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Chapter 3
Chapter 3
mammals:
Simpson's classification of mammals is a system three main branches of the mammal
of classification that was proposed by George evolutionary tree, with the other two being
Gaylord Simpson, a renowned paleontologist Metatheria (which includes marsupials) and
and evolutionary biologist. This system classifies Eutheria (which includes placental mammals).
mammals into three groups based on their Prototheria is sometimes referred to as "basal
reproductive and anatomical characteristics: mammals" or "stem mammals" because it is the
most primitive branch of the mammalian
Prototheria: This group includes the
lineage that has survived to the present day.
monotremes, which are egg-laying mammals
found only in Australia and New Guinea. These In addition to laying eggs, monotremes have
mammals lack nipples and secrete milk from several other unique anatomical features. For
specialized glands on their skin. example, they lack nipples and instead secrete
milk from specialized glands on their skin. They
Metatheria: This group includes the marsupials,
also have a number of skeletal and muscular
which are mammals that give birth to relatively
adaptations that enable them to swim and hunt
undeveloped young that continue to develop
underwater, including webbed feet, a flattened
outside the womb in a pouch called a
tail, and electroreceptors in their bills that help
marsupium. Examples of marsupials include
them detect prey in murky water. Despite their
kangaroos, koalas, and opossums.
distinctive characteristics, monotremes share
Eutheria: This group includes the placental some common
mammals, which are mammals that give birth
to fully developed young that are nourished in
the uterus by a placenta. The majority of
mammals, including humans, belong to this
Monotremes are a group of egg-laying
group.
mammals that are found only in Australia and
Simpson's classification system is widely New Guinea. They are a small and unusual
accepted and has been used to classify group of mammals that exhibit a number of
mammals for many years. It provides a useful unique characteristics. Monotremes include
framework for understanding the diversity of only five species of mammals: platypuses and
mammals and their evolutionary relationships. four species of echidnas (also known as spiny
anteaters).
Monotremes are a group of mammals that are
unique in that they lay eggs instead of giving Prototheria is a subclass of mammals that
birth to live young. The monotremes consist of includes only the monotremes. Unlike other
only five extant species, all of which are found mammals, monotremes do not give birth to live
in Australia and New Guinea: the platypus and young. Instead, they lay eggs that hatch outside
four species of echidnas (also known as spiny the mother's body. This makes them unique
anteaters). Monotremes are the most basal among mammals, as all other mammals give
living group of mammals, meaning that they are birth to live young.
the most ancient lineage of mammals that have
Monotremes also lack nipples. Instead, they
survived to the present day.
secrete milk from specialized glands on their
The group that includes monotremes, along skin, which the young suckle directly from. This
with the extinct relatives of monotremes, is milk contains all the necessary nutrients for the
called Prototheria. Prototheria is one of the young, including fats, proteins, and sugars.
Monotremes have a number of other unique to produce venom. Male platypuses, in
features as well. For example, they have a bill- particular, have venomous spurs on their hind
like structure instead of a mouth, and they have legs that they use during mating season to
electroreceptors in their bills that allow them to compete with other males. The venom is not
detect electrical signals produced by prey in the lethal to humans, but it can cause intense pain
water. They also have a venomous spur on their and swelling.
hind legs, which is used primarily for defense.
Overall, the australosphenidan clade of
Overall, monotremes are a fascinating and monotremes is a unique and ancient group of
unusual group of mammals, and their unique mammals that has evolved in isolation in
characteristics have attracted the attention of Australia and nearby regions for millions of
biologists and zoologists for many years. years. Their distinctive dental pattern,
venomous spurs, and other unique features
ustralosphenida is an ancient clade of
make them a fascinating subject of study for
monotremes that includes two extant species of
evolutionary biologists and other scientists.
platypuses, the duck-billed platypus
(Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the short-
beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus). The
"Marsupionta" is a proposed clade that includes
name "Australosphenida" comes from the fact
both marsupials and a group of extinct
that the group is found exclusively in Australia
mammals called "stem-metatherians" or "basal
and nearby regions, and its members have a
metatherians." This clade is defined by a set of
unique dental structure called the
morphological and genetic features that suggest
australosphenidan pattern.
a close evolutionary relationship between these
The australosphenidan pattern is characterized two groups.
by two large molars in each jaw that have a
The term "Marsupionta" was first proposed by
distinctive Y-shaped ridge on the surface. This
paleontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska in 1984.
pattern is found in both platypuses and
Kielan-Jaworowska used this term to describe a
echidnas, as well as in several extinct
group of mammals that shared several key
monotreme species, which suggests that it is a
anatomical features, including the presence of a
shared characteristic of the australosphenidan
marsupium (a pouch used to carry young) and a
clade.
bifurcated reproductive tract.
The australosphenidan clade is believed to have
Stem-metatherians, also known as basal
diverged from other monotreme lineages
metatherians, are a group of early mammals
around 120 million years ago, during the early
that are believed to have lived during the
Cretaceous period. At this time, Australia was
Mesozoic era, which lasted from about 252 to
part of the supercontinent Gondwana, which
66 million years ago. These animals are
began to break up and drift apart during the
considered to be the ancestors of modern
late Cretaceous period. As a result, the
marsupials and are believed to have evolved in
australosphenidan monotremes became
the southern hemisphere, possibly in what is
isolated in Australia and nearby regions, where
now South America.
they evolved into the unique and diverse group
of species we see today. The idea that marsupials and stem-
metatherians are closely related is supported by
One interesting feature of the
a number of molecular studies that have
australosphenidan monotremes is their ability
compared the DNA of these two groups. These with over 330 species of marsupials currently
studies have identified several genetic recognized.
similarities that suggest that marsupials and
Some well-known examples of marsupials
stem-metatherians share a common ancestor.
include kangaroos, koalas, possums, wallabies,
However, the exact relationships between and Tasmanian devils. These animals have
different groups within Marsupionta remain a adapted to a wide range of environments and
subject of debate among evolutionary habitats, from the rainforests of South America
biologists. Some researchers have proposed to the deserts of Australia.
that the group should be expanded to include
Overall, marsupials are an important group of
other groups of mammals, such as the extinct
mammals that have evolved unique adaptations
group of mammals called the
for reproduction and survival. They provide
"Australosphenida" and the living placental
important insights into the evolution and
mammals.
diversity of mammals, and they continue to
Overall, the concept of Marsupionta represents fascinate biologists and zoologists around the
an important contribution to our understanding world.
of mammalian evolution, particularly the
evolution of marsupials. By examining the
morphological and genetic features of these Polyprotodont, syndactylous, and didactylous
animals, researchers can gain insights into the are terms used to describe different groups of
evolutionary history of mammals and the marsupials based on the number and
complex relationships between different groups arrangement of their toes.
of organisms.
Polyprotodont marsupials are a group of
marsupials that have more than four front toes,
with each toe having its own separate bone
Marsupials are a group of mammals that are
structure. This includes species such as the
characterized by their distinctive reproductive
quokka, numbat, and the Tasmanian devil.
system. Unlike placental mammals (eutherians),
These animals have a wide variety of diets and
marsupials give birth to relatively undeveloped
lifestyles, ranging from herbivores to
young that continue to develop outside the
carnivores.
mother's body, typically in a pouch called a
marsupium. Syndactylous marsupials are a group of
marsupials that have two or more toes that are
After birth, the young marsupial crawls up to
fused together, forming a structure similar to a
the mother's pouch and attaches to a nipple,
hoof. This includes species such as the koala
where it feeds on milk for several weeks or
and the wombats. The syndactylous
months. During this time, the young marsupial
arrangement of the toes allows these animals
undergoes rapid growth and development, as it
to have a more stable grip on branches and to
receives nutrients from the milk and protection
better dig burrows.
from the pouch.
Didactylous marsupials are a group of
Marsupials are found primarily in Australia and
marsupials that have only two front toes, which
nearby islands, although some species are also
are used for grasping and climbing. This
found in the Americas. They exhibit a wide
includes species such as the possums and the
range of morphological and ecological diversity,
gliders. The didactylous arrangement of the Simpson's idea of Insectivora was based
toes allows these animals to be very agile in primarily on morphological and ecological
trees and to move easily through dense similarities among these animals, rather than on
vegetation. genetic relationships. In the years since Simpson
proposed this classification, molecular studies
It is worth noting that while these terms can be
have shown that the animals traditionally
helpful in describing the physical characteristics
classified as Insectivora are actually members of
of different marsupial species, there is a great
several different evolutionary groups, such as
deal of variation within each group. Some
the Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, and
species within a particular group may have
Euarchontoglires.
slightly different toe arrangements or other
physical features, and there may be some Overall, Simpson's idea of Insectivora helped to
overlap between groups. stimulate research into the diversity and
evolution of small, insect-eating mammals, and
Overall, understanding the different toe
it remains an important part of the history of
arrangements and physical characteristics of
mammalian taxonomy.
marsupials can help us to better appreciate the
diversity of this unique group of mammals and
the ways in which they have adapted to their
Euarchontoglires is a clade (a group of
environments over time.
organisms that share a common ancestor) that
includes two orders of mammals: Primates and
Rodentia, as well as some other closely related
Simpson's classification of mammals included
groups like rabbits and tree shrews. The name
the order Insectivora, which was a taxonomic
"Euarchontoglires" is derived from Greek and
group that was widely used in the past to
Latin roots, with "Euarchonta" meaning "true
classify a diverse array of small, insect-eating
rulers" and "Glires" meaning "rodents".
mammals. However, this group is no longer
recognized by modern taxonomists, as it has The Euarchontoglires clade is based on
been shown to be paraphyletic (meaning it molecular and genetic evidence that suggests
doesn't represent a true evolutionary group). these groups are more closely related to each
other than to other mammals. Members of the
Despite its flaws, Simpson's idea of Insectivora
Euarchontoglires clade share several unique
was an important contribution to our
characteristics, including a complex brain
understanding of mammalian evolution. He
structure, specialized teeth, and a tendency
recognized that there were a number of small,
towards herbivory or omnivory.
insect-eating mammals that shared certain
morphological and ecological characteristics, Overall, Euarchontoglires is a diverse and
and he grouped them together in a single important group of mammals that includes
taxonomic order. some of our closest primate relatives, as well as
many important model organisms for scientific
Some of the animals that were traditionally
research, such as mice and rats.
classified as members of Insectivora include
shrews, moles, hedgehogs, and solenodons.
These animals are small, agile, and adapted to
hunting and eating insects and other small
invertebrates.
Simpson's idea on Xenarthra was that it is a Simpson's idea was based on his analysis of the
unique and ancient group of mammals that has fossil record of Xenarthra and other related
been isolated in South America for a very long groups of mammals, as well as molecular and
time. Simpson was a renowned American genetic evidence. He argued that the Xenarthra
paleontologist who proposed the idea of the group represented an example of adaptive
"splendid isolation" of South American fauna, radiation, in which a group of organisms
which means that the fauna of South America diversifies rapidly to fill a variety of ecological
was isolated from other continents for millions niches.
of years, resulting in the evolution of unique
Overall, Simpson's idea on Xenarthra provided
and distinct groups of animals.
important insights into the evolutionary history
Xenarthra is a group of mammals that includes and relationships of this group of mammals, and
armadillos, anteaters, and sloths. Simpson helped to highlight the role of isolation and
believed that Xenarthra evolved in South adaptation in shaping the diversity of life on
America during the early Tertiary period Earth.
(around 60 million years ago), and that their
unique features, such as their armored shells,
long tongues, and specialized claws, evolved in impson's idea on Afrotheria is based on his
response to the unique ecological conditions of study of the evolutionary history and
the continent. relationships of a group of placental mammals
that are found primarily in Africa. This group,
Simpson also proposed that the isolation of
known as Afrotheria, includes elephants,
South America allowed the evolution
hyraxes, aardvarks, tenrecs, and several other
groups of mammals.
The divergence of monotremes, marsupials, and Following the closure of the land bridge,
eutherians reflects the complex and dynamic marsupials likely continued to diversify and
evolutionary history of mammals, and highlights adapt to new environments in South America,
the importance of reproductive and ecological Australia, and
adaptations in shaping the diversity of life on
Earth. By studying the evolutionary history and
relationships of these three groups of he origin of crown group marsupials is still the
mammals, researchers can gain important subject of ongoing scientific research and
insights into the processes and mechanisms of debate, but current evidence suggests that
evolution, and can better understand the these mammals likely originated in South
diversity and complexity of life on our planet. America during the Late Cretaceous period,
around 65-100 million years ago.
However, other studies have challenged the However, the Long Fuse Model is still subject to
Explosive Model, suggesting that the debate and criticism. Some researchers have
diversification of placental mammals may have argued that the model may underestimate the
been more gradual and continuous, rather than importance of extrinsic factors, such as
episodic. The debate over the nature of environmental change, in driving the
placental mammal diversification is ongoing and diversification of placental mammals. Others
continues to be an active area of research in have suggested that the model may be overly
evolutionary biology. simplistic, and that the diversification
The terms "long fuse" and "short fuse" models
are not typically used in the context of placental
mammal diversification. These terms are
typically used to describe individual differences
in behavior or personality, rather than
macroevolutionary processes.