one organisation can be implemented
successfully in another organisation or not.

To carry out evaluation of training and development programmes, various

techniques can also be used like using a questionnaire to collect feedback
from the trainees, employee experimental group and control group, where the
experimental group will receive the training and control group will not and
then the two groups can be compared, longitudinal and time series analysis
can also be carried out where the measurements related to performance are
taken from the trainees before, during and after the training and development
programme.

There are four main levels of evaluation (Aswathappa , 2015) , that we need
to focus on.

1) Reaction: Denoting the reaction of the trainee towards the programme,

whether proactive or negative and so on. Reaction can be measured with
the help of questionnaires.

2) Learning: Whether learning has taken place and there is increase the
knowledge and skills level of the trainee. Learning can be measured with
the help of performance tests, written tests and so on.

3) Behaviour: This denotes whether modification in behaviour has taken

place or not. Whether the knowledge and skills learned during the
training and development programmes are used and implemented by the
trainee on the job or not. this can be measured with the help of
performance appraisal.

4) Results: Where there is an overall improvement in performance. The

104 focus here is on the outcome of the programme and its implications on
 Training and
the organisation or the unit. This can be measured by focusing the Development
productivity, quality, accidents, turnover, morale and so on.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the main components of the process of training and development

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

7.4 METHODS OF TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT
There are various methods of training, which can be divided in to cognitive
and behavioural methods. Trainers need to understand the pros and cons of
each method, also its impact on trainees keeping their background and skills
in mind before giving training.

7.4.1 Cognitive Methods

Cognitive methods are more of giving theoretical training to the trainees. The
various methods under Cognitive approach provide the rules for how to do
something, written or verbal information, demonstrate relationships among
concepts, etc. These methods are associated with changes in knowledge and
attitude by stimulating learning.

The various methods that come under cognitive approach are:

1) Lectures: A lecture can be in printed or oral form. Lecture is telling

someone about something. Lecture is given to enhance the knowledge of
listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic. Training is
basically incomplete without lecture. When the trainer begins the
training session by telling the aim, goal, agenda, processes, or methods
that will be used in training that means the trainer is using the lecture
method. It is difficult to imagine training without lecture format. There
are some variations in Lecture method. The variation here means that
some forms of lectures are interactive while some are not. In this context,
we can also discuss about straight lecture. Straight lecture method
consists of presenting information, which the trainee attempts to absorb.
In this method, the trainer speaks to a group about a topic. However, it
does not involve any kind of interaction between the trainer and the
trainees. A lecture may also take the form of printed text, such as books,
notes, etc. The difference between the straight lecture and the printed
material is the trainer’s intonation, control of speed, body language, and
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visual image of the trainer. The trainer in case of straight lecture can
decide to vary from the training script, based on the signals from the
trainees, whereas same material in print is restricted to what is printed.A
good lecture consists of introduction of the topic, purpose of the lecture,
and priorities and preferences of the order in which the topic will be
covered.

2) Demonstration: This method is a visual display of how something

works or how to do something. As an example, trainer shows the trainees
how to perform or how to do the tasks of the job. In order to be more
effective, demonstration method should be should be accompanied by
the discussion or lecture method. To carry out an effective
demonstration, a trainer first prepares the lesson plan by breaking the
task to be performed into smaller modules, easily learned parts. Then, the
trainer sequentially organises those modules and prepares an explanation
for why that part is required. While performing the demonstration,
trainer:

 Demonstrates the task by describing how to do, while doing

 Helps the focusing their attention on critical aspects of the task
 Tells the trainees what you will be doing so they understand what
you will be showing them
 Explains why it should be carried out in that way
 The difference between the lecture method and the demonstration
method is the level of involvement of the trainee. In the lecture
method, the more the trainee is involved, the more learning will
occur.

The financial costs that occur in the demonstration method are as

follows:
 Cost of training facility for the program
 Cost of materials that facilitate training
 Food, travel, lodging for the trainees and the trainers
 Compensation of time spent in training to trainers and trainees
 Cost related to creating content, material
 Cost related to the organisation of the training.

After completing the demonstration the trainer provide feedback, both

positive and or negative, give the trainee the opportunity to do the task
and describe what he is doing.

3) Discussions: This method uses a lecturer to provide the learners with

context that is supported, elaborated, explains, or expanded on through
interactions both among the trainees and between the trainer and the
trainees. The interaction and the communication between these two make
106 it much more effective and powerful than the lecture method. If the
 Training and
Discussion method is used with proper sequence i.e. lectures, followed Development
by discussion and questioning, can achieve higher level knowledge
objectives, such as problem solving and principle learning.

The Discussion method consists a two-way flow of communication i.e.

knowledge in the form of lecture is communicated to trainees, and then
understanding is conveyed back by trainees to trainer.

Understanding is conveyed in the form of verbal and non-verbal

feedback that enables the trainer to determine whether the material is
understood. If yes, then definitely it would help out the trainees to
implement it at their workplaces and if not, the trainer may need to spend
more time on that particular area by presenting the information again in a
different manner.

Questioning can be done by both ways i.e. the trainees and the trainer.
When the trainees ask questions, they explain their thinking about the
content of the lecture. A trainer who asks questions stimulates thinking
about the content of the lecture. Asking and responding questions are
beneficial to trainees because it enhance understanding and keep the
trainees focused on the content. Besides that, discussions, and
interactions allow the trainee to be actively engaged in the material of the
trainer. This activity helps in improving recall.

4) Computer Based Training (CBT): With the worldwide expansion of

companies and changing technologies, the demands for knowledge and
skilled employees have increased more than ever, which in turn, is
putting pressure on HR department to provide training at lower costs.
Many organisations are now implementing CBT as an alternative to
classroom based training to accomplish those goals.

Some of the benefits of computer based training are:

 Provides instructional consistency

 Reduces trainee learning time
 Increases access to training
 Affords privacy of learning
 Allows learning at individual pace
 Allows the trainee to master the learning
 Reduces the cost of training

5) Intelligent Tutorial System: This Intelligent Tutorial system uses

artificial intelligence to assist in training or tutoring the participants. This
system learns through trainee responses.

Features of Intelligent Tutorial Systems (ITS)

 It selects the appropriate level of instructions for the participants

 It guides the trainees
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Practices
 It also evaluates the training program
 It also improves the methodology for teaching the trainee based on
the information
 It is an interactive system
 It determines the trainee’s level of understanding

Intelligent Tutorial System (ITS) comprises of five components:

i) A domain expert also called the expert knowledge base

ii) A trainee model – stores the information on how the trainee is
performing during the training program
iii) A scenario generator
iv) A training session manager – interprets trainees responses and
responds either with tutoring, more content or information
v) A user interface – allows the trainee to communicate with the
Intelligent tutorial System

6) Programmed Instruction (PI): Programmed instruction is a Computer-

based training that comprises of graphics, multimedia, text that is
connected to one another and is stored in memory.

Programmed instruction is the procedure of guiding the participants

strategically through the information in a way that facilitates the most
effective and efficient learning. It provides the participant with content,
information, asks questions, and based on the answer goes to the next
level of information i.e. if the trainee gives the correct answer; one
branch moves the trainee forward to the new information. And if the
trainee gives the wrong answer then different branch is activated, taking
the trainee back to the review relevant information in more elaborate
manner.

This method allows the trainees to go through the content according to

the individual speed, and capability. Those trainees, who respond better,
move through the content rapidly.

Programmed Instruction also comes in

 Printed form i.e. books

 Tape
 Interactive Video
 Other formats

In programmed instruction, trainees receive information in substantial

amount and then tested on their retention of information. If the trainees
are not able to retain the information, they are referred back to the
original information. If the trainees retain the information, they are
108 referred to the next log of information.
 Training and
Some of the features of programmed instructions are: Development

 It provides immediate feedback to trainee response

 It frequently reviews the content
 It programs small learning steps that results in fewer response errors
 It allows trainees to move through the content at their own speed, or
capability
 It requires frequent active responses by the trainees

7) Virtual Reality: Virtual Reality is a training method that puts the

participant in 3-D environment. The three dimensional environment
stimulates situations and events that are experienced in the job. The
participant interacts with 3-D images to accomplish the training
objectives. This type of environment is created to give trainee the
impression of physical involvement in an environment. To experience
virtual reality, the trainee wears devices, like headset, gloves, treadmills,
etc.

Virtual Reality provides trainees with an understanding of the

consequences of their actions in the work environment by interpreting
and responding to the trainees’ actions through its accessories:

Headset: provides audio and visual information

Gloves: provides tactile information

Treadmills: is used for creating the sense of movement

Sensory devices: transmits how the trainees are responding in the virtual
workplace to the computer

This allows the virtual reality (VR) system to respond by changing the
environment appropriately.

Some of the features of Virtual Reality System are:

 It is poorly understood – requires technical understanding

 It is expensive
 It is time consuming
 It is flexible in nature
 It does not incur traveling, lodging, or food cost
 It requires excellent infrastructure

7.4.2 Behavioural Methods

Behavioural methods are more of giving practical training to the trainees. The
various methods under behavioural methods allow the trainee to behaviour in
a real fashion. These methods are best used for skill development.

The various methods that come under behavioural methods are:

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1) Games and simulations: Games and Simulations are structured and
sometimes unstructured, that are usually played for enjoyment
sometimes are used for training purposes as an educational tool. Training
games and simulations are different from work as they are designed to
reproduce or simulate events, circumstances, processes that take place in
trainees’ job.A training game is defined as spirited activity or exercise in
which trainees compete with each other according to the defined set of
rules.

Simulation is creating computer versions of real-life games. Simulation

is about imitating or making judgment or opining how events might
occur in a real situation.

It can entail intricate numerical modeming, role playing without the

support of technology, or combinations.

Training games and simulations are now seen as an effective tool for
training because its key components are challenge, rules and nteractivity.
These three components are quite essential when it comes to learning.
Some of the examples of this technique include business games, role
plays, in basket technique, equipment stimulators and case studies.

Trainees can therefore experience these events, processes, games in a

controlled setting where they can develop knowledge, skills, and
attitudes or can find out concepts that will improve their performance.

2) Behaviour modelling: Behaviour Modelling uses the innate inclination

for people to observe others to discover how to do something new. It is
more often used in combination with some other techniques.In this
method, some kind of process or behaviour is videotaped and then is
watched by the trainees. Games and simulation section is also included
because once the trainees see the videotape, they practice the behaviour
through role plays or other kind of simulation techniques. The trainee
firstobserves the behaviour modelled in the video and then reproduces
the behaviour on the job.The skills that are required to build up are
defined. A brief overview of the theory is then provided to the trainers.
Then, trainees are given instructions that what specific learning points or
critical behaviour they have to watch. Then the expert is used to model
the suitable behaviours. Then, the trainees are encouraged to practice the
suitable behaviour in a role play or through any other method of
simulation. Trainees are then provided with some opportunities to give
reinforcement for appropriate imitation of the model’s behaviour. In the
end, trainer ensures that trainees appropriately reinforces the behaviour
on the work place

Behaviour modeming focuses on developing behavioural and

interpersonal skills. This type of method can be used for training in

 Sales training
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  Interviewee training Training and
Development
 Interviewer training
 Safety training
 Interpersonal skills training

3) Business games: With the increase in globalisation and changing

technologies, many organisations are now moving from board games to
computer based simulations, using interactive multimedia (IM) and
virtual reality (VR).

Business games are the type of simulators that try to present the way an
industry, company, organisation, consultancy, or subunit of a company
functions. Basically, they are based on the set of rules, procedures, plans,
relationships, principles derived from the research. In the business
games, trainees are given some information that describes a particular
situation and are then asked to make decisions that will best suit in the
favour of the company. And then the system provides the feedback about
the impact of their decisions.

Again, on the basis of the feedback they are asked to make the decisions
again. This process continues until some meaningful results do not came
out or some predefined state of the organisation exists or a specified
number of trails are completed.

As an example, if the focus is on organisation’s financial state, the game

may end when the organisation reach at desirable or defined profitability
level.

Some of the benefits of the business games are:

 It develops leadership skills

 It improves application of total quality principles
 It develops skills in using quality tools
 It strengthen management skills
 It demonstrates principles and concepts
 It explores and solves complex problem Benefits of business games
 Leadership skills
 Management skills
 Quality tools
 Principles and concepts
 Total quality principles
 Solves complex problems

Many games and simulations examine the total organisation but only
some focus on the functional responsibilities of specific positions in an
organisation. Business games simulate whole organisation and provide
much better perspective than any other training methods. They allow
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trainees to see how their decisions and actions impact on the related
areas.

4) Case Studies: Case studies try to simulate decision making situation that
trainees may find at their work place. It reflects the situations and
complex problems faced by managers, staff, HR, CEO, etc. The
objective of the case study method is to get trainees to apply known
concepts and ideologies and ascertain new ones. The case study method
emphasise on approach to see a particular problem rather than a solution.
Their solutions are not as important as the understanding of advantages
and disadvantages.

The trainee is given with some written material, and the some complex
situations of a real or imaginary organisation. A case study may range
from 50 to 200 pages depending upon the problem of the organisation.
Case Study method focuses on:

 Building decision making skills

 Assessing and developing Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSAs)
 Developing communication and interpersonal skills
 Developing management skills
 Developing procedural and strategic knowledge

5) In Basket Technique: It provides trainees with a log of written text or

information and requests, such as memos, messages, and reports, which
would be handled by manger, engineer, reporting officer, or
administrator. In this technique, trainee is given some information about
the role to be played such as, description, responsibilities, general
context about the role.

The trainee is then given the log of materials that make up the in-basket
and asked to respond to materials within a particular time period.

After all the trainees complete in-basket, a discussion with the trainer
takes place.

In this discussion the trainee describes the justification for the decisions.

The trainer then provides feedback, reinforcing decisions made suitably

or encouraging the trainee to increase alternatives for those made
unsuitably.

A variation on the technique is to run multiple, simultaneous in baskets

in which each trainee receives a different but organised set of
information. It is important that trainees must communicate with each
other to accumulate the entire information required to make a suitable
decision.

This technique focuses on:

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  Building decision making skills Training and
Development
 Assess and develops Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSAs)
 Develops of communication and interpersonal skills
 Develops procedural knowledge
 Develops strategic knowledge

Benefits of this In Basket Technique

 Decision making skills

 Knowledge, skills and Attitudes
 Communication and interpersonal
 Strategic knowledge
 Procedural knowledge

6) Role Plays: Role play is a simulation in which each participant is given

a role to play. Trainees are given with some information related to
description of the role, concerns, objectives, responsibilities, emotions,
etc. Then, a general description of the situation, and the problem that
each one of them faces, is given. For instance, situation could be strike in
factory, managing conflict, two parties in conflict, scheduling vacation
days, etc. Once the participants read their role descriptions, they act out
their roles by interacting with one another. Role Plays helps in

 Developing interpersonal skills and communication skills

 Conflict resolution
 Group decision making
 Developing insight into one’s own behaviour and its impact on
others
 Developing interpersonal skills
 Conflict resolution
 Developing insights
 Group decision making

There are various types of role plays, such as:

a) Multiple role play: In this type of role play, all trainees are in groups,
with each group acting out the role play simultaneously. After the
role play, each group analyses the interactions and identifies the
learning points.

b) Single role play: One group of participants plays the role for the rest,
providing demonstrations of situation. Other participants observe the
role play, analyse their interactions with one another and learn from
the play.

c) Role rotation: It starts as a single role play. After the interaction of

participants, the trainer will stop the role play and discuss what
happened so far. Then the participants are asked to exchange
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characters. This method allows a variety of ways to approach the
roles.

d) Spontaneous role play: In this kind of role play, one of the trainees
plays herself while the other trainees play people with whom the
first participant interacted before.

Besides the methods of training and development programme, we also

need to focus on whether the programme is carried out on the job or off
the job.

7.4.3 On-The-Job and Off-The-Job Training

Another simple classification of training method is into two categories:
 On-the-job training methods
 Off-the-job training methods

Let us now discuss these

On-the-job training: These methods are more popular and most commonly
used method used both in basic skills training and in management training
and development. Under this method, the individual is placed on a regular job
and taught the skills necessary for that job. The trainee learns under the
supervision and guidance of a qualified worker or instructor. The
development of a employees abilities can take place on the job. The benefit
of on the job training is that the employee learns as he/ she is working on the
job, thus the work hours are not lost and the employee learns form his
immediate superiors or colleagues in a natural work setup. As such on the job
training does not involve much of a preparation and it is also cost effective.
Though, the disadvantage can be that there could be error and even accidents
(especially if machinery is involved) and this needs sto be taken care of.

On-the-job training can be systematically organised by

 Preparing the learner for the training, by explaining him/ her the
relevance of the training, putting him/ her at ease, cultivating interest
and so on.

 Presenting the operation, that is, by explaining quality and quantity

improvements, explaining each step to the employees, encouraging him/
her to work at slow pace, focusing on difficult parts of the work activity
and so on.

 Trying out can also be encouraged by helping the employee carry out the
job at a slow pace, leading to gradual increase in his/ her skills and
speed, providing feedback and so on.

 Following up with the employees after he/ she seems to have gained the
skills to carry out the job, gradually decreasing supervision but providing
help in case of any difficulty, provide positive feedback and
reinforcement when job is well done.
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This method includes the following: Development

 Job Rotation: In this type of training the trainees will shift from one job
to another. It enables the employees to gain knowledge and experience
from the trainers of the different job assignments. This method is
common for training managers for general management positions. It
facilitates the trainee to understand the problems of employees on the
other jobs.

 Coaching: The trainee employee will undergo training under a particular

coach or supervisor. This coach provides feedback for the trainees on
their performance and also gives suggestion for improvement. A
majordisadvantage of this method is the trainee may not have the
freedom or opportunity to express his own ideas.

 Job Instruction Technique (JIT): This is also known as step by step

training. Here the trainer explains the trainee the way of doing the jobs
and provides feedback to improve the performance of the trainee.

 Team assignments: In this method a group of trainees are given and

asked to solve an actual organisational problem. The problem is solved
jointly by the team of trainees. This method helps to develop team work.

Other techniques of on the job training include orientation, internship,

apprenticeship, mentoring, and so on.

Off-the-Job Training: In this method trainee is separated from the job and is
made to learn the information that is related to the job. Here the trainees are
not disturbed by the job requirements as in on the job training methods.
Therefore they can concentrate on the learning and get trained before starting
the job. The development of a employees abilities can take place off the job
or away from the actual work place of the employee. Off the job training is
effective when it may not be possible to provide on the job training to the
employees as the machinery and raw material involve is costly and there
cannot be any wastage and also the possibilities of any error or accidents
need to be nullified. When the training is held away from the workplace, the
employee is in better position to focus and can also receive exposure to
theoretical information and innovative ideas. Though, when training
programme is carried out off the job, extensive preparations need to be
carried out that involves investment of various resources including financial
investment. There is also loss of work hours during the period that the
employees are participating in the training. Though is effectively and
systematically planned, the benefits of an off the job training are long term.

The following methods are part of off-the-job training:

 Vestibule training: In this method the real work setting is simulated. The
files and equipment used in actual work situation are also used here.
Later the skills learned in the simulated setup are used in actual job.

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 The case method: Here the job situation is presented on the paper, and
the group of trainees identifies the problems and offer solutions. Here
trainees learn from each other and receive feedback on one another’s
performances.

 The incident method: This is similar to the case method. In this method
trainees only get know the outline of a particular incident. The trainees
have an interaction with the trainer and seek information on the incident
by asking questions. After seeking adequate information trainees attempt
to solve the problem. Later at the end of the session the trainer gives all
the information and trainees compare their solution based on the
complete information.

 Role playing: This method is the human interaction that involves

realistic behaviour in imaginary situations. The members play a role of
certain characters such as manager, supervisor, workers etc. this method
is mostly used for developing inter-personal interactions and relations.

 Experiential exercises: This technique incorporates elements of both

case study and role playing. Trainees examine their responses first as
individuals, then with the members of their own groups or teams, and
finally with larger group and with the trainer.

 Conference or discussions: This involves a group of people who give

ideas, examine and share information which help the trainee to improve
his job performance.

 Programmed Instruction: This is a popular method of recent times. In

this the subject matter which has to be learned is presented in a series of
carefully planned sequential units. These units are arranged from simple
to complex levels of instruction. The trainee goes through these units by
answering questions or filling the blanks.

The other techniques of off the job development aresensitivity training,

straight lectures/ lectures and so on.

7.4.4 Computer Based Training

In the present advanced technological society the medium of training is
shifting from classroom training towards learner centered, technology
mediated training that is Computer Based Training.

Computer Based Training is presentation of text, graphics, video, audio via

computer for the purpose of building job relevant knowledge and skill.
Common forms of CBT includes multimedia learning environments, intranet
and web- based instruction, e-learning, virtual reality training etc.

This method consists of two features: 1) Customisation: in which programs

can be adapted based on characteristics of the learners, and 2) learner control:

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 Training and
in which learners may modify the learning environment to suit their own Development
purposes.

Therefore CBT represents adaptive learning, its flexibility, and its potential
cost savings is making this method of training more popular.

7.4.5 Training and Development Techniques

Training and development techniques fall into three categories

1) Content techniques: to provide knowledge or information at cognitive

level i.e. information processing techniques

2) Process techniques: to change attitudes, develop self-awareness and

improve interpersonal skills. These are based on theoretical models of
learning and behaviour change. e.g.; roles play behavioural modification
and transactional analysis.

3) Mixed techniques: to provide both information-transmitting function

and an attitude change function, for example, conference, discussion,
simulation and on the job training.

Check Your Progress III

1) Explain in-basket training?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

7.5 LET US SUM UP

In the present unit, we discussed about the meaning and nature of training
and development. Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills
of an employee for performing the job assigned to him. It is a short-term
process. After an employee is selected, placed and introduced in an
organisation he must be provided with training facilities so that he can
perform his job efficiently and effectively. Development is a long-term
educational process utilising an organised and systematic procedure by which
managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general
purpose. It covers not only those activities which improve job performance
but also those activities which improves the personality of an employee.
Importance and need for training and development were also covered. The
unit further covered the main components of the process if training and
development including assessment of training and development needs,
designing training and development programmes, implementation of the
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training and development programmes and evaluation of the training and
development programmes. Cognitive and behavioural methods of training
and development were also covered. The unit lastly focused on on-the-job
and off-the-job training, computer based training and training and techniques.

7.6 REFERENCES
Armstrong M.(2006); A Handbook of Human Resource Management,
Practices 10th Edition; Kogan Page, London.

Aswathappa, K. (2015). Human resource management. New Delhi: McGraw

Hill Education.

Beaumont, P.B., Human Resource Management: Key Concepts and Skills,

Sage

Publications, London, 1993.

Birdwell,I. and Holden,L. (1994) Human Resource Management, A

Contemporary Perspective, New Delhi, Macmillan.

Bohlander, G. W. and Snell, S. A. (2013). Principles of Human Resoirce

Management. New Delhi: Cengage.

Cascio, W.F., Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work

Life, Profits, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1992.

DeNise, A. S; Griffin, R. W and Sarkar, A. (2014). HR: A South-Asian

Perspective. New Delhi: Cengage.

Fisher, Cynthia. D, Schoenfeldt , Lyle .F and Shaw .J, B., (2004) Human
Resource Management. 5th Edition, Indian Adaptation, New Delhi, Biztantra

Holiday, Marc. (2021). Employee Retention vs. Turober: Key Differences &
Why It Matters retrieved from
https://www.netsuite.com/portal/resource/articles/human-
resources/employee-retention-turnover.shtml.

Purcell J., Boxall P., Strategy and Human Resource Management, Palgrave,
Macmillan, New York, 2003.

Rao, T.V. and Others, HRD in the New Economic Environment, Tata
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New Delhi, 1994.

Werner, J. M and DeSimone, R. L. (2012). Human Resource Development.

New Delhi: Cengage.

7.7 KEY WORDS

Training: Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an
employee for performing the job assigned to him. It is a short-term process.
After an employee is selected, placed and introduced in an organisation he
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 Training and
must be provided with training facilities so that he can perform his job Development
efficiently and effectively.

Development: Development is a long-term educational process utilising an

organised and systematic procedure by which managerial personnel learn
conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose. It covers not only
those activities which improve job performance but also those activities
which improves the personality of an employee.

7.8 ANSWERS TO CHESK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) State any one need of training and development.

Training and development optimises human resource utilisation

Check Your Progress II

1) List the main components of the process if training and development

The main components of the process if training and development include

the following:
 Assessment of training and development needs
 Designing training and development programmes.
 Implementation of the training and development programmes.
 Evaluation of the training and development programmes

Check Your Progress III

1) Explain in-basket training?

In-basket training provides trainees with a log of written text or

information and requests, such as memos, messages, and reports, which
would be handled by manger, engineer, reporting officer, or
administrator.

7.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the meaning and nature of training and development.
2) Describe the process of training and development.
3) Discuss the cognitive methods of training and development.
4) Explain the behavioural methods of training and development.
5) Describe on-the-job and off-the-job training.

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Human Resource
Practices UNIT 8 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL *

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Meaning and Nature of Performance Appraisal
8.2.1 Benefits of Performance Appraisal

8.2.2 Constraints Experienced During Performance Appraisal

8.3 Process of Performance Appraisal
8.4 Methods of Performance Appraisals
8.4.1 Traditional Methods

8.4.2 Modern Methods

8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.6 References
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Answers to Check your Progress
8.9 Unit End Questions
8.10 Activity

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,
 describe the nature of performance appraisal;
 explain the process of performance appraisal; and
 describe the methods of performance appraisal.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Ms. Sheela was a Human Resource Manager in A2Z company and had an
intern named Yamini. Yamini was progressing well in her internship and had
some relevant questions to ask Sheela. Let us look at the questions that Yamin
had for Sheela.

Yamini: Maam, you have so far explained to me various functions of human

resource management. You also told me how important is human resource
development. I would like to know more about performance appraisal.

Ms. Sheela: Well Yamini, performance appraisal is one of the significant

function of a human resource management.

*
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, SOSS, IGNOU, Delhi
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 Performance Appraisal
Yamini: Yes maam, I think in performance appraisal, we assess or evaluate
the performance of the employees.

Ms. Sheela: Absolutely right Yamini.

Yamini: But Maam, why is it required?

Ms. Sheela: Well, many significant aspects like promotion, training and
development programmes, salary etc. could be decides based on performance
appraisal and therefore it is very important. Also the employee needs to know
or get a feedback about his/ her own performance so that it can be improved.

Yamini: Maam, performance appraisal seems relevant not only for the
employee, as he gets a feedback about his performance but it can also help
organisation in developing training and development programmes to
enhance the skills and knowledge of the employees.

Ms. Sheela: Absolutely right Yamini.

From the above conversation between Sheela and Yamini, you must have got
a little idea about what performance appraisal is. In the present unit, you will
get further idea about the nature of performance appraisal, its process and
methods.

8.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF PERFORMANCE

APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal refers to various procedures and methods that may be
used in order to evaluate the performance of an employee in an organization.
Aswathappa (2015, page 322) explained performance appraisal as “an
objective assessment of an individual’s performance against well defined
benchmark”. Denisi et al (2014) described performance appraisal as an
evaluation of an employees performance that is specific and formal in nature
and it is carried out in order to ascertain whether the job allotted to the
employee is being carried out by him/ her effectively.

Bohlander and Snell, 2013, page 322) defined performance appraisal as “the
result of an annual or biannual process in which a manger evaluates an
employee’s performance relative to the requirements of his/ her job and uses
the information to show the person where improvements are needed and
why”. Dessler (2013, page 284) stated that “performance appraisal means
evaluating an employees current and/or past performance relative to his or
her performance standards”.

We discussed some of the definitions of performance appraisal and it is clear

that performance appraisal involves evaluation or assessment of employees
performance. And in order to do so various methods could be used. The
process of performance appraisal is also objective in nature and is a formal
process. Based on the performance appraisal, the employees can be given
feedback about their performance. 121
Human Resource
Practices
Performance appraisal is relevant as it gives Human Resource (HR) manager
and the organisation about the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection
processes carried out by them. If the performance of employee is good, it can
be said that right candidate was selected. Further, significant decisions that
are taken by HR department like promotion, demotion, transfers, termination
and so on can be based on performance appraisal carried out in the
organisation. Performance appraisal also provides feedback to the employees
about his/ her performance and thus the employees and the organisation can
then work on the deficiencies displayed by the employees and based on the
strengths displayed by the employees, the employees can be assigned
significant roles and responsibilities.

Some of the objectives of performance appraisal can be listed as follows:

 To make decisions regarding promotions, demotions, termination etc.

 To ascertain and identify training and development needs.

 To make decisions regarding confirmation of employees after their

probation period.
 To make decisions regarding pay raise and incentives etc.

 To provide performance related feedback to the employees.

 To provide a channel of communication between the employee and

immediate superior(s), so that there can be discussions on organisational
as well as employees personal goals.

 To determine if the human resource management functions such as

recruitment, selection and placement have been effectively carried out.

Thus, performance appraisal can be used for developmental purpose,

administrative purpose (in decision making), organisational purpose and
documentation purpose (Aswathappa, 2015).

Performance management is a relevant term in the context of performance

appraisal. It can be explained as set of activities that an organisation carries
out in order to bring about a change or improvement in employee
performance. It can be said that one of the main goals of performance
appraisal is performance management.

Performance appraisal may be informal or formal. An informal performance

appraisal is one that is carried out on regular basis by the immediate
supervisor. This can be very effective as the immediate supervisor can keep
track of the performance of the employee on the regular basis and can report
any shortcomings. Also such an appraisal is cost effective and the feedback is
instantly received by the employee with regard to his performance. On the
other hand formal performance appraisal is carried out the organization once
in six months or in a year depending on the policy, size and nature of the
organization. An elaborate procedure may be involved in this along with
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 Performance Appraisal
participant of a number of employees. A considerable financial investment is
also required. This kind of appraisal may be conducted by the human
resource department in the organization or by an external consultant or an
assessment centre.

8.2.1 Benefits of Performance Appraisal

The benefits of performance appraisal are as follows:

1) The employee becomes better aware about his/her own self, about his/
her performance, strengths and weaknesses. Necessary steps or measure
can then be taken by him/ her in order to enhance the strengths and deal
with weaknesses.

2) The employee also develops a better understanding of his/ her role in the
organization and the expectations from him/ her. Thus he/ she can plan
about the ways these expectations may be met.

3) Performance appraisal can lead to high motivation, better job satisfaction

and self concept.

4) It also provides the employees and their immediate supervisors an

opportunity to discuss the work related problems and ways to overcome
them.

5) It also provides a platform for the employees to express and discuss their
aspiration and career goals.

6) The organisations benefit from performance appraisal as they can

identify the strengths and weaknesses of their employees. And on the
basis of performance appraisal results decision may be taken with regard
to promotions, demotions and transfers in the organization.

7) Suitable training and career development programmes can be organized

by the human resource department based on the results of the
performance appraisal.

8) With suitable feedback conveyed to the employees, the result of

performance appraisal can be improved performance in the organization.

8.2.3 Constraints Experienced during Performance

Appraisal
We discussed about the benefits of performance appraisal and realise how its
is an important aspect of any organization. One of the most important
functions of training and development may be based on the results of the
performance appraisal. However care has to be taken with regard to
implementation of performance appraisal as certain constraints may be faced
while doing so. The constraints face may be discussed as follows:

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1) Negative organizational culture that does not value performance
appraisal and does not suitable promote giving and receiving of
feedback. A negative attitude towards performance appraisals may be as
a result of unfair performance appraisal in the past or due to lack of
seriousness about the process on the part of the management.

2) Lack of willingness on the part of the employees may also lead to failure
of the performance appraisal process. An employee may worry about
negative feedback and criticisms that he/ she may receive as a result of
performance appraisal and hence will resist the whole process or will not
commit to it thoroughly.

3) Apprehensions about the use of performance appraisal outcomes. Many

employees may resist performance appraisal because they are worried
about the outcome. They may feel that on the basis of the appraisal they
may be demoted or may loose the job.

4) Lack of proper procedure in implementation of performance appraisal

will also interfere with whole process. Adequate planning is required at
the same time fair means are to be adopted while the appraisal is
conducted.

5) Role and goal ambiguity are other aspects that may lead to failure of
performance appraisal. In order for an employee to perform, he/she
should have clear idea about the role they have to play and about the
goals they have to achieve. Only then can the performance appraisal will
effectively measure the performance of theemployee.

6) Lack of linkage between performance appraisal and the reward system

can also lead to failure of performance appraisal. It is important that
there is a link between the performance appraisal and reward system. As
per the level of performance of the employee he/ she should be
adequately rewarded. In absence of such a link, performance appraisal is
meaning less and will fail to motivate employees to achieve their set
goals.

7) Low motivation to perform at the same to participate in the performance

appraisal process is another reason that contributes to an unsuccessful
performance appraisal.

Check Your Progress I

1) What is performance appraisal?

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….
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 Performance Appraisal
8.3 PROCESS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
The process of performance appraisal can be described as follows:

Stage 1 Selection of performance factors and setting of the standards to

be achieved: In order for an employee to perform he/ she should first have
clear idea about the goals and objectives that he/ she has to achieve. Thus the
employees should not only be aware about the goals he/ she has to achieved
but should also be informed about the necessary performance factors and
standards to be achieved by them.

Stage 2 Setting the period for performance appraisal: The period during
which the whole process of performance appraisal shall take place has to be
notified. This will not only help the appraiser plan ahead of time. But the
employees will be prepared for the process of appraisal.

Stage 3 Selecting the method for performance appraisal setting the stage
for performance appraisal to be carried out: we will discuss various
methods of performance appraisal later in this unit. One or more of these
methods have to be selected based on the size and nature of the
organizational and also the financial budget available for carrying out the
appraisal.

Stage 4 Measuring the performance of the employees: With all the above
preparation in place, the actual performance of the employee is then assessed
and recorded. Suitable instructions and training is also provided to the
appraisers

Stage 5 Communication of the results of performance appraisal or giving

feedback: The results obtained are then communicated to the employees in a
systematic manner.

Stage 6 Application of the results of performance appraisal: The results

are also further utilised to develop suitable intervention strategies.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the first stage in the process of performance appraisal.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

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Human Resource
Practices 8.4 METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
Varied method of performance appraisal can be utilized in an organizational
setup depending on the nature, financial status and size of the organization.
Mamoria, Gankar and Pareek (2004) various traditional and modern methods
of performance appraisal. These can be discussed as follows:

8.4.1 Traditional Methods

Let us discuss some of the traditional methods of performance appraisal.

1) Straight ranking method: This is one of the oldest and simplest

methods of performance appraisal. Under this method, all the employees
are compared with each other and ranked. The performance of an
employee is not considered, but the employee is perceived as a whole
and is compared to other employees. Numerical ranks are assigned to
each employee.

2) Paired comparison technique: Under this technique each employee is

compared to another employee in pairs on each trait. Rank is then
assigned to each employee. Though the judgement in this case is easier
than that in the previous method. It is a tedious job when a large number
of employees are involved.

3) Man to Man comparison method: Under this method, a scale of a man

is created for various factors like leadership, communication, honesty,
hardworking etc. and then each employee is compared with this scale.
Thus the employees are not compared to each other but are compared to
a key man with regard to one factor at a time. However designing of such
a scale is a challenging job.

4) Grading: In this method, certain categories are first established and

defined, like dependability, hardworking, cooperativeness etc. and then
employees are graded on the basis of these categories as per his/ her
performance. Grades in terms of A- Excellent, B- Good, C- Average, D-
Poor, E- Very poor may be provided to the employees.

1) Forced choice description method: In this method certain phrases in

sets and then the immediate superior has to choose one of the phases that
closely describes the employee. For example:

Under pressure:

a) The person is able to manage pressure and function at his/ her best
b) Seeks help and support of others
c) Performance reduces drastically
d) Experiences stress and tries to avoid work

The supervisor is then to select from the above phrases that optimally
126 describes the employee. However a lot of personal bias can interfere with
 Performance Appraisal
this method. Also trained technicians are required to develop the
statements for each occupational group.

6) Check lists: Under this method, a series of questions or statements are

created and the appraiser has to answer either yes or no.

2) Free form essay method: This can be termed as an open ended

appraisal as the immediate supervisor is free to write about the
subordinate in an essay form or in a descriptive manner. This is more of
a qualitative approach than quantitative. However a lot of subjectivity
may be involved in this method and there is no single criteria for
evaluation.

These were some of the traditional methods. There are various disadvantages
of using the traditional methods. Firstly, the manager or the immediate
supervisor needs to be provided with adequate training as to appraise the
employees. Rater’s bias may also interfere with the overall process of the
appraisal. The appraiser’s personality may also interfere as some appraisers
are lenient and some are overly strict in their appraisal. Also most of the
traditional methods require a lot of preparation in terms of creating scales and
statements that might be time consuming. Further they may not actually give
a complete idea about the overall performance of the employee as they focus
more on the task of the personality of the employee.

We will now discuss certain modern methods of performance appraisal that

better suited for most of the organisations and can be aptly implemented.

8.4.2 Modern Methods

Some of the modern methods of performance appraisal are discussed as
follows:

1) Assessment centres: Assessment centres utilise multiple methods of

appraisal and multiple appraisers. It may involve an interview, a written
test, a group discussion or situational exercises. The appraisers may be
the higher level managers in the organization. They evaluate each
employee and then a summary report is submitted. Assessment centres
may be a part of the organization or may be an external agency that is
hired for the purpose. Besides performance appraisal the assessment
centres can be used to conduct recruitment and selection, develop
training programmes and plan human resource activities.

Assessment centres are effective as they provide complete idea about a

particular employee as multiple appraisers and multiple methods are
used. However it is time consuming especially when managers and
superiors from the organization are involved, their work in the
organization may suffer. Also they will need some training with regard
to how the appraisal is to be carried out. In case an external agency is
appointed, it might become a very costly affair.
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In order to successfully use assessment centres for performance
appraisal, it is necessary to mainly focus on the goals that are clearly
communicated to each employee, ensure commitment of not only top
management but employees at all level.

2) 360 Degree Performance Appraisal: In this method the appraisal of a

single person is created by his/ her superiors, subordinates and peers and
employee himself/ herself hence the name 360 degree. The data is then
collected from all the parties and suitable feedback is provided to the
employee. Self assessment also helps employee understand his/ her own
strengths and weaknesses in a better manner. However personal bias and
rivalry needs to be avoided during such an appraisal. The employees
however may not easily accept implementation of suach a method in the
organization as they might be worried about the negative feedback
especially from their subordinates and peers. Suitable communication,
clarification and training with regard to the process of this method may
help its smooth and effective implementation.

3) Management By Objectives (MBO): The method was introduced by

Peter Drucker and is one of the most effective methods of performance
appraisal. In this method based on the organizational goal, goals are
created for each department in the organization and based on the
departmental goals and the potentiality of individual employee in the
department; individual goals are created for each employee after a
discussion between the employee and the superior. These employees are
then supervised for their progress towards the goal and suitable help and
support is provided in case any problem or obstacle is faced by the
employee so as to help him/ her achieve the goal assigned to him/ her.
Suitable feedback is also provided to the employee from time to time. A
lot of interaction and discussion is promoted by this method between the
employee and the superior that enhances the overall functioning of the
department and in turn of the organization. The superior plays role of a
coach, mentor and counsellor . The main focus of this method is goal
setting besides participant and feedback. The method is termed effective
because it motivates the employees to perform better, conflicts are
reduced and participation increases, role and goal ambiguity is also
reduced considerably. A lot of planning is encouraged. Problems are
solved faster and in time that enhances achievement of goals. The
performance deficiencies of the employee are identified and measures
can be taken to rectify them during the process of goal achievement.

However, the method is time consuming and requires a great deal of

involvement and positive attitude on the part of the employees and the
superiors. However in long term the effects of this method are positive
and long lasting that influences that overall organizational culture and
enhances it for smooth functioning of the organization.

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 Performance Appraisal
4) Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS): This again is one of
the most effective methods of performance appraisal that involves five
stages.
 Firstly it is important to generate critical incidents. The employees
working on a particular job are asked to describe specific critical
incidents that can take place on the job and that call for effective
performance on the part of the employee.
 These incidences are then categorised in to smaller sets of
performance dimensions. Each category is then defined.
 Then a group of employees are given certain critical incidents and
asked to locate them as per the categories.
 The group is then asked to rate the behavior described in the incident
as to how effectively or ineffectively it represents performance on
the performance dimension.
 The subsets of incidents are then used as behavior anchors.

Though the method is time consuming and expensive it is more accurate

as it is done by experts. Clear standards are utilised and suitable feedback
is provided.

Check Your Progress III

1) Explain Management By Objectives.

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….

8.5 LET US SUM UP

To sum up, in the present unit, we discussed about meaning and nature of
performance appraisal, its process and traditional and modern methods of
performance appraisal. Denisi et al (2014) described performance appraisal
as an evaluation of an employees performance that is specific and formal in
nature and it is carried out in order to ascertain whether the job allotted to the
employee is being carried out by him/ her effectively. Performance appraisal
plays an important role in an organisation and various aspects like
promotions, demotions, terminations, training and development, pay raise
etc. will be based on performance appraisal. the unit also discussed the
objectives of performance appraisal. The process of performance appraisal
was also discussed. Lastly, the traditional and modern methods of
performance appraisal were highlighted.
129
Human Resource
Practices 8.6 REFERENCES
Armstrong M.(2006); A Handbook of Human Resource Management,
Practices 10th Edition; London: Kogan Page.

Aswathappa, K. (2015). Human Resource Management. New Delhi: McGraw

Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

Beaumont, P.B. (1993). Human Resource Management: Key Concepts and

Skills. London: Sage.

Birdwell,I. and Holden,L. (1994) Human Resource Management, A

Contemporary Perspective, New Delhi, Macmillan.

Bhatia, S.K. (1999). Principles and Techniques of Personnel Management/

Human ResourceManagement. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications Pvt.
Ltd.

Bohlander, G. W. and Snell, S. A. (2013). Principles of Human Resource

Management. New Delhi: Cengage.

Bratton, J and Gold, J. (2003). Human Resource Management Theory and

Practice. New York. Plagrave Macmillan, 3rd Edition

Cascio, W.F. (1992). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of

Work Life, Profits. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

DeNise, A. S; Griffin, R. W and Sarkar, A. (2014). HR: A South-Asian

Perspective. New Delhi: Cengage.

Fisher, Cynthia. D, Schoenfeldt , Lyle .F and Shaw .J, B.(2004) Human

Resource Management. 5th Edition, Indian Adaptation, New Delhi: Biztantra

Gankar, S.V; Mamoria, C. B and Pareek, U (2004). Personnel Management.

Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.

Pattanayak, B. (2004). Human Resource Management. New Delhi. Prentice-

hall of India.

Purcell J., Boxall P. (2003). Strategy and Human Resource Management.

New York: Palgrave, Macmillan

Rao P.S. (2009). Personnel and Human Resource Management and Industrial
Relations. New Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.

Rao P.S. (2010). Essentials of Human Resource Management and Industrial

Relations. New Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.

Werner, J. M and DeSimone, R. L. (2012). Human Resource Development.

New Delhi: Cengage.

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 Performance Appraisal
8.7 KEY WORDS
Performance appraisal: Aswathappa (2015, page 322) explained
performance appraisal as “an objective assessment of an individual’s
performance against well defined benchmark”.

Performance management: Performance management is a relevant term in

the context of performance appraisal. It can be explained as set of activities
that an organisation carries out in order to bring about a change or
improvement in employee performance.

8.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I

1) What is performance appraisal?

Dessler (2013, page 284) stated that “performance appraisal means

evaluating an employees current and/or past performance relative to his
or her performance standards”.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the first stage in the process of performance appraisal.

Selection of performance factors and setting of the standards to be

achieved is the first stage in the process of performance appraisal.

Check Your Progress III

1) Explain Management By Objectives.

The method was introduced by Peter Drucker and is one of the most
effective methods of performance appraisal. In this method based on the
organizational goal, goals are created for each department in the
organization and based on the departmental goals and the potentiality of
individual employee in the department; individual goals are created for
each employee after a discussion between the employee and the superior.

8.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the meaning and nature of performance appraisal.
2) Describe the process of performance appraisal.
3) Explain the traditional methods of performance appraisal.
4) Discuss the modern methods of performance appraisal.

8.10 ACTIVITY
Write a review of this unit in around 1000 words in your own words.
Highlight the main points that you learnt about performance appraisal.
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Practices

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