Semiconductors

What are Semiconductors?
Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals)
and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds such as
gallium arsenide or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories,
properties and mathematical approach governing semiconductors.
Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors.
Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser
diodes, etc.
Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in
magnitude but opposite in polarity.
Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because of
their different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an electric
field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movent. The
elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results in the creation of holes in
semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons,
holes have lower mobility.
The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;
 Effective mass of particles is lesser

 Time between scattering events is more
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility of holes is
475 cm2 (V∙s)-1.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free
electrons (blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created
takes the opposite charge of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in
the lattice.
Concept of Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors
Band Theory of Semiconductors

The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution in science. Walter Heitler
and Fritz London discovered the energy bands.
We know that the electrons in an atom are present in different energy levels. When we try to
assemble a lattice of a solid with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N levels in
the solid. This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy Bands. The gap
between adjacent bands representing a range of energies that possess no electron is called a Band
Gap.
Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators
Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence band. It is
the highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors
is smaller. It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving
any external energy.
Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive (holes) or negative (free
electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current. The
conduction band possess high energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band in
semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.
What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction bands. It is the highest
occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state have their own
quantum states and generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature rises above
absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy states above Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus,

accommodating more electrons at the lower energy levels. However, in an n-type semiconductor,
the density of states increases, therefore, accommodating more electrons at higher energy levels.
Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique
property makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external energy
(thermal agitation). It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and
jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes.
Conduction due to electrons and holes are equally important.
 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm
 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
 Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
 Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes
Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with

Temperature?
The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference in
charge carrier density.
The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge
carriers increases rapidly with increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the
temperature coefficient negative.
Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it works
as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping to
make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

Classification of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of only
a single type of element.
Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric field (b) In
presence of electric Field
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor elements.
They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by covalent bond at
absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to
move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free
electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative
and positive charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionizing a few atoms in the lattice, and hence their conductivity is
less.

Semiconductors

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What are Semiconductors?

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

 Effective mass of particles is lesser

Band Theory of Semiconductors

Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus,

Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with

Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

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