Unlocking of Difficulties

1. pre-colonial (adjective)- ​occurring or existing before the beginning of colonial rule.

2. propaganda (noun)- ​information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used
to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view.
3. revolution (adjective)- ​a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in
favor of a new system.

Lecturette​: Understanding Political Ideologies

EARLY POLITICAL SYSTEMS FROM PRECOLONIAL TIMES UNTIL THE
PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

Early Pre-Colonial Political Structures

∙ ​The precolonial Filipino communities share some cultural similarities with ancient
communities in Southeast Asia and even Polynesia. The first communities that were
established were defined by inter-island trade and seafaring, and these activities contributed
to the growth and expansion of the first barangays.

Barangay Systems

∙ ​The barangay was the basic political unit that existed throughout the Philippine islands prior to
the 1400s. Each barangay was an independent polity (political entity) which exercised
authority over several communities within a defined territory.
∙ ​Barangays also interacted with other communities, and there is evidence of the establishment
of political-military alliances between barangays for mutual protection and support. ​∙ ​The
barangay was led by a datu, who rose to the position either by birth or by valor and feats
achieved in war. In Luzon, the word datu referred to the chieftain.
∙ ​However, in the Visayas, the term datu referred not only to the chieftain as an individual, but
to an entire social class that included the relatives and friends of the chieftain. In Luzon, the
noble class was called maharlika.
∙ ​In addition, women also had the opportunity to become datu as precolonial society recognized
women rulers and warriors and held them in high regard. Meanwhile, other terms were also
used to refer to rulers during precolonial times such as lakan and rajah.
∙ ​The datu implemented the customary laws of the community and served as the commander
in-chief during times of war. The datu was also responsible for the livelihood of the people
and the barangay's collective wealth.

The Sultanates
∙ ​From the 1400s onwards, the various communities in Sulu and Maguindanao were
organizing themselves into sultanates. The Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao
represented a significant political advancement in precolonial Philippines, as the
Muslim communities of Mindanao achieved a level of political unity and stability
that enabled them to establish strong diplomatic relations with other Asian
communities and successfully resist the Spanish conquest.
 ∙ ​In terms of structure, the Mindanao sultanates had a degree of centralization. The
sultan was the foremost leader of the sultanate. Under him, several datus
administered the barangays in his domain.
∙ ​The datus, in turn, were part of a council called the Ruma Bichara, which assisted or
provided counsel to the sultan.
∙ ​This council also included aristocrats known as the panglima. The Ruma Bichara
oversaw the other officials of the state, which included the wajir (advisers); the
rajah laut (the leader of the maritime forces); and the qadi (magistrate).
∙ ​Political legitimacy in these sultanates was based on blood and religious ties. The
members of the sultanate considered themselves part of a vast political community
Page | 1
bound by faith, thus governance in the sultanate was defined by religious tradition
and Shariah law.
∙ ​The sultans also traced their lineage not only from the native rulers of the ancient
barangays in Mindanao, but also from the bloodline of the earliest Arab
missionaries who came to spread Islam throughout the islands.
∙ ​One of the first sultanates in the Philippines was established in Sulu by Sayyid Abu
Bakr, a Muslim missionary and the very first sultan of Sulu. Coming from the Arab
region and being the first to have propagated Islam in the archipelago, Abu Bakr
implemented rules which were rooted in the Quran, including the first code of law
in Sulu. In 1450 CE, Jolo became the capital of the Sultanate of Sulu. The
sultanate soon expanded and its barangays became unified as the Bangsa Sug
(Sulu Nation).
∙ ​It is believed that a third sultanate was emerging in the Kingdom of Maynilad in the
island of Luzon during the 16th century.
∙ ​There were historical indications that a "proto-sultanate"emerged from an alliance
with powerful barangays such as Tondo. Other factors that brought about the
establishment of the sultanate of Manila were diplomatic relations and
intermarriages with the Sultanate of Brunei, and the gradual conversion of the local
communities to Islam.
∙ ​However, in 1574, the development of the Maynilad sultanate was interrupted by the
arrival of the Spaniards and the successful military conquest of Maynilad and the
rest of Luzon.

Spanish Colonialism in the Philippines

∙ ​The Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual rebirth in Europe during the 14th
century, introduced the desire for exploration, acquisition of knowledge, and
discovery among Europeans.
∙ ​This gave way to the Age of Discovery which resulted in greater contact and trading
relations between Europe and Asia. One offshoot of the Age of Discovery was
colonialism, an economic and political ideology that influenced the European
kingdoms to embark on voyages of exploration and conquest. Colonialism believes
that the power and influence of a country is based on the number of territories it
conquers and colonies it establishes.
∙ ​Spain was one of the European states which embarked on discovering and conquering
colonies, and it was specifically motivated by Catholic missionary zeal and the spice
trade in Asia. In 1521, Spain embarked on its colonial pursuits in Asia as it launched
the Magellan expedition.
∙ ​Magellan and his crew arrived in the Philippine islands and traveled throughout
Eastern and Central Visayas. Magellan's intervention in a local conflict among
feuding datus led to an ill-fated military attack on Mactan island which led to his
death. However, the Spanish government was steadfast in its desire to establish a
colonial outpost in Asia.
∙ ​The Magellan expedition was soon followed by several more attempts by the
Spaniards to conquer the islands.

The Spanish Colonial Government in the Philippines

∙ ​In 1565, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi successfully conquered the native communities in
 Luzon and Visayas and declared the Philippines a colony of Spain. Legazpi's
success was not only due to effective use of arms, but was also made possible
through a series of alliances with friendly datus and barangays. His
second-in-command, Martin de Goiti, and his nephew, Juan de Salcedo, also led a
series of military conquests of communities and tribes throughout Luzon.
∙ ​This phase of early colonization was then followed by a period of reduccion, or the
relocation of local inhabitants into towns or pueblos. Large barangays were converted
into pueblos, while smaller barangays were brought together to form a single town.
The pueblo was modeled after the European town, and the arrangement of buildings
and landmarks emphasized the colonial rule of the Spaniards.
∙ ​At the center of the pueblo was the plaza, and situated around it were the local church,
the municipal hall, and the houses of the principales. Thus, Spanish colonialism
began the process of integration of the Filipino people by bringing together the
separate and independent barangays into cohesive communities under Spanish rule.
Page | 2
∙ ​In the first few decades of Spanish colonial administration, the Spaniards adopted a
European-style feudal system of governance in the islands. The conquered territories
were divided into districts called encomiendas and were distributed among Spaniards
who acted as feudal lords, or encomenderos.
∙ ​The encomendero was tasked to establish political authority, administer and improve
the local economy (which involved agriculture and trade), promote education, and
convert the people to Catholicism. The encomenderos also received the tribute which
the local cabezas de barangay collected. The encomienda system was eventually put
to an end as the local towns were organized into provinces or alcaldias.
∙ ​The Philippine islands, as a colony of the Kingdom of Spain, was placed under the
sovereign authority of the monarch of Spain. The direct administration of the colony,
however, was done by the Viceroy of Nueva España (New Spain or Mexico), who
was the representative of the Spanish monarch.
∙ ​The Philippines was one of many Spanish colonies throughout the world, and was
placed under the jurisdiction of the Consejo de Indias (Council of the Indies), which
was later renamed the Ministerio de Ultramar (Overseas Ministry). The colonial
government of the Philippines was headed by the governor-general, who was the
highest Spanish public official in the Philippines.
∙ ​The provincial government was organized under the alcaldia, for peaceful districts,
while areas that have yet to be fully pacified were organized as corregimientos. The
alcaldias were administered by a provincial governor, the alcalde mayor, while the
corregimientos were headed by a corregidor or military governor.
∙ ​The alcalde mayor directed the executive, judicial, and legislative aspects of
governance in the province. He was also in charge of collecting taxes and disciplining
ineffective public officials. The alcalde mayor also has authority over the
gobernadorcillos who ruled the towns in his province.
∙ ​The local leaders in the pueblos and barangays, meanwhile, were elected by members
of the principalia. The principales were convened and they chose among themselves
the cabezas de barangay. The cabezas, in turn, elected among themselves the
gobernadorcillo or town leader.
∙ ​This system of appointment ensured that leadership was concentrated in the hands of
the local elite. This also meant that given the small number of Spanish officials and
friars in the Philippines, the colonial government ruled the islands through the native
elite. A large majority of Spanish officials were located in Manila, which was the
colonial capital and recognized as a special administrative city or ayuntamiento.
∙ ​The colonial government adopted some aspects of precolonial governance in an
attempt to establish more effective control over the natives. Many of the old ruling
elites were incorporated into the new colonial state as local administrators. The old
datus became village heads or cabezas de barangay. The cabeza de barangay was
tasked with the collection of tributes from the people.
∙ ​The cabeza was also the capitan de barangay and was placed in charge of local
defense and security. Each cabeza was exempted from tribute payment and forced
labor (polo y servicio), and was treated with great respect by the locals. Furthermore,
cabezas were oftentimes given an opportunity to become town mayor or
gobernadorcillo.
∙ ​Thus, the precolonial elites who ruled the ancient barangays became the colonial elites
who administered their pueblos or communities under the Spanish rule. Together
with the Spanish rulers, the ruling elite was referred to as principales or the
principalia class.
∙ ​The Roman Catholic Church, through the Spanish friars, played a vital role in colonial
politics. The friars played a significant role in the local government. Some of their
important tasks included the conduct of the census, health monitoring, school
inspection, and the censorship of certain books and writings. The significant influence
of the Catholic Church in government affairs often brought it into conflict with the
government.

The Governor-General and Colonial Governance in the Philippines

∙ ​The governor-general was the highest and most powerful official of the Spanish
colonial government in the Philippines. Apart from his administrative role, the
governor-general also had a military role and was considered the commander-in-

Page | 3
chief of the military forces. It is for this reason that the full title of the governor
general was "Governor and Captain-General of the Philippines."
∙ ​The governor-general was appointed by the King of Spain and acted as his
representative in the country. The leadership of the governor-general
encompassed the executive and judicial branches. He had the power to assign
officials to various government positions.
∙ ​He was also in charge of the Royal Audiencia, the judiciary body in the Philippines at
that time. In addition, the Governor-General was the vice real patron and had the
power to appoint priests to parishes throughout the Philippines. This power,
however, became a source of contention with the Catholic Church, and this
brought about conflict between the Governor-General and the Archbishop of
Manila, the highest church official in the Philippines that time.
∙ ​The colonial government lacked a formal legislative body to create and promulgate
laws for the islands. Instead, many of the laws in the country were made by the
King of Spain and the governor-general was tasked to implement them in the
colony. One significant basis of laws and governance for the colony was the
RecopiÎacion de las leyes de los reynos de las Indias, a compilation of laws
applicable to the various Spanish colonies throughout the world.
∙ ​The governor-general, however, had the power of cumplase, where he could
suspend or ignore laws imposed by the Crown if he considered them inapplicable
to the Philippines.
∙ ​The leadership of the governor-general was subject to a number of limitations. For
instance, he only served a short term which was determined by the Viceroy in
Mexico or by the central government in Madrid. Furthermore, his administrative
conduct was also
∙ ​constantly checked. This was done through the visita, an unannounced inspection
from the Spanish government, and by the residencia, which was review of his
actions in government at the end of his term as governor-general.
∙ ​The reputation, wealth, and pension of the governor-general depended on the
findings of this post-term investigative body. He could be stripped of aristocratic
titles, fined, deprived of pension, or even imprisoned if found to have committed
crimes and misdemeanors, or if he was determined to have failed in his
administrative duties.
∙ ​One example of the rampant abuse experienced in the Philippines was the unfair
labor condition experienced by the natives in the mandatory polo y servicio or labor
service in the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, and other projects. The law
required that the natives must work within their localities only.
∙ ​However, there were many instances when Spanish officials assigned natives to
faraway areas to work for various tasks such as public works, logging, and galleon
construction. There were also reports in Central Luzon of Spanish friars who took
food and produce from the locals without paying for them. These and many other
abuses committed against Filipinos resulted in several revolts that broke out
 throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.

Early Revolts and the Reform Movement

∙ ​During the 19th century, increased trade opportunities and improvements in
technology, particularly in agriculture, brought about the emergence of a middle
class, which consisted of families that gained wealth through trade and commerce.
∙ ​This meant that apart from the principales or the political elite, a new group of
influential natives emerged due to their accumulated wealth.
∙ ​This transformation brought about the emergence of a new group of liberal-minded
citizens, the ilustrados, who adopted liberal ideas and views because of their travels
and studies in Europe.
∙ ​This group began to call for political reforms in the Philippines. It was during this time
that various members of the upper class began to establish a strong bond due to
their shared ideals and the fact that they were all born in the Philippines. Also
included in this group were the insulares, who were full-blooded Spaniards born in
the Philippines.
∙ ​The Kingdom of Spain saw liberalism as a threat to its authority and attempted to
counter the spread of liberal ideas in the central government and the colonies. This
resulted in a number of political crises and civil wars in Spain. In 1868, for instance,
Queen Isabella 11 was expelled from power and a liberal government came to
power.

Page | 4
Liberal-minded officials were then appointed to various government and colonial
posts.
∙ ​One of these officials, Carlos Maria de la Torre, became the governor-general of the
Philippines in 1869. It was during his administration that reformist and liberal ideas
became prevalent in the Philippines. Governor-General de la Torre emphasized a pro
native and anti-friar government program during his term. He was enthusiastically
supported by reform-minded members of the elite and the ilustrados, who were
advocating for political reforms in the Philippine colonial government. However, de la
Torre's administration lasted only two years, and he was replaced in 1871 by Rafael
de Izquierdo.
∙ ​In 1872, the Cavite Mutiny, an uprising led by the insulares or colony-born Spaniards
serving in the Spanish Navy, was used by the colonial government as an opportunity
to implicate individuals whom they considered as threats. Several reformists and
secular priests were arrested and accused of being the masterminds behind the
munity.
∙ ​Most notable among those who were were unjustly condemned were the priests
Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, leaders of the secularization
movement. Gomburza, as the three were collectively known, were tried and
sentenced to death by the government. The execution of the three priests was a
great blow to the early reform movement in the Philippines.

The Propaganda Movement

∙ ​The execution of Gomburza in 1872 brought about a profound change in the nationalist
movement. This event may have impeded the initial movement for reforms but the
deaths of the native priests brought about the awakening of a new generation of
nationalists and the further growth of nationalist consciousness. This new direction in
Philippine nationalism was embodied by a new breed of reformists led by Jose Rizal,
Graciano Lopez Jaena, Mariano Ponce, and Marcelo H. Del Pilar, who organized and
led the Propaganda Movement. The movement involved ilustrados residing in Spain
who campaigned for political and social reforms in the Philippines. The propagandists
also began to articulate their ideas on the issue of nationhood and independence.

llustrado Nationalism and Concept of Nationhood

∙ ​The propaganda movement was a significant development in Philippine nationhood, as

the ilustrado propagandists envisioned changes not just for certain communities in
the islands, but for the entire nation.
∙ ​The propagandists considered the Filipinos as a nation and civilization equal to that of
the other great nations of the world. They accepted that the Filipino identity was a
product of Spanish colonialism, and that the advancement of the Filipino nation was
tied to that of Spain.
∙ ​But the increasing awareness of Filipinos regarding their own distinct culture and
identity is an indication that the Filipino nation is moving toward independence. ​∙ ​The
propagandists, however, did not advocate revolution to achieve independence but
instead advanced the notion that freedom could be achieved through gradual stages of
development.
∙ ​The propagandists believed that Filipinos must prepare themselves for independence
through education, hard work, and citizenship.
∙ ​Jose Rizal was the foremost propagandist who articulated the nationalist ideas that
drove the Propaganda Movement. He advocated the view that the Filipinos had a
distinct and advanced civilization during precolonial times, refuting the prevalent
notion that precolonial Filipinos were barbarians.
∙ ​In his annotation of Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine Islands) by
Spanish historian Antonio Morga, he endeavored to correct misconceptions about
the Filipinos. He pointed out Spanish bias in historical accounts of the Philippines,
and advocated a Filipino perspective in interpreting historical events.
∙ ​For Rizal, colonialism was an interruption of the development of the Filipinos, and
many of the negative aspects of colonial governance has affected the Filipino
character. In his essay Filipinas dentro de cien años (The Philippines a century
hence) he traced the development of Filipino nationalism and emphasized the need
for reforms to prevent a violent separation between the Philippines and Spain.

Page | 5
∙ ​The Propaganda Movement, however, also had its share of challenges and failures.
Rizal eventually recognized the need to return to the Philippines, accepting the fact
that the Propaganda Movement failed to achieve its objectives in its campaign in
Spain. Rizal's return to the Philippines in 1892 marked a turning point in the
Propaganda Movement, and ushered in a more revolutionary phase in the
development of Philippine nationalism.

The La Liga Filipina

∙ ​Upon his return to the Philippines, Jose Rizal established the La Liga Filipina (The
Filipino League) in Tondo, Manila The Liga was primarily meant to be a civic
organization that would provide mutual aid for its members, but it also involved its
members in the reform movement.
∙ ​Jose Rizal proposed a constitution for the organization which identified the following
major objectives: to encourage reforms in the country, to peacefully call on the
government to end injustice and abuses, and to bring about unity among Filipinos.
∙ ​The constitution of the Liga also called for the organization of councils that would help
in the realization of its goals, with members paying monthly dues to support the
activities of the group.
∙ ​The constitution encouraged the participation of the members in political affairs and the
improvement of the state. Unfortunately, the Liga never had the opportunity to
realize its objectives as Rizal was arrested and exiled to Dapitan in July 1892.

The Katipunan and the Revolutionary Movement

∙ ​After Rizal's exile to Dapitan, some members of the Liga reconvened to form a
secret revolutionary organization, the Kataastasang Kagalang-galangang
Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), also known as the Katipunan. The
founders of the Katipunan included Deodato Arellano, Andres Bonifacio, and
Ladislao Diwa. Unlike the previous reform and propaganda movements, the
Katipunan advocated complete independence from Spain through an armed
revolution.
∙ ​Under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio, the Katipunan expanded its membership
and organization. It brought together individuals from all walks of life - members of
 the elite, middle class, and the masses - who were united in their desire to fight for
freedom. The organization also adopted the liberal ideals and some practices of
the reform movement.
∙ ​For instance, the Katipunan based their initiation rites and organizational structure
from Freemasonry, which was a fraternal organization participated in by members
of the elite in Europe and the United States of America, and where many
reformists were members.

Nationalism and the Katipunan

∙ ​The nationalist ideology of the Katipunan was formulated by Andres Bonifacio and
Emilio Jacinto. Bonifacio presented his concept of nationhood by basing it on
ethnic roots. He coined the term "katagalugan" to refer to the nation composed of
all Filipino peoples, not just Tagalogs.
∙ ​He also advocated the use of Tagalog within the Katipunan, as the membership of
the society was composed mostly of Tagalog-speakers. In his writings, Bonifacio
clarified his idea of nationhood as not only consisting of Tagalog-speaking areas,
but all communities and groups that aspire to fight for their independence from
Spain.
∙ ​The political philosophy of the Katipunan was expressed in its official documents
and the writings of Bonifacio and Jacinto. Bonifacio's ​Ang Dapat Mabatid n ​ g mga
Tagalog served as a reminder of the abuses and suffering which the people were
experiencing during the Spanish regime, and called on them to fight for liberty,
even if it would mean death.
∙ ​Emilio Jacinto's Kartilya ng Katipunan enumerated the guiding principles of the
members of the Katipunan. The Kartilya emphasized civic virtues, such as humility,
empathy, and dignity. It also highlighted values that contribute to nationhood such
as equality, cooperation, mutual respect, and patriotism.
Page | 6
∙ ​The sentiments and ideas expressed in the Kartilya echoed those of Rizal, who
advocated the involvement of citizens in national affairs. However, the Kartilya is
notable for having advocated a notion of nationhood and citizenship that
encompassed all communities in the Philippines.
∙ ​In an initial passage of the Kartilya, Tagalog citizens were characterized as "ang
lahat ng tumubo sa Sangkapuluang ito; sa makatuwid, Bisaya man, Iloko man,
Kapampangan man... ay Tagalog din."

The Outbreak of the Revolution and the Tejeros Convention

∙ ​The discovery of the Katipunan by the guardia civil in June 1896 hastened the
organization's plans for armed revolution. The colonial government's reaction to
the planned rebellion was swift. Several members of the Katipunan were arrested
while some were forced into hiding. It was during this uncertain period that
Bonifacio and the rest of the Katipunan decided to proceed with the planned
uprising.
∙ ​The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, but Bonifacio's forces were unable
to secure victory in the initial battles within Manila. The neighboring provinces
fared much better in the armed struggle. In particular, the province of Cavite was
one of the most active fronts in the revolutionary struggle, with General Emilio
Aguinaldo leading the revolutionary forces to victory.
∙ ​The Katipunan in Cavite was divided into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. The
Magdiwang was led by Mariano Alvarez, while the Magdalo was headed by
Baldomero Aguinaldo. In 1897, the fighting shifted to the provinces and Cavite
became an important center of the revolution. In the face of growing Spanish
offensives, the Katipunan convened in Tejeros in order to reorganize and establish
a united front against the Spaniards.
∙ ​Andres Bonifacio was invited by the Magdiwang faction to preside over the
convention. The conveners agreed to dissolve the Katipunan and replace it with a
revolutionary government. It was followed by an election of officials in which Gen.
Emilio Aguinaldo was named President.
∙ ​The Tejeros Convention marked an important transition for the Revolution. The
revolutionaries decided that the aims of the revolution could no longer be achieved
by the Katipunan, a secret revolutionary society. What was needed was the
establishment ofa revolutionary government that would bring about the
achievement of independence from Spain.

President Emilio
​ Aguinaldo

Vice President Mariano

​ Trias

Captain General Artemio

​ Ricarte

Director of War Emiliano

​ Riego de Dios

Director of Interior Andres

​ Bonifacio
∙ ​The convention was also intended to end the rivalry between the Magdiwang and
Magdalo factions. However, the elections at the Tejeros Convention were
disrupted due to an altercation that ensued when Daniel Tirona questioned the
election of Andres Bonifacio as Director of Interior. Bonifacio was offended at this
personal slight. Bonifacio then declared the results of the Tejeros Convention
invalid.
∙ ​This incident caused a rift within the revolutionary movement, and Bonifacio and his
supporters organized a separate government through the Naic Pact. Aguinaldo
and his supporters, meanwhile, considered Bonifacio's actions as treason and
moved to arrest him. On April 27, 1897, Bonifacio, his brother Procopio, and
Gregoria de Jesus were arrested and brought to face trial. Bonifacio and Procopio
were found guilty and executed. The death of Bonifacio marked the official end of
the Katipunan. The society had served as a defacto government for the members
of the revolutionary organization from 1892 to 1897. A new revolutionary
leadership under Emilio Aguinaldo emerged and continued the struggle against
the Spaniards.

The Revolutionary Government up to the Biak-na-Bato Republic

Page | 7
∙ ​The events of 1897 brought about a new revolutionary government that formally
replaced the old Katipunan government. Aguinaldo inaugurated the "Pamahalaan
ng Sangkatagalugan" composed of the following officials:

President Emilio Aguinaldo

Vice President Mariano Trias
Director of the Interior Pascual Alvarez
Director of Finance Baldomero Aguinaldo
Director of Development Mariano Alvarez
Director of State Jacinto Lumbreras
Director of Justice Severino de las Alas
Director of War Emiliano Riego de Jesus
Captain General Artemio Ricarte

∙ ​But the execution of the Supremo of the Katipunan had a significant impact on the
morale of the revolutionaries. As a result, the Spanish forces were able to score
several victories. The revolutionary forces in Cavite were forced to evacuate after a
massive Spanish counteroffensive. Aguinaldo and his government retreated to the
mountains of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan, near the Cordilleras.
∙ ​At this point, Aguinaldo established a republican government, referred to as the
Biakna-Bato Republic. The new republic was organized based on a constitution
which reflected the ideals of the revolution. The Biak-na-Bato constitution was the
first formal constitution drafted in the Philippines. Its preamble expressed the
 sentiment of the revolutionaries, who sought to separate from the Spanish
monarchy and establish a Philippine republic in accordance with the wishes of the
Filipino people.
∙ ​The constitution also established a centralized government, with a Supreme Council
composed of a President and several cabinet officials. The Supreme Council
performed both executive and legislative functions, including the passage and
implementation of the laws of the Republic. The following were the officials elected
into the Supreme Council:

President Emilio Aguinaldo

Vice President Mariano Trias
Secretary of Foreign Affairs Antonio Montenegro
Secretary of the Interior Isabelo Artacho
Secretary of War Emiliano Riego De Dios
Secretary of the Treasury Baldomero Aguinaldo

∙ ​With the establishment of the Biak-na-Bato Republic, revolutionary forces

experienced a resurgence and many from nearby provinces rallied in support of
Aguinaldo. This led to a stalemate between the Filipino forces and the Spaniards.
Negotiations were initiated and a peace agreement, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, was
signed on November 18, 1897.

Towards the Creation of a Philippine Republic

∙ ​The signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato ended the hostilities between the Filipinos
and the Spaniards. The Biak-na-Bato Republic also came to an end as Aguinaldo
and his government voluntarily went into exile in Hongkong, as was agreed upon in
the pact.
∙ ​The remaining revolutionary leaders and their forces were given amnesty and
absorbed into the Spanish colonial military force. The truce however, did not last.
Both sides violated many of the terms of the agreement.
∙ ​Spanish officials arrested many of the Filipino revolutionaries despite the guarantee
of amnesty. On the other hand, many Filipino fighters did not surrender their arms
to the government.
∙ ​Aguinaldo's government-in-exile, meanwhile, planned to use the money given to
them by the Spaniards to purchase arms and ammunition, expecting an eventual
return to the Philippines and the resumption of the revolution. Events on the other

Page | 8
side of the world, meanwhile, would set off a series of events that led to the revival
of the Philippine Revolution.
∙ ​In 1898, war between Spain and America broke out, and the conflict was a
significant factor in the succeeding political developments in the Philippines.

The Declaration of Independence and the First Philippine Republic

∙ ​The return of Aguinaldo to the Philippines in May 1898 signaled the revival of the
Philippine Revolution. On May 24, he declared a dictatorial government which was
intended to facilitate the swift execution of orders and implementation of policies.
∙ ​The dictatorship was intended to be temporary, as a new government will be
established at the end of the war with Spain. News of Aguinaldo's arrival spurred
the Filipino revolutionaries into action.
∙ ​They took up arms once again and fought the Spaniards. By June 1898, Filipinos
had taken control of the whole island of Luzon, while the Spaniards held on to
Manila and the port of Cavite.
∙ ​On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines. A few
days later, he abolished the dictatorial government and established a
revolutionary government which he headed. The following were appointed as
officials in his cabinet:
Secretary of War ​Baldomero Aguinaldo
Director of War ​Antonio Luna
Generals of Divisions ​Artemio Ricarte,
Vito Belarmino,
Emiliano Riego de Dios
Brigadier Generals ​Tomas Mascardo, Pantaleon Garcia, Mariano Llanera, Mariano Noriel,
Isidoro Torres, Miguel
Malvar, Paciano, Rizal, Pascual
Alvarez, Jose Ignacio Paua, Pio del Pilar, Gregorio del
Pilar, Francisco Makabulos
Secretary of Interior ​Leandro Ibarra
Director of Interior ​Severino de las Alas
Secretary of Foreign Relations ​Cayetano Arellano
Director of Foreign Relations ​Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera
Secretary of Finance ​Mariano Trias
Director of Finance ​Benito Legarda
General Treasurer ​Silvestre Legaspi
Navy Director ​Pascual Ledesma
Commerce Director ​Esteban de la Rama
Secretary of Justice ​Gregorio Araneta
Director of Justice ​Jose Ma. Basa
Director of Registry ​Juan Tongco
Secretary of Fomento ​Felipe Buencamino
Director of Public Instruction ​Arsenio Cruz Herrera
Director of Public Works ​Fernando Canon Faustino
Director of Agriculture and Industry ​Jose Alejandrino
Director of Communication ​Jose Vales
Director of Hygiene ​Jose Albert

∙ ​In September 1898, Aguinaldo called on the delegates from the provinces to gather
as a Revolutionary Congress in Malolos, Bulacan. However, the peace and order
situation and the political uncertainty during that period meant that most provinces
outside of Luzon were unable to send delegates. Thus, Aguinaldo was compelled
to appoint several delegates to represent these provinces. On September 15,
1898, the Malolos Congress was inaugurated and began the task of passing laws
that would establish an independent Philippine government.
∙ ​On September 29, the Congress ratified the Declaration of Independence. The
delegates then decided to draft a constitution, The Congress believed that the
creation of a modern constitution was needed to secure legitimacy for the
Aguinaldo government as well as gain recognition from other foreign states.
Page | 9
∙ ​The Malolos Congress began deliberations on a draft constitution in October 1898
and in January 1899, the final version of the constitution was submitted to
Aguinaldo for his approval. On January 21, 1899, the Malolos Constitution was
approved and promulgated.
∙ ​The Malolos Constitution, therefore, was the first code of laws in the country that
was created, deliberated, and approved from a national perspective. The Malolos
Constitution provided for a republican government with the legislative branch
having considerably more power than the executive and judiciary.
∙ ​The legislative branch was a unicameral Assembly which had the power to elect the
President and the Chief Justice. Meanwhile, the executive branch was comprised
of the President and his Cabinet, while the judicial branch was composed of the
Supreme Court headed by the Chief Justice, and had jurisdiction over lower
courts.
∙ ​Aside from the creation of the three branches of government, the Malolos
constitution also promulgated other important aspects of nationhood, citizenship,
and sovereignty.
∙ ​A citizen of the Philippines was no longer referred to as a Tagalog, but was called a
Filipino. The qualifications for being regarded as a citizen of the Philippines were
 also broadened. Citizens who were naturalized and those born overseas to Filipino
parents were considered as Filipinos. Lastly, but most importantly, the Malolos
Constitution recognized the sovereignty of the Filipino masses.
∙ ​The Malolos Constitution paved the way for the establishment of the First Philippine
Republic, which was inaugurated in Malolos on January 23, 1899. Unfortunately,
despite the efforts of Aguinaldo and his government, the republic faced serious
challenges upon its inception. One significant limitation to the republic was the
territorial boundaries of the republic which were not defined by the Malolos
Constitution.
∙ ​Further complicating matters were the peace negotiations between Spain and the
United States. In August 1898, a protocol of peace was signed which provided for
Spanish and American peace commissions to meet in Paris and discuss the terms
of a peace treaty.
∙ ​The negotiations between the two nations began in October 1898. Though
Aguinaldo sent Filipino representatives to lobby for the recognition of Philippine
independence in Washington, they were not recognized as official diplomats and
were unable to meet with the American president.
∙ ​The Filipino delegation then proceeded to Paris but officials from both the Spanish
and American peace commissions were unwilling to meet with them. On
December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed by Spain and the United
States, ending the Spanish-American War. Spain surrendered the Philippines to
the United States, along with its other colonies in the Pacific.
∙ ​The treaty, therefore, was considered the primary basis of the validity of US
sovereignty over the Philippines.
∙ ​Despite this significant setback, Aguinaldo and his government continued to assert
the independence and sovereignty of the Philippine republic.
∙ ​The outbreak of hostilities between the Filipinos and Americans in 1899, however,
brought about the end of the First Philippine Republic and ushered in a new period
of Philippine colonialism under American sovereignty.

References:
Joven, A. (2017). Philippine politics and givernance for senior high school, Power and
accountability. C & E Publishing Inc.
http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/Module_I.pdf

Page | 10
Page | 11