International Journal of Ambient Energy

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An experimental investigation of papaya oil

methyl ester (POME) blends as potential alternate
fuel for CI engine application

V. Dinesh Kumar, Vinayak B. Hemadri, M. Chinnapandian & K. M.

Mrityunjayaswamy

To cite this article: V. Dinesh Kumar, Vinayak B. Hemadri, M. Chinnapandian & K. M.

Mrityunjayaswamy (2023): An experimental investigation of papaya oil methyl ester (POME) blends
as potential alternate fuel for CI engine application, International Journal of Ambient Energy, DOI:
10.1080/01430750.2022.2162124

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Published online: 03 Jan 2023.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2022.2162124

An experimental investigation of papaya oil methyl ester (POME) blends as potential

alternate fuel for CI engine application
V. Dinesh Kumar a , Vinayak B. Hemadria , M. Chinnapandianb and K. M. Mrityunjayaswamyc
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Dayananda Sagar University, Bangalore, India; b Department of Aeronautical
Engineering, St. Peter’s College of Engineering and Technology, Avadi, India; c Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AMC Engineering College,
Bangalore, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

When reliance on fossil fuels increased and costs escalated as a consequence of the precipitous decline in oil Received 24 August 2022
security and increased emissions, encourage green energy alternatives such as renewable fuels. The papaya Accepted 18 December 2022
seed, a second generation feedstock in this study, is used to produce papaya biodiesel by methanolysis. KEYWORDS
The properties of the test biodiesel and its mixtures are measured using a CI diesel engine at 1500 rpm. Fossil fuel; renewable fuel;
The load is applied to the engine in increments of 20% until it reaches its maximum level. The blend B25 is papaya seed; methanolysis;
recommended as ideal as it resulted in better performance and emission characteristics, with the exception papaya biodiesel;
of nitrous oxide emissions. The ideal blend’s specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust performance
gas temperature, and smoke density are 0.27 kg/kW-hr, 30.93%, 3180 C, and 49.02 HSU at maximum load.
The emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and nitrous oxide were, 0.095 percent, 55, and 988 ppm.
Highlights
• Performance emission and combustion of a compression ignition engine fueled with conventional fuel
and papaya biodiesel and its blends were carried out.
• Engine parameters were determined for each blend of fuel at varying loads.
• Results revealed that the blend B25 is found optimum.

Nomenclature et al. 2018). The biodiesels can be injected straight into diesel
PME Papaya oil methyl ester engines and have been shown to give superior lubrication with
D100 100% diesel or no engine modification (Hassan and Kalam 2013). Biodiesel
PME25 25% and 75%of Pme and standard fuel is produced utilising an uncomplicated chemical process using
PME50 50% and 50%of Pme and standard fuel renewable feedstocks. There are several different feedstocks that
PME75 75% and 25%of Pme and standard fuel can be used to make biodiesel. Additionally, feedstock expenses
PME100 Neat esterified papaya oil comprise 60–80 percent of the cost of producing biodiesel
deg Degree (Churchill and Ananda Srinivasan 2017).
kW kilo Watt Although there are almost 350 different feedstocks that can
°C Degree Celsius be utilised to produce biodiesel, current efforts have concen-
HSU Hartridge smoke density trated on using waste seeds as feedstocks. The papaya seed
ppm Parts per million is considered to be one of the trash wasted seeds because it
finds absolutely no purpose (Anwar, Rasul, and Ashwath 2020).
Many regions of the world have still not investigated upon
1. Introduction whether papaya seed oils are inedible. The main advantages
Numerous researchers have become interested in finding a suit- include apparently low sulphur and aromatic chemicals, ready
able alternative source to fossil fuels due to the gradual deple- availability, and good biocompatibility (Demirbas et al. 2016).
tion of their limited supply and the toxic emissions released There have been numerous studies on the production of
during their combustion (Adaileh and Alqdah 2012). Due to its biodiesel from different feedstocks, with a focus on non-edible
higher cetane number, biodiesel performs better when used as oil; conversely, there have been few studies on papaya seed
fuel and requires less time to generate than diesel (Duran et al. oil (PSO) (Anwar, Rasul, and Ashwath 2018). Despite papaya
2018). The combustion characteristics of biodiesel are compara- is well renowned for its fruit, farming it for this purpose is a
ble to those of traditional fossil fuel. Additionally, it significantly fairly recent phenomenon. Papaya seeds are routinely thrown
reduces emissions when used in a diesel engine (Montcho Papin away due to the negative experiences when consumed by living

CONTACT V. Dinesh Kumar jv.dhinesh@yahoo.com

© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 V. DINESH KUMAR ET AL.

organisms. The level of free fatty acids in papaya seed oil was
10.3% (Patel and Nayak 2017). Identifying the perfect non-edible
oil for biodiesel recovery and tweaking the piston to enhance
engine performance are indeed the subject of a study. Fol-
lowing a review of the literature, papaya seed oil was chosen
as a biodiesel source (Umapathi 2019). Papaya seeds are esti-
mated to have almost 33% oil on dry weight, which is much
better than soybean and sunflower seeds, which have oil con-
tents of 19.63 and 22.23 percent, accordingly. As a result, they
have a great prospect as alternative sources of energy. Papaya
fruit can also be collected frequently because it is not a sea-
sonal crop (Suprianto et al. 2019). The yield, energy release, and
cetane number of base catalyst transesterified biodiesel have
Figure 1. Seeds of papaya.
all been higher than that of free lipase catalysts transesterified
biodiesel (Niaz and Marimuthu 2018). The intention of present
work is to evaluate the performance and emission characteristics
Table 1. Physicochemical properties of papaya oil.
of varied biodiesels and their blends, to pinpoint a technically
proficient, readily accessible, and inexpensive substitute for con- Property Papaya oil
ventional diesel fuel, to prepare biodiesel samples using the Refractive Index 1.457
transesterification reaction from non-edible oils, to evaluate the Density 921 kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity 27.3 mm2 .S−1 (40°C)
physio-chemical properties of the biodiesel, and to analyze the Saponification Value 197 (mg KOH.g−1 )
performance, combustion, and exhaust emissions of conven- Iodine Value 79.95
tional diesel fuel. Even though many researchers have investi- Peroxide Value 5.37 (mg O/g oil)
Flash Point 338°C
gated at the biodiesel synthesis from a range of feedstocks with Calorific Value 38490 kJ.kg−1
a focus on non-edible oil, it was noticed that extremely little Specific Gravity 0.9134
research has been conducted on papaya seed oil. The potential Cetane Number 36
to address the global energy requirements resides on trash and
combustible renewables. The overall cost of its production may
be reduced through the appropriate selection of the feedstock
2019). The FFA of the test oil is found to be 1.6 percent. The phys-
(Etim, Eloka-Eboka, and Musonge 2021).
ical and chemical characteristics of oil made from papaya seeds
are shown in Table 1.
The most often used methods to improve the attributes of
oil are pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, and transesterification,
2. Materials and methodology
with transesterification being the most practical (Anwar et al.
2.1. Preparation of papaya oil 2019). The most prevalent way of producing biodiesel from
vegetable oil is transesterification. The two alcohols that are
Papaya seeds which have been discarded out have been allowed
employed were mostly methanol and ethanol. Basic homoge-
to be retrieved, thoroughly cleaned, and dried with in shade.
neous catalysis is likely to be the best solution for high reaction
The mechanical extractor has been used in the conducted exper-
rates. Simple catalysts are also openly available and modestly
iment to extract oil out from feedstock seeds. The test seed
priced (Encinar et al. 2018). The high level of the fuel produced
is exceptionally viscous and has a 35% oil content. Mechani-
is the central reason for use of the transesterification (Gebre-
cal extraction is probably the fastest and most popular method
mariam and Marchetti 2017). The optimum yield was recorded
of extracting oil (Demirbas et al. 2016). For Carica papaya seed
at a methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1 with papaya biodiesel pro-
oil, the percentage oil output is 30.31 ± 2.38%. In accordance
duced through enzymatic transesterification (Wong and Oth-
with the oil yield data, the seeds contained a high oil content
man 2015). While enzyme catalysts are more efficient than acid
that declared them appropriate for use in synthesis of biodiesel
and alkali catalysts, its utility in the synthesis of biodiesel is lim-
(Oshin et al. 2021). Figure 1 shows the illustration of papaya
ited by the sophistication of their structure and relatively high
seeds.
cost (Liu et al. 2019).
It is evident from the fatty acid composition that there are
more unsaturated fatty acids contained than saturated fatty
acids (Putrasari et al. 2016). Is used as an engine fuel, oil does
3. Preparation of papaya methyl ester
not crystallize, as mentioned in previous sections of a substantial
percentage of unsaturated fatty acids (Agunbiade and Adewo One of the typical and simplest chemical reactions for trans-
2014). The hydrometer, redwood viscometer, calorimeter, and forming triglyceride into monoglyceride with glycerol as a by-
Pensky apparatus were being used to measure the test oil’s spe- product is transesterification. Transesterification of renewable
cific gravity, viscosity, calorific value, and ignition temperature. oils is currently the ideal method for generating biodiesel com-
Since the FFA of the test oil is less than 2 percentage, no pre- pared to other existing technologies because of its good effi-
treatment is essential, and the transesterification process with ciency and outstanding attributes revealed by its products
homogenous alkali catalyst is high enough (Nayak and Vyas (Supriyanto et al. 2021). The simplest equation encompasses the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY 3

Figure 2. Batch reactor.

Table 2. Physicochemical properties of papaya oil methyl ester.

Neat
esterified
Property Diesel Papaya Oil Figure 3. Schematic view of test engine.
Density 820 kg/m3 840 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity 2.847 mm2 /s (40°C) 3.53 mm2 /s (40°C)
Cloud Point −12°C 5°C 5. Experimental methodology
Pour Point −5°C −12°C
Flash Point 55°C 105°C Throughout the experiment, the test engine is set to operate at
Fire Point 68°C 117°C 1500 rpm whereas the compression ratio, injection pressure, and
Calorific Value 43000 kJ/kg 38973 kJ/kg
Specific Gravity 0.83 0.896 timing are set at 17.5, 210 kgf/cm2 , and 240 bTDC, accordingly.
Cetane Number 47 53 The test engine is supposed to operate for 10 min without apply-
ing the load to ensure initial warm-up in order to ensure the
accuracy in outcomes. With the aid of a dynamometer, the test
transesterification process. engine’s load is applied starting with zero and advancing in 20%
increment until it reaches the maximum. Papaya biodiesel and
Triglyceride + Methoxide ↔ Monoglyceride + Glycerol its blends’ performance, emission, and combustion are exam-
ined and compared with those of diesel unleaded. Figure 4
Figure 2 depicts the conventional batch reactor used for this illustrates the test engine from with a photographic perspective.
experiment, which itself is integrated with a stirrer to accomplish
the transesterification reaction.
Comparatively, the test seed’s oil concentration was higher 6. Result and discussion
than those of other oil-bearing species. Within presence of
6.1. Specific fuel consumption
Sodium hydroxide as a catalyst, an oil to methanol ratio of 1:6 is
preserved in order to achieve greater yield. In methanol, NaOH According to the results, the specific fuel consumption is found
dissolves rapidly and is competitively priced. Furthermore, fewer to rise with both an increase in the amount of biodiesel and an
NaOH is often used than to KOH (Thangaraj et al. 2019), which increase in the loads imposed on the engine. Figure 5 repre-
is yet another benefit. At 60°C, the temperature of the reaction sents the relationship with specific fuel consumption and brake
is maintained constant. The optimum condition for a process power.
of transesterification are a 1:6 oil to methanol ratio, a % cat- At all applied loads, an engine use far less fuel owing to the
alyst dosage, 65°C, and a 2-hour response time (Shanmugam conventional fuel’s higher calorific value and considerably lower
et al. 2020). Table 2 lists the physical and chemical properties of
esterified papaya oil.
The methyl ester of papaya oil as well as glycerol are synthe-
sised as contaminants of the transesterification process. Upon
that, the resultant by-product is separated from the appropriate
methyl ester.

4. Experimental setup
In the current work, a single-cylinder diesel engine that has been
kept cool by water has been used as a test engine. The test
engine is connected with a data collecting system to assess the
combustion properties (Optimum pressure and heat discharge),
a gas analyzer to quantify the quantity of tail exhaust, and a
smoke meter. Figure 3 illustrates the test engine’s schematic
view. Figure 4. Photographic view of test engine.
4 V. DINESH KUMAR ET AL.

Figure 5. Specific fuel consumption Vs brake power.

density. The test engine consumes a lot of fuel to deliver the D100, PME25, PME50, PME75, and PME100 are 31.44%, 30.93%,
rated power that leads to an increase in the fuel consumption 29.39%, 28.61%, and 27.97% at maximum load circumstances.
of the biodiesel and its blends. The B25 blend achieved excel- The BTE of B20 and B30 were higher than diesel at full and partial
lent fuel consumption over conventional fuel. D100, PME25, load since biodiesel contains more oxygen (Duran et al. 2018).
PME50, PME75, and PME100 blend has specific fuel consump-
tion at maximum load of 0.25 kg-kW−1 -hr−1 , 0.27 kg-kW−1 -hr−1 ,
0.29 kg-kW−1 -hr−1 , 0.32 kg-kW−1 -hr−1 , and 0.33 kg-kW−1 -hr−1 ,
accordingly. 6.3. Exhaust gas temperature
Exactly the sort fuel employed affects the temperature of the
exhaust gas. The measurement of temperature is based on
6.2. Brake thermal efficiency
the dispersive infrared technique and requires thermocouples.
When the load applied is increased, the brake thermal effi- When the biodiesel proportion is enhanced, it is observed that
ciency is found to enhance; conversely, when the proportion temperature of the exhaust gas drops. Furthermore, it was
of biodiesel in the blend is enhanced, it is found to decline. observed that increasing the applied load had enhanced the
Figure 6 depicts the relationship among brake thermal efficiency temperature of the exhaust gas. The fluctuation in exhaust gas
and braking power. temperature with brake power is depicted in Figure 7.
Compared to the test biodiesel and its blends, the baseline When compared to conventional fuel, the exhaust temper-
fuel’s high calorific value resulted in tremendous brake thermal ature of the gas dropped leading to enhanced combustion
efficiency. Even though the presence of oxygen molecules in induced by the oxygen molecules included in the test biodiesel
biodiesel and its blends accelerates combustion, their high den- blends. When compared to test biodiesel and its blends, the
sity and relatively less calorific value hindered the brake thermal rate of combustion of conventional fuel is dramatically lower,
efficiency. The blend B25, which also included conventional fuel that elevates the temperature of exhaust gases. The exhaust
in a relatively high proportion, had quite a higher brake ther- gas temperatures at maximum load for D100, PME25, PME50,
mal efficiency than the other blends as a result of a decrease in PME75, and PME100 were 321°C, 318°C, 311°C, 307°C, and 300°C,
density and an increase in calorific value. The respective values of respectively.

Figure 6. Brake thermal efficiency Vs brake power.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY 5

Figure 7. Exhaust gas temperature Vs brake power.

6.4. Smoke density in Figure 9. Owing to its higher oxygen content, which prevents
rich fuel zones and decreases CO emission, papaya biodiesel’s
The measurement of smoke is based on an optical property
lower blend B30 discharges less CO than other blends and diesel
measurement which applies a intense light ray (Eo). Smoke emis-
(Huang, Zhou, and Lin 2012).
sion is significantly influenced by the characteristics of fuel used
The enhancement in the rate of oxidation is predominantly
or the way of combustion. The proportion of smoke which is
responsible for the reduction in carbon monoxide emission
exhaled is found to increase as the applied load increases whilst
for the test biodiesel and their blends. As oxidation increases,
declining as the proportion of biodiesel in the increase in fiscal.
carbon dioxide is produced, helping in the balance of photo-
Figure 8 shows the relationship with smoke emission and brake
synthesis. At all applied loads, conventional fuel delivered com-
power.
paratively high emission than the test biodiesel and its blends.
When compared to conventional fuel, the test biodiesel and
At maximum load, the emission of the D100, PME25, PME50,
its blends produce relatively less smoke because of availability of
PME75, and PME100 blends are, respectively, 0.1, 0.095, 0.087,
oxygen molecules that accelerates combustion. The smoke den-
0.084, and 0.081% (by volume).
sity of D100, PME25, PME50, PME75, and PME100 is 50.62 HSU,
49.02 HSU, 47.17 HSU, 45.1 HSU, and 42.74 HSU, respectively, at
maximum load.
6.6. Emission of hydrocarbon
The accumulation of combustible and partially burned fuel par-
6.5. Emission of carbon monoxide
ticles during combustion is the principal reasons of the HC
Similar to other metrics, an effect of increasing load has resulted emissions. The rate of emission increase with an increase in
in an increase in the associated emission, which also is observed load applied and declines with increase in the proportion of
to decline as the proportion of biodiesel is enhanced. The varia- biodiesel. The variation in emission with brake power is shown in
tion in carbon monoxide emission with brake power can be seen Figure 10.

Figure 8. Smoke density Vs brake power.

6 V. DINESH KUMAR ET AL.

Figure 9. Carbon monoxide emission Vs brake power.

A diminution in the rate of respective emission for the test At all applied loads, conventional fuel emitted fewer nitrous
biodiesel and its blends can be attributed to the increase in oxide emission than the test biodiesel and its blends. At maxi-
the rate of combustion for biodiesel and its blends that elim- mum load, D100, PME25, PME50, PME75, and PME100 exhaled
inates the accumulation of partially decomposed and unburnt 970 ppm, 988 ppm, 1003 ppm, 1021 ppm, and 1066 ppm of
fuel particles. When compared to used biodiesel and its blends, nitrous oxide, accordingly.
conventional fuel produces poor combustion efficiencies and
emits comparably increased levels of hydrocarbon. The rate
of emission for D100, PME25, PME50, PME75, and PME100
are 58, 55, 54, 50, and 47 ppm, consecutively, at maximum
load.

6.8. Heat release rate

6.7. Emission of nitrous oxide emission
In comparison to biodiesel and its blends, conventional fuel is
The primary causes of nitrous oxide emission are hypothesised found to release higher heat at maximum load. Figure 12 illus-
to be an increase in cylinder temperature, an excess of oxygen, trates the variation of heat release with crank angle.
and nitrogen. The variation of nitrous oxide with brake power is Fuel accumulated during the delay in ignition induces a
represented in Figure 11. It has been observed that an increase in release of negative heat. D100’s heat release rate at maximum
applied load has hastened up the intensity of the corresponding load is 42.53 kJ/m3 deg, whereas the PME25 is 41.06 kJ/m3 deg.
emission. Due to enhancements in the rate of combustion and its calorific
The test biodiesel and its blends employed possess signif- value, the blend PME25 performs better in terms of heat release
icant emission rates attributed to the prevalence of oxygen than other blends. The heat release rate for the blends PME50,
molecules in the biodiesel and its blends and also the high PME75, and PME100 at maximum load were 38.41 kJ/m3 deg,
proportion of nitrogen in the drawn air during combustion. 36.07 kJ/m3 deg, and 28.78 kJ/m3 deg, respectively.

Figure 10. Hydrocarbon emission Vs brake power.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY 7

Figure 11. Nitrous oxide emission Vs brake power.

Figure 12. Heat release rate with reference to crank angle.

6.9. Cylinder pressure At maximum load, the cylinder’s pressure while employing
D100 as the fuel is 75.92 bar, whereas it is 75.84 bar while using
The gas pressure of any fuel is based on its calorific value. Fuels
the blend PME25. The blend B25 developed relatively high cylin-
with high calorific value tend to produce pressure during their
der pressure as compared to the other blends, rather like heat
combustion. With respect to the crank angle, the cylinder pres-
sure developed is depicted in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Cylinder pressure developed with reference to crank angle.

8 V. DINESH KUMAR ET AL.

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I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my guide Dr. Vinayak Environmental Science 371, 042031: 1–6. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/371/4/04
B. Hemadri sir and Dr. K. M. Mrityunjayaswamy sir as well to my Co-guide Dr. 2031.
M. Chinnapandian sir who gave me the golden opportunity to do this project Montcho Papin, S., Konfo T. R. Christian, Agbangnan D. C. Pascal,
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