Solutions: Independent of The Temperature

Solutions
Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb): It is
convenient to measure the concentration of trace quantities

of solutes in parts per million and parts per billion. It is
independent of the temperature.
mass of solute component
ppm   10 6
Total mass of solution
mass of solute component
ppb   10 9
Total mass of solution
Normality (N): Normality of solution is equal to the number of

gram equivalents of a solute present per litre of the solution.
It can be calculated by following formulas;
(i) Normality (N)  NumberVolume
of gram equivelent of solute
of solution (l)
Weight of solute in g.
(ii) Normality (N)  gram equivelent weight of solute  Volume of solution (l)
Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is equal to the number of

moles of the solute present per litre of solution.
It can be calculated by following formulas,
(i) M  No. of moles of solute (n)
Vol. of solution in litres
,
(ii) If molarity and volume of solution are changed from M1 , V1
to M , V . Then,
2 2
1
(Molarity equation)
M1 V1  M 2 V2
(ii) In balanced chemical equation, if n moles of reactant one 1
react with n moles of reactant two. Then,

2
M 1 V1 M V
 2 2
n1 n2
(iii) Volume of water added to get a solution of molarity M2
from V ml of molarity M is
1 1
 M  M2 
V2  V1   1  V1

 M2 
(iv) If two solutions of the same solute are mixed then

molarity (M) of resulting solution.
M 1 V1  M 2 V2
M
(V1  V2 )
M V are molarity and volume of initial solution and

1 1 M2 V2 are
Here,
molarity and volume of final solution.
Relation between molarity and normality

Normality of solution = molarity  Equivalent
Molecular mass
mass
Normality  equivalent mass = molarity  molecular mass
2
Molality (m) : Mathematically molality can be calculated by
following formulas,
(i) m  Number of moles of the solute
Weight of the solvent in grams
 1000
(ii) m  Strength per 1000 grams of solvent

Molecular mass of solute
Relation between molarity (M) and molality (m)

Molality (m) = Molarity
Molarity  molecular mass
Density 
1000
Formality (F) : Formality of a solution may be defined as the

number of gram formula masses of the ionic solute dissolved
per litre of the solution. It is represented by F .
Formality (F)= NumberVolume
of gram formula masses of solute
of solution in litres
Mole fraction (X): To find the mole fraction, divide moles of a

constituent( either solute or solvent) by the total moles of both
the constituents (solute and solvent).It is denoted by the letter
X.
Let in a solution A is solute and B is solvent, then their mole

fractions are given below;
Mole fraction of Solute A , XA 

nA
n A  nB
3
Mole fraction of solvent B , XB 
nB
n A  nB
Azeotropic mixture
Azeotropes are defined as the mixtures of liquids
that boil like a pure liquid at constant temperature and possess
components in same composition, in liquid as well as in
vapour phase.
Osmotic pressure ()

The osmotic pressure of a solution at a particular
temperature may be defined as the excess hydrostatic
pressure that builds up when the solution is separated from
the solvent by a semi-permeable membrane. It is denoted by
.
According to Boyle Van't Hoff law (at conc. temp.)
 C .....(i)
According to Gaylussac Van't Hoff law (at conc. temp.)
 T .....(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
  CT ,   CRT (Van't Hoff equation)
 n  w
 C   ;  
n w RT
  RT  n  
V  V m V  m
4
Here, C = concentration of solution in moles per litre
R = gas constant; T = temperature
n = number of moles of solute; V = volume of solution
m = molecular weight of solute; w = weight of solute
(iv) Relation of osmotic pressure with different colligative

properties: Osmotic pressure is related to relative lowering
of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point and depression
of freezing point according to the following relations,
(a)    P P P   dRT
o
A
o
A
M
(b)   T 
b
dRT
1000  K
 A  b
(c)   Tf 
dRT
1000  K f
In the above relations,  = Osmotic pressure; d = Density of

solution at temperature T; R = Universal gas constant;
M = Mol. Mass of solute;
K = Molal elevation constant of solvent;

b
K = Molal depression constant of solvent

f
Elevation in b.pt. of the solvent

If Tb is the boiling point of the solvent and T is the boiling
point of the solution, the difference in the boiling point (T
or  Tb) is called the elevation of boiling point.
T  T  T or T
b b
5
Elevation in boiling point is determined by Landsberger’s
method and Cottrell’s method. Study of elevation in boiling
point of a liquid in which a non-volatile solute is dissolved is
called as ebullioscopy.
Important relations concerning elevation in boiling point

(1) T  p  p
b
0
Here , p  p is lowering of vapour pressure.

0
(ii) T  K  m b b
Here, K  molal elevation constant;

b m Molality of the
solution; T  Elevation in boiling point
b
As you know, m  w W1000

1000  K b  w 1000  K b  w
Thus, Tb 
m W
or m
Tb  W
Here, Kb is molal elevation constant
Depression in f.pt. of the solvent

The depression in freezing point (T or T ) of a solvent is f
the difference in the freezing point of the pure solvent (T ) s
and the solution (T ) . sol.
T  T  T or T
s sol f
6
Important relations concerning depression in freezing point.
(i) T  p  p
f
0
Here, p0  p
is Depression in freezing point.
(ii) Tf  K f  m
Here, K f  molal depression constant m  Molality of the

solution; T  Depression in freezing point.
f
w  1000
As you know, m
W
Thus,
1000  K f  w 1000  K f  w
T f 
m W
or m
T f  W
Where Kf is molal depression constant .

Van’t Hoff’s factor (i): In 1886, Van’t Hoff introduced a
factor ‘i’ called Van’t Hoff’s factor, to express the extent of
association or dissociation of solutes in solution. It is ratio of
the normal and observed molecular masses of the solute, i.e.,
Normal molecular mass
i
Observed molecular mass
Relative lowering of vapour pressure  P P P

o
A
o
A
 iX B
A
Elevation of boiling point, T  ik m b b
Depression in freezing point, T  ik m f f
7
Osmotic pressure,  
inRT
V
;   iCRT
From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of

dissociation or degree of association of substance.
Degree of dissociation () : or ions.

The fraction of total molecules that dissociate into simpler mole
cules or ions is known as Degree of dissociation.
i1

m 1
; m= number of particles in solution
Degree of association () :

The fraction of the total number of molecules which associate
or combine together resulting in a bigger molecules being forme
d.
i 1

1/m 1
; m = number of particles in solution.

Solutions: Independent of The Temperature

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Solutions

Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb): It is

convenient to measure the concentration of trace quantities

Normality (N): Normality of solution is equal to the number of

Molarity (M): Molarity of a solution is equal to the number of

(ii) In balanced chemical equation, if n moles of reactant one 1

react with n moles of reactant two. Then,

(iii) Volume of water added to get a solution of molarity M2

(iv) If two solutions of the same solute are mixed then

M V are molarity and volume of initial solution and

Relation between molarity and normality

Normality  equivalent mass = molarity  molecular mass

(ii) m  Strength per 1000 grams of solvent

Relation between molarity (M) and molality (m)

Formality (F) : Formality of a solution may be defined as the

Mole fraction (X): To find the mole fraction, divide moles of a

Let in a solution A is solute and B is solvent, then their mole

Mole fraction of Solute A , XA 

Osmotic pressure ()

(iv) Relation of osmotic pressure with different colligative

In the above relations,  = Osmotic pressure; d = Density of

K = Molal elevation constant of solvent;

K = Molal depression constant of solvent

Elevation in b.pt. of the solvent

Important relations concerning elevation in boiling point

Here , p  p is lowering of vapour pressure.

Here, K  molal elevation constant;

As you know, m  w W1000

Here, Kb is molal elevation constant

Depression in f.pt. of the solvent

the difference in the freezing point of the pure solvent (T ) s

and the solution (T ) . sol.

Here, K f  molal depression constant m  Molality of the

Where Kf is molal depression constant .

Relative lowering of vapour pressure  P P P

Elevation of boiling point, T  ik m b b

Depression in freezing point, T  ik m f f

From the value of ‘i’, it is possible to calculate degree of

Degree of dissociation () : or ions.

Degree of association () :

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