Dear students,

For the assignment of the comprehesive examination, you are obliged to write a paper on the summary
of the answers of

the following questions

1. What is literature?

a.The meaning of Literature

b. Genre of Literature

c. Functions of Literature

d. The Development of English Literature

2. What is literary Criticism?

a. Definition/meaning of Literary Criticism

b. The function of Literary Criticism

c. The development of literary Criticism

d. The approaches of literary criticism and their characteristics.

3. Analysis of one literary work according your choice.

 Ari Gunawan

2016060417

Comprehesive Examination

1. What is literature?

a. The meaning of literature

Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. Derived from the
Latin word literature meaning “writing formed with letters,” literature most commonly refers
to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, prose, poem, fiction,
nonfiction, and in some instances, journalism, and song. There are three main ways of
approaching a definition of literature are relativism, subjectivism and agnosticism. With
relativism, there are no value distinctions in literature; anything may be called good literature.
Subjectivism, as the term implies, means that all theories of literary value are subjective, and
that literary evaluation is a purely personal matter. Agnosticism follows from subjectivism,
though it argues that though there may be real distinctions in literary value, our subjective
value systems prevent us from knowing anything about the real values.

b. Genre of Literature
Genre is the organization of literature into categories based on the type of writing the piece
exemplifies through its content, form, or style. There are two main categories genre in
literature fiction and non-fiction. Types of nonfiction is essay, biography, speech and
autobiography. On the other hand the type of fiction is drama, poetry, fantasy, humor, fable,
etc.

Prose
Prose is a style of writing that does not follow a strict structure of rhyming and/or meter.
Prose uses normal grammatical structures. The most common genres of prose are the short
story, the novella, and the novel.
Element of Prose Fiction
• Theme
Theme is the general idea of a story.
• Setting
Setting is the information of the where the story occur and the time of the story. Setting also
include a context (especially society) beyond the surround of the story, like culture, historical
period, geography, and occupation.
• Plot
Plot is the sequence of events.
• Conflict
A literary device characterized by a struggle between two opposing forces.
Point of View
Point of view is the different angle to see the subject.
• Character and Characterization
Character is an individual (usually a person) who play in a story. Characterization is the
method used by the writer to develop a character.
• Symbols
Symbols is the language style used by the author.

Analyzing Short Story

• Setting
Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. In a short story there are
fewer settings compared to a novel.
• Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters in the story are described. In short stories
there are usually fewer characters compared to a novel.
• Plot and structure
The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story.

• Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the short story and is related to the main character.
• Climax
The climax is the point of greatest tension or intensity in the short story.
• Theme
The theme is the main idea, lesson or message in the short story.
• Style
The author’s style has to do with the author’s vocabulary, use of imagery, tone or feeling of
the story.
Analyzing Novels
• Plot
Plot refers to what happens in the story - events and thoughts which make up the story's basic
structure.
• Setting
Setting refers to the location of a story or novel in terms of place, time, social environment,
and physical environment.
• Characters
Characters are the people or animals in a story.
• Point of View
Point of view is the perspective from which a story is told.
• Imagery
Imagery refers to the collection of images in a work of fiction: the mental pictures created by
the author's words.
• Symbolism
A symbol is something that represents something else. It is an image of an event or a physical
object (a thing, person, or place) that is used to represent something nonphysical such as an
idea, a value, or an emotion.

• Tone
Tone refers to the author's attitude or position toward the action, characters, narrator, subject,
and even readers of the story.
• Irony
Irony refers to the unexpected difference or lack of agreement between appearance and truth
or between expectation and reality.
• Theme
A theme is a truth that a story reveals.

Poetry and Poem

Poetry is a type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm. It often employs
rhyme and meter. In poetry, words are strung together to form sounds, images, and ideas that
might be too complex or abstract to describe directly. A poem is a piece of writing in which
the words are chosen for their beauty and sound and are carefully arranged, often in short
lines which rhyme.
Element of Poetry
Poetry is an intricate literary form that incorporates rhyme, figurative language, sound
devices, and meter in order to evoke a wide array of meanings. The language of poetry is not
always straightforward. It guides readers to reach a conclusion but never gives out any details
explicitly.

Structure, Type and Form of Poetry

 The structural elements found in poetry are:
 Meter: Meter is the rhythmic structure within a poem and is dictated by the number
of syllables and the pattern in which these syllables are emphasized.
 Rhyme: Rhyme is created when the last one or more syllables within separate words
match. A poem is considered to rhyme when the last words of the lines within the
verse share this relationship.
 Scheme: A scheme refers to the rhyming pattern within a verse of poetry. The
scheme could contain words that rhyme at each of every line throughout the stanza,
or alternating lines, or in couplets. We often signify the rhyme scheme using an
arrangement of letters.
 Verse: The verse of the poem is a way to describe the relationship between rhyme
and meter in a poem.
 Stanza: A stanza is a group of lines within the verse of a poem. They often follow a
similar pattern or meter or contain a similar idea, but not always. They are separated
from other stanzas within the poem through the use of a break or a blank line.

There are 9 type of stanza such as:

 A 2-line stanza is called a couplet. aa is a rhymed couplet; xx an unrhymed couplet.
The French call rhymed couplets rimes plates or rimes suivies.
 A 3-line stanza of any kind is called a tercet. aaa is a triplet. axa is pretty common,
occurring in forms such as the villanelle and terza rima.
 A 4-line stanza of any kind is called a quatrain.
 A 5-line stanza of any kind can be called a quintain, a quintet, or a cinquain.
However, the word cinquain is also used both for a particular verse form of French
origin, and for a particular syllable-counting form.
  A 6-line stanza of any kind can be called a sexain. Synonyms which I shall spurn
include sixain, sextet and hexastich, as well as sestet.
 A 7-line stanza of any kind is called a septet. The most common such form, and
apparently the only one to have a special name, is rhyme royal, which uses the
scheme ababbcc, the lines having 10 syllables each i.e. (usually) iambic pentameter.
 An 8-line stanza of any kind is called an octave (or occasionally an octet). The word
octave is also used for the first 8 lines of a sonnet. Ottava rima rhymes abababcc, the
lines being of either 10 or 11 syllables.
 A 9-line stanza of any kind is called Spenserian stanza (after Edmund Spenser of the
Faerie Queene), which rhymes ababbcbcc, the first 8 lines being pentameters and the
last a hexameter or alexandrine.
 Longer stanzas
As stanzas grow longer, the number of possible rhyming schemes increases rapidly
and the number of forms found to deserve special names dwindles even more rapidly.
One of them is the 14-line Onegin stanza.
 
 There are several type and form of poetry such as:
 Lyric poetry
A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents
a state of mind or an emotional state. Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of song which
is said to be its origin: For Greek writers the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre.
 Narrative Poetry
Narrative poetry gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of connected events, it
propels characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator.
 Haiku
Haiku is a Japanese form of poetry which is composed of three non-rhyming lines. The first
and third lines have five syllables each and the second line has seven syllables.
 Pastoral Poetry
Pastoral poetry will focus on describing a rural place, but the terms will be peaceful and
endearing. You will feel at ease after reading these types of poems. Many pastoral poems are
written about shepherds. They are ten as a series of rhyming couplets
 Terza Rima
Terza rima is a verse form composed of iambic tercets (three-line groupings). The rhyme
scheme for this form of poetry is "aba bcb cdc, etc." The second line of each tercet sets the
rhyme for the following tercet, and thus supplying the verse with a common thread, a way to
link the stanzas.
 Ballad
A ballade is a form of verse that uses poetic turns of phrase to form a compelling narrative
over the course of its four stanzas, which follow an established rhyming pattern.
 Imagery
These types of poems work to draw a picture in the mind of the reader, in order to give an
extremely powerful image of what the writer is talking about. They work to intensify the
senses of the reader.
 Limerick
A limerick is a poem that is often silly or whimsical, written in five lines with an AABBA
rhyme scheme. Often, limericks tell a short, humorous story. These types of poems have been
popular for hundreds of years, particularly in the English language.
 Epic Poem
One of the longest types of poems is known as the epic poem, which has been around for
thousands of years Technically a type of narrative poem, which tells a story, epic poems Page
71 usually tell the story of a mythical warrior and the great things that he accomplished in all
of his journeys such as The Odyssey and The Iliad.
 Elegy
Because poems can express a wide variety of emotions, there are sad forms of poetry as well
as happy ones. One of these sad forms is known as an elegy. Elegies express a lament, often
over the death of a loved one. This makes elegies especially popular for funerals.
 Free Verse
Free verse is a type of poetry that does not require any rhyme scheme or meter. Poems
written in free verse, however, do tend to employ other types of creative language such as
alliteration, words that begin with the same sound, or assonance, the repetition of vowel
sounds.
 Sonnet
Sonnet has been popular with authors from Dante to Shakespeare. A sonnet contains 14 lines,
typically with two rhyming stanzas known as a rhyming couplet at the end. There are several
types of sonnets, including:
• Italian (also known as Petrarchan)
• Spenserian
• English or Shakespearean sonnet
 Elegy
In traditional English poetry, it is often a melancholy poem that laments its subject's death but
ends in consolation.
 Free Verse
Free verse is any form of poetry that does not rely on consistent patterns of rhyme and meter.
In fact, free-verse poetry doesn't have to rhyme at all. As a result, free verse tends to follow
the rhythm of natural speech.

Analyzing Poetry
To understand how to analyze that poem, start by studying the poem for its main idea. In
order to learn how to analyze a poem, you have to understand what poetry is. Poetry is a
literary form used to express feelings and ideas. Poetry analysis involves examining the
independent elements of a poem to understand those feelings and ideas. In order to make a
credible argument about the poem, you have to analyze how the poem works, what genre the
poem fits into, what its themes are, and what poetic techniques and figures of speech are
used.
 
Elements of Drama
 Plot
A plot is a sequence of events within a play that tells a story. Essentially, a plot is what makes
a story. Five components make up a plot: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and
resolution--conflict and theme help drive the plot forward.
 Theme
The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through dialog or
action, or can be inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is the philosophy
that forms the base of the story or a moral lesson that the characters learn.
 Characters
The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama. Each
character in a play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in
the play have the responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main character in the
play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she represents the theme of the
play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the antagonist or villain.
 Dialog
The story of a play is taken forward by means of dialogs. The story is narrated to the
audiences through the interaction between the play’s characters, which is in the form of
dialogs. The contents of the dialogs and the quality of their delivery have a major role to play
in the impact that the play has on the audiences.
 Setting
The time and place where a story is set is one of its important parts. The era or time in which
the incidents in the play take place, influence the characters in their appearance and
personalities. The time setting may affect the central theme of the play, the issues raised (if
any), the conflict, and the interactions between the characters.
 Performance
It is another important element of drama, as the impact that a story has on the audiences is
largely affected by the performances of the actors. When a written play is transformed into a
stage performance, the actors cast for different roles, the way they portray the characters
assigned to them, and the way their performances are directed are some important factors that
determine the play’s impact.
 Music
This element includes the use of sounds and rhythm in dialogs as well as music compositions
that are used in the plays. The background score, the songs, and the sound effects used should
complement the situation and the characters in it.
 Visual Element
While the dialog and music are the audible aspects of drama, the visual element deals with
the scenes, costumes, and special effects used in it. The visual element of drama, also known
as the spectacle, renders a visual appeal to the stage setup.

Drama and Genre of Drama

Drama is a play that can be performed for theatre, radio or even television. These plays are
usually written out as a script, or a written version of a play that is read by the actors but not
the audience. This is where theatre comes in. A dramatic work is usually called a play, but if
you want to specify what type of drama it is, you can call it a comedy, a. tragedy, a farce or
tragicomedy or other names.
Analyzing Drama
 Character
A character is a person, animal, being, creature, or thing in a story. Writers use characters to
perform the actions and speak dialogue, moving the story along a plot line.
 Plot and Structure
In drama, plot is the invention, selection, and arrangement of action, unified by a sense of
purpose that joins character, story line, and theme.
 Stages
There are many types of modern stages, including the traditional proscenium stage, the thrust
stage (where an audience sits around three sides of the major acting area), and the arena stage
(where an audience sits all the way around the acting area). Most plays are performed on a
proscenium stage.
 Set
Sets consist of the design, decoration, and scenery on stage during a play performance.
 Setting
When watching a play performance, audiences must imagine that the stage set is actually a
particular place or setting somewhere else.
 Tone
A play's tone is its style or manner of expression.
 Theme
Theme is usually defined as a statement or assertion about the subject of a work and about the
comprehensive impact of an entire work.

Theater
Theatre, also spelled theater, in dramatic arts, an art concerned almost exclusively with live
performances in which the action is precisely planned to create a coherent and significant
sense of drama.

Drama Structure
Plays have a definite structure that can include a prologue, acts, scenes, and an epilogue. In
this lesson, you'll learn about each of those parts and how they fit together to form a play.
 Prologue
Prologue, a preface or introduction to a literary work. In a dramatic work, the term describes
a speech, often in verse, addressed to the audience by one or more of the actors at the opening
of a play.
 Acts
 An act is a way to divide an opera, play, or other drama. Each act is a group of scenes that
form an important part of the story.
 Scenes
A scene can refer to the actual action that takes place in a specific and single setting and
moment in time. It usually begins with the entrance of an actor (which starts the action) and
ends with the exit of the actor (the signal of the end of action).
 Epilogue
In a dramatic work, the epilogue is a speech, often in verse, addressed to the audience by one
or more of the actors at the end of a play.

c. Function of Literature
Literature reflects the various experiences, ideas, passions of human beings in their daily life
that express on several forms and styles of literary works. Literature has great function in
developing human’s feelings, ideas, and interests. Generally, the functions of literature are as
follows: the first function is literature gives knowledge of those particularities with which
science and philosophy are not concerned. The second function is that literature makes the
human perceive what human see, imagine what human already know conceptually or
practically. The final function of literature is that literature relieve human either writers or
readers from the pressure of emotions.
Apart from simply providing enjoyment, literature has often functioned as a mirror of its
times. Often issues can be addressed in literature that is more difficult to address elsewhere.
For example, literature has been used to advocate for social reforms (e.g. Harriet Tubman’s
“Uncle Tom’s Cabin”, Percy Shelley’s early poetry). Literature can also be used for social
commentary, which is often done in the form of a satire. Examples would be Jonathan Swift’s
“Gulliver’s Travels” and “A Modest Proposal”. Also William Blake’s “The Marriage of
Heaven and Hell” and Lord Byron’s “Don Juan”. Although Don Juan is not really classified
as a satire (as far as I am aware), Byron makes frequent use of satire in it.

Literature can also be used to explore controversial themes in a more indirect way than
holding rallies, protests, etc. Examples would be Don Juan (shockingly controversial for its
time with its exploration of themes of sexuality) - today nearly any literature that explores
LGBT themes or any other somewhat “controversial” issues.

d. Development of Literarture
• Old English
• Middel English
• Tudor Lyric Poetry
• Renaissance Drama
• Metaphysical Poetry
• Epic Poetry
• Restoration Comedy
• Prose Fiction and the Novel
• Romanticism
• Victorian Poetry
• The Victorian Novel
• Early 20th Century Poets
• Early Modern Writers
• Poetry in The Later 20th Century
2. What is Literary Criticism?
a. Definition/meaning of Literary Criticism
Literary criticism is the practice of analyzing and interpreting literature in order to understand its
significance, meaning, and form. It involves examining the themes, language, symbols, and other
literary devices used by authors to convey their message, and evaluating how successful they
were in achieving their intended purpose.
Literary criticism can take many forms, including historical, biographical, feminist,
psychoanalytic, and post-structuralist approaches.Each of these approaches offers a unique
perspective on literature and can reveal new insights into the work being analyzed. Overall,
literary criticism is an essential tool for anyone looking to gain a deeper understanding and
appreciation of literature. Whether you are a student of literature, an aspiring writer, or simply
an avid reader, literary criticism can enhance your ability to engage with and interpret literary
works.
Moreover, literary criticism allows us to examine literature in the context of its time period and
cultural background, shedding light on societal attitudes, beliefs, and values. By doing so, literary
criticism not only helps us to understand individual works of literature but also provides insight
into the larger cultural and historical context in which they were created.
Ultimately, literary criticism is about exploring the power of literature to shape our
understanding of the world and ourselves. It is a way to engage with literature in a meaningful
and thought-provoking way, and to appreciate the depth and complexity of the human
experience that literature can offer.In summary, literary criticism is a vital component of the
study and appreciation of literature. It allows us to delve deeper into the meanings and
messages of literary works, understand their cultural and historical significance, and gain a
greater appreciation for the power of literature to shape our understanding of ourselves and the
world around us.
It is an essential tool for analyzing and interpreting literature, providing insight into the themes,
language, symbols, and other literary devices used by authors to convey their message, and
allowing us to explore the larger cultural and historical context in which literary works were
created.Overall, literary criticism enables us to engage with literature in a way that is both
enriching and intellectually stimulating, and helps us to develop a more nuanced and
sophisticated understanding of the complex world we inhabit. Whether you are a student of
literature, an aspiring writer, or simply someone who enjoys reading, incorporating literary
criticism into your approach can greatly enhance your appreciation and understanding of
literary works. In short, literary criticism is an invaluable tool for anyone seeking a deeper
understanding and appreciation of literature.It is through literary criticism that we can truly
unlock the potential of literature to shape our understanding of ourselves and the world around
us, and to explore the complexities of the human experience in a meaningful and thought-
provoking way.

b. Function of literary criticism

1. To analyze, study, and evaluate works of literature.
2.To form general principles for the examination of works of literature.
c. Development of literary criticism

d. The approaches of literary criticism and their characteristics?

1. Historical-biographical criticism: Historical-biographical criticism examines literature through
the perspective of the author’s historical context. This approach assumes that the significance of
a particular piece of literature is inextricably linked to its historical context. For example,
historical-biographical critics evaluate Shakespeare’s work within the context of English
literature, history, and culture during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.
2. Moral-philosophical criticism: This literary criticism style approaches literature based on its
ethical merits. Moral-philosophical critics evaluate literary works based on the moral statements
and judgments the characters and author express throughout the literary text.
3. Sociological criticism: Sociological criticism evaluates literature based on its relationship to
society. The sociological criticism method examines the author’s status in their society as well as
the effect that the literary work had on its audience within the society. One form of sociological
criticism is Marxist criticism, which examines how a specific work of literature affirms or rejects
oppression within class systems.
4. Psychoanalytic criticism: This form of literary criticism examines literature based on the
psychological desires and neuroses of the characters within a particular piece of literature.
Psychoanalytic critics believe that an author’s unconscious thoughts are expressed through their
work.
5. Practical criticism: This study of literature encourages readers to examine the text without
regard to any outside context—like the author, the date and place of writing, or any other
contextual information that may enlighten the reader.
6. Formalism: Formalism compels readers to judge the artistic merit of literature by examining
its formal elements, like language and technical skill. Formalism favors a literary canon of works
that exemplify the highest standards of literature, as determined by formalist critics.
7. Reader-response criticism: Reader-response criticism is rooted in the belief that a reader's
reaction to or interpretation of a text is as valuable a source of critical study as the text itself.
8. New criticism: New critics focused on examining the formal and structural elements of
literature, as opposed to the emotional or moral elements. Poet T.S. Eliot and critics Cleanth
Brooks and John Crowe Ransom pioneered the approach in the mid-twentieth century.
9. Post-structuralism: Post-structuralist literary criticism abandoned ideas of formal and
structural cohesion, questioning any assumed universal truths as reliant on the social structure
that influenced them. One of the writers who shaped post-structuralist criticism is Roland
Barthes—the father of semiotics, or the study of signs and symbols in art.
10. Deconstruction: Proposed by Jacques Derrida, deconstructionists pick apart a text’s ideas or
arguments, looking for contradictions that render any singular reading of a text impossible.
11. Feminist criticism: As the feminist movement gained steam in the mid-twentieth century,
literary critics began looking to gender studies for new modes of literary criticism. One of the
earliest proponents of feminist criticism was Virginia Woolf in her seminal essay, A Room of
One's Own. Other notable feminist critics include Elaine Showalter and Hélène Cixous.