Laboratory of Smart Structures and Structural Integrity (SSSI)

Smart, Safe and Reliable Structures

Module 2- Main elements of an SHM

system

Dr. Samir Mustapha

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 1

Outline
• Sensor selection
• Sensor network optimization (example – a geometrical approach)
• Data communication
• Data transmission
• Energy requirements
• Data processing and analytics

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 2

 Main elements
Main components of an SHM system

The selection of a wired or wireless sensor needs to meet certain criteria

before classifying them as viable for SHM applications.

Many factors contribute to the selection process of a sensor node

including
• the application
• operational environment
• the measurement type (strain, vibration, temperature, ultrasonic, etc.),
• sensor size and range,
• power consumption
• robustness, and the lifetime of the sensing element

Sensor Networks for Structures Health Monitoring:

Placement, Implementations, and Challenges—A Review MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 3
S Mustapha, Y Lu, CT Ng, P Malinowski - Vibration, 2021
Wireless sensors
Each node must contain several
components for efficient and reliable
usage including:
• power management/source system
• a sensing unit
• a signal processing unit, and
• a microcontroller Wireless 8-channel analog input node.
Ideal for precise measurement of voltage,
strain gages, load cells, and pressure
transducers.
https://www.microstrain.com/wireless-sensors/nodes

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Wired sensor node -

Multi-channel, onboard processing,

waterproof

Commissioning
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Number of sensors required
• The number and locations of sensors needed to provide full coverage of a
structure require a deep knowledge about the nature of operation of the structure
to be monitored and the type of readings to be collected.

• This may require the development of optimization algorithms to be

implemented or spontaneous decisions based on experience from similar
structures.

• Although unnecessary or redundant sensors within an SHM system increase the

total cost due to the installation, maintenance, and additional weight on sensitive
structures, spare sensors mounted on a structure may make the system more
robust, in case of failure of critical sensing nodes.

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Vibration and strain sensors http://www.inertance.com/torsional-vibration-analysis/

• The main requirement for a successful application of

the vibration-based methods is the ability to identify
the range of the targeted natural frequencies and
mode shapes.

• When trying to monitor a fatigue crack on a critical Polymer Testing 93:107010

DOI:10.1016/j.polymertesting.2020.107010
component, strain gauges, fiber optic sensors (FOS)
or other types of sensing devices can provide rich
information about the local behavior within the
component.

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Sensor networks
Wireless sensor network

Crowd sensing

Wired sensor network – daisy chain

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Sensor networks

Xiaoliang Z, Huidong G, Guangfan

Z, et al. (2007) , Smart Materials and
Chao Z, Zhongqing S and Li C. (2011), Structures 16: 1208.
Smart Materials and Structures 20: 125005.
Dong W, Lin Y, Zhongqing S, et al. (2009) ,
Structural Health Monitoring 9: 133-144.
Mustapha S. (2012), AIAA journal 50: 1697-1706.

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 9

Sensor networks – A case study
Pitch-catch
Sensor

Damage

Pulse-echo

Diagnostic
Actuator wave

PZT wafers:
Su, Z., & Ye, L. (2009). Springer Science & Business
Wide frequency responses/low power consumption Media.
Excellent mechanical strength
Brittle behaviour which can limit their applications MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 10
Sensor networks – A case study
Parameter notation
𝐾: Set of control points
𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 : Coordinates of control point 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
𝑁: Set of PZT wafers to be placed
𝑛: Coverage level – or the minimum number of
sensing paths passing every control point (3 by
default)
Decision variables
𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 : Optimized coordinates of PZT wafer, 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 = ቊ ,
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑖 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝑘 = ቊ ,𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = Distance between PZT wafer 𝑖 and piezoelectric wafer 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑖 < 𝑗
𝑑𝑖𝑗𝑘 = Distance between PZT wafer line (𝑖, 𝑗) and control point 𝑘, 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑗 ∈
𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
𝑑𝑖𝑘 = Distance between PZT wafer 𝑖 and control point 𝑘, 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
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Sensor networks – A case study
𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ𝑘∈𝐾 𝐶𝑘 (1) ------ Fitness function

2 2 2
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑗 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑖 < 𝑗 (2)
2 2 2
𝑑𝑖𝑘 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑘 , ∀ 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (3)
2 |(𝑦𝑗 −𝑦𝑖 )×𝑥𝑘 −(𝑥𝑗 −𝑥𝑖 )×𝑦𝑘+𝑥𝑗 ×𝑦𝑖 −𝑦𝑗 ×𝑥𝑖 |
𝑑𝑖𝑗𝑘 = , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑖 < 𝑗 (4)
2 2
𝑦𝑗 −𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 −𝑥𝑖

𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑗𝑘 > 40 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (5)

𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑘 > 𝑑𝑖𝑗 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (6)
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑗𝑘 > 𝑑𝑖𝑗 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (7)
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑗 > 600 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (8)
𝐶𝑘 = 0 𝑖𝑓 σ𝑖∈𝑁 σ𝑗∈𝑁:𝑖<𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 < 𝑛 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 (9)
𝑥𝑗1 − 𝑥𝑖1 × 𝑥𝑗2 − 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑗1 − 𝑦𝑖1 × 𝑦𝑗2 − 𝑦𝑖2
𝐶𝑖1𝑗1𝑘 + 𝐶𝑖2𝑗2𝑘 ≤ 1 𝑖𝑓 > 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟎
2 2 2
𝑥𝑗1 − 𝑥𝑖1 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑖1 2 × 𝑥𝑗2 − 𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑗2 − 𝑦𝑖2
, ∀ 𝑖1, 𝑖2, 𝑗1, 𝑗2 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾, 𝑖1 < 𝑗1, 𝑖2 < 𝑗2 (10)
𝑑𝑖𝑗 ≥ 40 , ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁 (11)
𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ∈ 𝑋 , ∀ 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁 (12)
MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 12
Sensor networks – A case study
Population size: 200
POPULATION INITIALIZATION
Terminates:
- best fitness is reached
FITNESS ASSIGNMENT (100%)
- the # of generation is equal

GA O PE RAT O R S
to 100*number of variables
SELECTION - the fitness does not
Loop until
termination improve over a specified
criteria number of generations
CROSSOVER
reached

MUTATION

SURVIVOR SELECTION

TERMINATE AND RETURN BEST

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 14

Sensor networks – A case study
Distribution of control points and preliminary
solutions of the sensors positions: (a) square
panel (below 84%) and (b) T-shaped panel
(84%)

(a) (b)

Optimized solutions of the sensors positions:

(a) square panel (95%) and (b) T-shaped panel
(96%)

SenOpt – open source software

LINK

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 15

(a) (b)
Another interesting example of the design of
sensor networks

The concept of the stretchable sensor network where the distances Alcaide, A., et al. Damage detection on Aerospace
between sensors before deployment (a) are short in comparison to the structures using PAMELA SHM System.
deployed network (b): x<<y.

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Data Acquisition + networking
This includes:
Data cleansing
Data normalization
Data fusion
Information condensation

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Method for Obtaining Useful SHM
Measurements I
Level 1:
System-level Considerations
What features will be extracted What other factors may need to be
from data for SHM assessment? considered for accurate assessment?

• May determine the type(s) of • Operational (e.g., loading conditions

primary data to be acquired during primary data collection)
• May determine the periodicity • Environmental (e.g., ambient conditions
of primary data collection during primary data collection)
• Identification of sources of error
Active or passive sensing? Overall imposed limitations/constraints?
• Determines need for active • Economic (e.g.,fixed budgets)
actuation (i.e., not ambient) • Political (gov’t or social influences)
• Strongly influences power, networking, • Environmental (e.g., regulations or
and bandwidth demands required procedures)
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MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring
 Method for Obtaining Useful SHM
Measurements II
Level 2: Data Acquisition Component Considerations
• sensitivity and bandwidth: What is the response of the sensor to inputs (or the actuator to
command signals), usually over a range of time scales? (Usually given in terms of the transfer
function)
• resolution: What is the minimum detectable value of the intended input or the minimum
achievable output? (Usually given in terms of power or amplitude spectral density)
• cross-axis sensitivity: How much does the sensor respond to inputs (or the actuator excite
output) not aligned with the primary sensing (actuation) direction? (Usually expressed as a
fraction of the main sensitivity)
• sensitivity to extraneous measurands: Does the sensor (actuator) respond
to unintended inputs (commands)? (Does an accelerometer, for example, also respond to strain
or temperature inputs yielding “false” signals?)

21
MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring
Combining system and data acquisition
System-level Considerations

Actuator system Sensor modalities

Networking strategy

Signal conditioning module(s),synchronization, scheduling, and control

Data Acquisition Component Considerations

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 22
Excitation and sensing
• Steady-state Deterministic (stationary periodic;
chaotic)
• Nonstationary Deterministic (impulse; step-
relaxation; swept sine/chirp; quasi-periodic)
• Random (full random, band limited to actuation
bandwidth window; pseudo-random, constant
amplitude, random phase; burst random, short in Mirage F1-AZ under controlled ground
time but fully random) vibration testing.
• Ambient
– Often the only method that can be
used for large structures, or if the
structure is not to be taken out of
service, or if regulations prohibit
introducing energy into the structure.
– Parameter identification is more
challenging without a measured
input.
Ship on the high seas.
– Wind, waves, traffic and crowd. MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 23
Contact sensing
• Most modern sensors used for SHM convert measured quantity (force,
acceleration, displacement, etc.) to an analog electrical signal.
• Sensors can be classified as contacting and non-contacting.
• Discrete sensors (surface point, contacting measurements)
– Piezoelectric and piezoresistive force transducers
– Accelerometers
• Piezoelectric
• Piezoresistive
• Capacitive
• Servo
• Fiber optic
– Strain gages
• Foil
• Fiber optic

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 24

Non-contact sensing
• Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV)
• Laser/microwave displacement measurement systems
• GPS

LDV Microwave Interferometer

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 25
Data transmission
• Most modern data acquisition systems
transmit the analog signal from the
sensor to the A to D convert through
hard-wire connections.
• Record directly to hard disk.
• Current research is focusing on
wireless data transmission of digital “Shoe box” size wireless
sensing system, mid 1990’s
signals.

“Credit card” size wireless

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring sensing system, mid 2000’s 26
Data transmission – Wireless

Technology Maximum Power Data transmission Frequency

coverage range consumption rate
IEEE 802.11 150 m High 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz
ZigBee 300 m Low Max. 250 Kbps 868 MHz/902-928
MHz/ 2.4 GHz

ISA100.11a 150 m Low Max. 250 Kbps 2.4 GHz

Bluetooth 300 m Medium Max. 2 Mbps 2.4 GHz

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 27

Energy sources
• The power supply is one of the key components for sensor networks as
sensing, data acquisition, processing, and transmission require energy.
• For a wired sensor network, this is usually not an issue as the power supply
can be provided by the wired cable.
• If the structure to be monitored is located in a remote area, the energy
supply can be a challenging issue.
• Different approaches have been used to address the power supply issue
using energy storage, energy harvesting, and energy management.
• The wireless energy transfer is the other option to provide energy for the
sensor network, e.g. inductive coupling, magnetic resonance, laser
mechanism.

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 28

Energy sources – Energy storage
• The battery is one of the commonly adopted options to provide power for
sensor networks, especially for wireless sensor networks.

• The energy that can be stored in the battery is limited so it requires regular
recharge/replacement of the battery.

• To address this limitation, it requires a careful plan of energy consumption

on major operations of a sensor network to develop a scheduling policy of
duty cycle, e.g. energy-saving scheme, and/or energy harvesting.

• In the selection of battery, it needs to consider different factors, such as

cost, voltage, lifetime, memory effect, safety, and environmental impact.

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 29

Energy sources – Energy management
• Different energy management techniques have been developed to
effectively use the energy for important operations and minimize the
unimportant activities of the sensor network, for instance:
communication power management,
duty cycling, and
wake-up receivers
• These techniques focus on selectively placing idle components into sleep
or low-power mode, and implement autonomous power switching of high-
power components in the sensor network.
• A ideal solution is the development of a hybrid systems relying on external
power sources and harvested green energy. This will extend the lifetime of
the batteries, further will enhance the capacity of the energy source.

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 31

Basic signal processing
Two commonly used data for SHM:
(i) vibration data such as acceleration measurements using
accelerometers, and
(ii) ultrasonic wave data collected using strain sensors and
piezoelectric transducer, or velocity measurements using a laser
vibrometer.
These two measurements have been used heavily for SHM, and
features extraction approaches and signal processing techniques have
been well developed, including machine learning.

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 32

Signal processing techniques
• Vibration measurement
• Modal parameters
• Time domain data
• Frequency domain data
• Ultrasonic wave data
Time-frequency analysis can provide a visualization of the frequency components of
ultrasonic guided wave signals related to the time information (below techniques are
commonly used for time-frequency analysis )
Short-time Fourier transform
Hilbert-Huang transform
wavelet transforms and
chirplet transform

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 33

Final comments on SHM data acquisition
• THERE IS NO SENSOR THAT MEASURES DAMAGE!
(and there never will be!!)

• However, can’t do SHM without sensing

• Define data to be acquired and the data to be used in the feature extraction
process.
─ Types of data to be acquired
─ Sensor types, number and locations
─ Bandwidth, sensitivity (dynamic range)
─ Data acquisition/transmittal/storage system
─ Power requirements (energy delivery)
─ Sampling intervals
─ Processor/memory requirements
─ Excitation source (active sensing)
─ Sensor diagnostic capability
MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 34
Challenges for SHM sensing systems
• Number of sensors
– Instrumenting large structures with thousands of sensors still represents a sparsely
instrumented system!
– Large sensor systems pose many challenges for reliability and data management
• Ruggedness of sensors
– Sensing systems must last for many years with minimal maintenance
– Harsh environments (thermal, mechanical, moisture, radiation, corrosion)
– Need sensor diagnostic capability
• The sensing system must be developed integrally with the feature
selection/extraction and classification.
• There is no accepted sensor design methodology
– Optimal Sensor placement (need models)
– Optimal waveform design for active sensing (need models)

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 35

MECH 632 - Structural Health Monitoring 36