GNR402: Introduction to Geographic Information

Systems: GIS Data Model: Raster

Surya S. Durbha, PhD

  Professor
CSRE, IITB

 Outline

❖ Background
❖ Raster Data Model

 GIS DATA MODEL

❖ Geographical variation in the real world is infinitely complex

❖ The closer we look, the more detail we see
❖ Methods used to convert real geographical variation into
discrete objects is the data model
❖ Data Model is a set of guide lines for the representation of the
logical organization of the data in a data base consisting of
logical units of data and the relationships between them
❖ Each data model fits to certain types of data and applications

Two Major Choices of Data Models

Raster and Vector

 Raster and Vector Data Models

Real World 600

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 B G Trees
500
2 B G G
3 B
400
4 BG G Trees
Y-AXIS
5 B G G 300
6 B G BK House
7 BG 200
8 B B River
9 B 100

10 B 100 200 300 400 500 600

X-AXIS

Raster Representation Vector Representation

Source: Defense Mapping School National Imagery and Mapping Agency

 RASTER MODEL

❖ Raster Model divides the entire study area into regular

grid of cells in a specific sequence
❖ It is space filling and every location in the study area
corresponds to a cell in the raster
❖ One set of cells and associated values is a layer (soil,
landuse, elevation etc.)
❖ Raster model tells what occurs at each place in the
area

 Raster Data Models


❑ Model for representing

geographic spac
❑ Spatial locations are
implici
❑ Relationships between
entities/objects are
explici
❑ Points associated with
single grid cel
❑ Lines are a connected Image Source:http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgiSDEsktop/9.1/index.cfm?
TopicName=GIS%20data%20structure%20types

sequence of cell
❑ Areas are a sequence of
interconnected cells
t

 Raster Representation

Legend

Cultivated Area

Forest

Pond

Settlement

Open Area

Each color represents a different value of a

nominal-scale field denoting land cover class.
 CREATION OF RASTER DATA LAYER
❖ To create a raster layer, lay a grid pattern over a map (like
soil) and code each cell with a value that represents the soil
type
❖ Cell is called as raster or grid or pixel
❖ These coded values are in ASCII and can be entered
manually through keyboard. It will be time consuming and
tedious
❖ Currently scanners are used to create raster data layers
❖ Remote Sensing directly gives the digital data raster model
❖ GIS tools provide facilities for conversion of vector to raster
layers
 Raster Data Models: Elements

❑ Cell value. Each cell in a raster carries
a value, which represents the
characteristic of a spatial phenomenon
at the location denoted by its row and
column. The cell value can be integer
or floating-point
❑ Cell size. The cell size determines the
resolution of the raster data model
❑ Raster bands. A raster may have a
single band or multiple bands
❑ Spatial reference. Raster data must Image Source:http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgiSDEsktop/9.1/
have the spatial reference information index.cfm?TopicName=GIS%20data%20structure%20types

so that they can align spatially with

other data sets in a GIS.
.

 Raster Data Models: Elements


❑ Georeferencing assigns coordinates from a known

reference system, such as latitude/longitude,
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), or State
Plane, to the page coordinates of a raster (image)
or a planar map.
❑ Georeferencing raster data allows it to be viewed,
queried, and analyzed with other geographic data.

 RASTER DIGITAL DATA SOURCES

❖ Remote Sensing generates images in raster model. Geo

registration and resampling have to be done for registering
remote sensing data with other layers
❖ Elevation Data is available in raster form in some countries
 Raster Data Layer
Resolution
❖ Resolution can be defined as the minimum linear
dimension of the smallest unit of geographical space
for which data are encoded
❖ Higher resolution refers to raster with small cell
dimensions. It gives more detail and the storage
requirement increases
Orientation
❖ Angle between true north and the direction defined by
the columns of the raster
Zone
❖ Each zone of a map layer is a set of contiguous
locations that exhibit the same value
Example : Villages, Soil types
❖ All individual zones that have the same characteristics
is called as a class

 Raster Data Layer (Contd..)

Value
❖ It is an item of information stored in a layer for each
pixel or cell
❖ Cells in the same zone have the same value
Location
❖ Generally location is identified by an ordered pair of
coordinates (row and column numbers) that identify
the location of each unit of geographic space in the
raster
❖ Usually the true geographic location of one or more
corners of the raster is also known

Raster Data Layer

Raster Data Layer
Raster Data Layer
 Raster Data Layer

8-bit digital orthophotos (in

BIL, "band interleave by line"
format).
 Raster Data Layer

Three differently scaled views

of an ArcInfo format elevation
grid, showing cell outlines and
elevation values.
http://courses.washington.edu/gis250/lessons/introduction_gis/images/elev_cl2.jpg
 Pixel Values

❖ The type of values contained in pixels in raster depend upon

the map being coded
❖ Raster Data Values may be
✶ 0 - 255 (8 bit value)
e.g. Remote Sensing Image
✶ Integers
✶ Real Values (DTM)
❖ Integer values act as code numbers which point to names in an
associated table or legend
❖ One pixel or cell is assured to have only one value
❖ The boundary of two classes may run across the middle of the
pixel. In such cases, the pixel is given the value of the largest
fraction of the cell.

 Raster Data Models: Elements


Image Source: http://www.awi.de/typo3temp/pics/284ad3b4e8.jpg

Example: continuous raster

Xie et al. 2005

 Raster Data: 

Methods of storage

• Four common methods of storing data

• Run-length codes
• Raster chain codes
• Block codes
• Quadtrees

 RASTER DATA COMPRESSION

Runlength Encoding
❖ Values often occur in runs across several cells
❖ Spatial auto-correlation exists - a tendency for nearby things to be
more similar than distant things
❖ In runlength encoding, data are entered in pairs, first runlength and
then value
❖ Thematic maps storage sizes get reduced using run length encoding
❖ Some raster GIS packages have the capability to handle run length
encoded files
Value point encoding
❖ Cells are assigned position numbers starting in the upper left corner
proceeding from left to right and from top to bottom
❖ The position no for end of each run is stored in the point columns.
The value for each cell in the run is in the value column

 RASTER DATA COMPRESSION

COLUMNS
0123456789
ROWS
0
1
2
A
3
4
B
5
6
7 D
8 C
9

Full Raster Encoding (100 values) Run Length Encoding (54 values)
MAP Value Point Encoding (32 values)
COLUMNS VALUE LENGTH ROW VALUE POINT
Rows 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A 10 0 A 23
0 A A A A A A A A A A A 10 1 B 29
1 A A A A A A A A A A A 4 2 A 32
2 A A A A B B B B B B B 6 2 B 39
3 A A A B B B B B B B A 3 3 D 43
4 D D D D B B B B B B B 7 3 B 49
5 D D D D D B B B B B D 4 4 D 54
6 D D D D C C C C C C B 6 4 B 59
7 D D D D C C C C C C D 5 5 D 63
8 D D D D C C C C C C B 5 5 C 69
9 D D D D C C C C C C D 4 6 D 73
C 6 6 C 79
D 4 7 D 83
C 6 7 C 89
D 4 8 D 93
C 6 8 C 99
D 4 9
C 6 9

 RASTER DATA COMPRESSION Contd.

Quadtree
◆ More compact raster representation using a variable sized grid cells
◆ Process of regularly subdividing a map into four equal sized quadrants.
Quadrant that has more than one class is again subdivided.
◆ Root is a point from which all branches expand
◆ Leaf is a lower most point.
◆ All other points in the tree are nodes

 THE QUADTREE REPRESENTATION

A. Land-Use Map B. Quadtree Representation

INDUSTRIAL 0 1

210 211
commercial
Residential 20 21
Detached
212 213
a b
RURAL 2 3

RESIDENTIAL
22 23
MULTI UNIT
 THE QUADTREE REPRESENTATION
C. Scematic Representation D. Table of Attribute
of the Quadtree
MAP Quadtree Levels
ATTRIBUTES
(Root) 1 2 3
(Leaf) 0 Industrial
3 1 Industrial
2 Residential
0 2
1 20 Residential, Detached
21 Services
23 210 Commercial
22
20 21 211 Commercial

(Node) 212 Commercial, Services

213 Recreation
22 Residual, Multi Unit
213
210 211 23 Residual, Multi Unit
212
3 Rural

Data Model: Quadtrees

Source: Demers, Michael. N. (2000). 2nd Ed. Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. p. 107. fig. 4.13 (d).
 Raster Data Structures/Models
❑ Advantage
❑ Simple data structure
❑ Location-specific manipulation of attribute data
is eas
❑ Many kinds of spatial analysis and filtering may
be use
❑ Mathematical modeling is easy because all
spatial entities have a simple, regular shap
❑ The technology is chea
❑ Many forms of data are available
Source: Principles of Geographic Information Systems. p 70
y

 Raster Data Structures/Models

❑ Disadvantage
❑ Large data volumes
❑ Using large grid cells to reduce data volumes
reduces spatial resolution; loss of information
❑ Crude raster maps are inelegant though graphic
elegance is becoming less of a problem
❑ Coordinate transformations are difficult & time
consuming unless special algorithms &
hardware are used and even then may result in
loss of information or distortion of grid cell
shape.

Source: Principles of Geographic Information Systems. p 70

s

 Some Raster Functions

❑ Local functions work
on single cell
❑ Focal functions work
on cells within a
neighborhoo
❑ Zonal functions work
on cells within zone
❑ Global functions work
on all cell
- Euclidean distance (or
straight-line distance)
❑- Cost Weighted
distance

Sum of 3 x 3 cell neighborhood

s

 Some Raster Functions

❑ Density function distributes

a measured quantity of an
input point layer throughout
a landscape to produce a
continuous surface
❑ surface generation functions
(or surface interpolators)
create a continuous surface
from a sampled point value
❑- Inverse distance weighted
(IDW
❑- Polynomial trend surfac
- Splin
❑- Kriging
)

‘Much of the life of the mind consists in applying concepts to things’

(Fodor 1998:24)