Chapter – 4

4. SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
4.1. Introduction
Semiconductors are that class of materials which are neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. A
semiconductor is solid crystalline material whose electrical conductivity is intermediate between that of a
conductor and an insulator. They have four valence electrons. Eg. Silicon, germanium. We have already seen
the energy band classification of materials in chapter1. Here we look in different percept of classification of
materials by their resistivity.

Fig.1.Resistivity Chart

The electrical resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined as being the ratio
of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohm´s Law principls. The problem
with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends very much on the physical size of the material being
measured as well as the material out of which it is made. For example, if we were to increase the length of the
material (making it longer) its resistance would also increase. Likewise, if we increased its diameter (making it
fatter) its resistance would then decrease. So we want to be able to define the material in such a way as to
indicate its ability to either conduct or oppose the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or
shape happens to be. The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is
given the Greek symbol of ρ, (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, ( Ω-m ) and is the inverse to
conductivity. If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main groups,
Conductors, Insulators & Semi-conductors.

Notice also that there is a very small margin between the resistivity of the conductors such as silver and gold,
compared to a much larger margin for the resistivity of the insulators between glass and quartz. The resistivity
of all the materials at any time also depends upon their temperature.

Conductors: From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have a low value of resistivity
allowing them to easily pass an electrical current due to there being plenty of free electrons floating about within
their basic atom structure. When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these "free electrons"

1|Page
leave their parent atom and travel together through the material forming an electron drift. Examples of good
conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non metals such as Carbon because these
materials have very few electrons in their outer "Valence Shell" or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked
out of the atom's orbit. This allows them to flow freely through the material. Generally speaking, most metals
are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small resistance values, usually in the region of micro-
ohms per metre. The resistivity of conductors increases with increase in temperature because metals are also
generally good conductors of heat.

Insulators: Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials,
generally non-metals, that have very few or no "free electrons" floating about within their basic atom structure
because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner nucleus. So
if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no electrons to move and which
gives these materials their insulating properties. Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per
metre, and are generally not affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood
becomes charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused
quartz, p.v.c. plastics, rubber etc.

Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without them electrical
circuits would short circuit together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or porcelain are used
for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make
printed circuit boards, PCB's etc.

Semiconductors:Semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a "conductor" and an "insulator".
They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name "semi"-conductors). They have very few
"free electrons" because their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a "crystal
lattice". However, their ability to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by adding certain "impurities" to
this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa. These impurities are
called donors or acceptors depending on whether they produce electrons or holes. This process of adding
impurity atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per 10 million (or more) atoms of the
semiconductor) is called Doping.

The two elemental semiconductors are Si and Ge, having band gap energies of approximately 1.1 and 0.7 eV,
respectively. Both are found in Group IVA of the periodic table and are covalently bonded. Ge was the key
semiconducting material for the majority of the early solid state devices. Subsequently, it has been replaced by
Si in many applications. Si has a better thermal stability, is readily available and also has an advanced
technology. In addition to Ge and Si, a host of compound semiconducting materials like gallium arsenide
(GaAs), indium phosphide (Inp), indium antimonide (InSb), indium arsenide (InAs), lead sulphide (PbS),
Cadmium sulphide (CdS), lead telluride (PbTe), Zinc telluride (ZnTel), Mercury indium telluride (HgIn2Te4),
Zinc selenide (ZnSe), cadmium selenide (CdSe), Mercury selenide (HgSe), Magnesium antimonide (Mg2Sb2),
Magnesium iodide (MgI2), etc., also exhibit semiconducting properties. These semiconductor materials have
also been used for several electronic devices, e.g. GaAs is used in transistors, lasers and microwave and
millimetre wavedevices, PbS and PbTe are used in infrared detectors, CdS in light meters, CdTe in the detection
of nuclear radiation; and so on.

The most commonly used semiconductor material by far is silicon. It has four valence electrons in its outer most
shell which it shares with its adjacent atoms in forming covalent bonds. The structure of the bond between two
silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbor making the bond very stable. Silicon
atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal of pure
silicon (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no impurities).

2|Page
 Fig.2. The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a 'normal' pure crystal of Silicon.

Semiconductors are of two types. They are (i) Intrinsic (pure) and (ii) Extrinsic(impure)

4.2 Intrinsic Semiconductors:

Semiconductors in their absolute pure state are known as intrinsic semiconductors. These have negative
temperature coefficient. The higher the temperature of a semiconductor lower is its resistance and better is its
conduction. In general semiconductors have small energy gap between valence band and conduction band, even
at ordinary room temperature there are many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small
energy gap into conduction band. When an electron jumps into conduction band it creates a hole in the valence
band. The hole infact is the loss of electron. The free electron and the hole form an electron-hole pair, higher the
temperature the greater is the number of free electrons and therefore the holes. If the temperature is brought
down to 00K (-2730C) the intrinsic material will act as a good insulator.

The electrons in the conduction band and hoes in the valence band moves in a random fashion within the crystal
due to their thermal energy. When an external field is applied to the semiconductor, a drift velocity is
superimposed on the random thermal motion of the charge carriers, i.e., electrons and holes. The drift of the
electrons in the conduction band and that of holes in the valence band produce an electric current. The electrons
move towards the positive electrode, whereas the holes towards the negative electrode (Fig. 3). The currents
produced by the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions and since the electron carries a negative
charge and the hole a positive charge. Thus, the conventional current flows within the semiconductor from the
positive electrode to the negative electrode. The energy of a hole is measured downward from the top of the
valence band.

Figure.4 Fermi Energy level for Intrinsic material

Figure.3 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductor

The motion of the electrons in the valence band may be considered to be equivalent to the motion of holes in the
opposite direction. Obviously, the holes also contribute to the conductivity. When an electron hole pair is
thermally created, a valence electron in a neighbouring atom can have sufficient thermal energy to jump into the
position of the hole and reconstruct the covalent bond. In doing so, the electron leaves a hole in its initial

3|Page
position. Effectively, the hole moves from one position to the other position. Thus the holes move in the
direction opposite to that of the valence electrons. That is why a hole behaves like a free positive charge equal in
magnitude to the electronic charge. The electrons in the conduction band move more easily than the electrons
which cause the motion of holes in the valence band. Hence the contribution to the electric current by the
electrons in the conduction band is more than that by the holes in the valence band. The salient features of an
intrinsic semiconductor can be summarised as follows:
(i) The number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. In
equilibrium, the electron concentration n and hole concentration p are equal, i.e. n = p = ni, where ni is termed as
intrinsic concentration.
(ii) The Fermi level lies exactly between the valence and conduction bands (EF = Eg/2). (Fig.4).
(iii) The contribution of the electrons to the electric current is more than that due to the holes.
(iv) About 1 atom out of 103 atoms of an intrinsic semi-conductor contributes to the conduction.
(v) An electron and hole can behave as a pair bound to each other. Such a bound pair is usually referred as
exciton. An exciton is electrically neutral and so does not take part in electrical conduction.

4.2.1. Intrinsic conductivity

4|Page
5|Page
Thus the conductivity (or resistivity) of a semiconducting material, in addition to being dependent on
electron/and or hole concentrations, is also a function of charge carriers’ mobilities, i.e., the ease with which
electrons and holes are transported through the crystal. Furthermore, magnitudes of electron and hole mobilities
are influenced by the presence of those some crystalline defects that are responsible for the scattering of
electrons in metals-thermal vibrations (i.e., temperature) and impurity atoms (if any).

4.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors or impure semiconductors are those which have been doped i.e impurities are added
purposely into their crystal structure. The impurities are added in very small and carefully controlled quantities.
The process of adding impurities is called doping, and the impurities themselves are called dopants. The extent
to which the impurity has been added is called the doping level. ( 1 atom in 108). Pure semiconductor is of no
practical use as the number of charge carriers in them is very small, can treat them as close to insulators. By
doping we increase the number of charge carriers and therefore the conductivity of the semiconductor material.
Hence we can treat extrinsic materials as close to conductors. Depending upon the impurity added extrinsic
semiconductors can be further classified into: (i) N-type & (ii) P-type semiconductors.

(i) N-type Semiconductors

In order for silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic,
Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms
have five outer electrons in their outermost co-valent bond to share with other atoms and are commonly called
"Pentavalent" impurities. This allows four of the five electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms
leaving one "free electron" to move about when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each
impurity atom "donates" one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as "donors".

Antimony (symbol Sb) is frequently used as a pentavalent additive as it has 51 electrons arranged in 5 shells
around the nucleus. The resulting semiconductor material has an excess of current-carrying electrons, each with
a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as "N-type" material with the electrons called "Majority Carriers"
and the resultant holes "Minority Carriers". Then a semiconductor material is N-type when its donor density is
greater than its acceptor density. Therefore, a N-type semiconductor has more electrons than holes.

Fig.5 The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

The impurity atom has five valence electrons. After donating one electron, it is left with +1 excess charge. It
then becomes a positively charged immobile ion. It is immobile because it is held tightly in the crystal by the
four covalent bonds as shown in Fig.5. It is important to understand that in N-type semiconductors, although
electrons (negative charges) are the majority carriers, but the semiconductor doped with impurity remains
electrically neutral. Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs due to thermal energy and negative charge of
electrons donated by impurity atoms is exactly balanced by positive charge of the immobile ions. Representation
of an N-type semiconductor is shown in Fig.6. Since N-type semiconductors have extra free electrons, and pure
semiconductors do not, the energy band diagram for a doped semiconductor is slightly different from that of a
pure semiconductor. In effect, another energy level exists; a level for the donor electron, which is closer to the
conduction band.(figure.6). The forbidden band for the donor electron is much narrower than the forbidden band

6|Page
for the valence electron; so one can see that it is much easier to cause electron flow in an N-type semiconductor.

(ii) P-Type Semiconductors

If we introduce a "Trivalent" (3-electron) impurity into the crystal structure, such as Aluminium, Boron,
Gallium or Indium, only three valence electrons are available in the outermost covalent bond meaning that the
fourth bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor
material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as "holes" in the structure of the crystal. As there is
a hole an adjoining free electron is attracted to it and will try to move into the hole to fill it. However, the
electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in
turn creates another hole behind, and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as a positive
charge through the crystal structure (conventional current flow). As each impurity atom generates a hole,
trivalent impurities are generally known as "Acceptors" as they are continually "accepting" extra electrons.

Fig.7 The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom boron.

Boron (symbol B) is frequently used as a trivalent additive as it has only 5 electrons arranged in 3 shells around
the nucleus. Addition of Boron causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers results in a "P-
type" material and the positive holes are called "Majority Carriers" while the free electrons are called "Minority
Carriers". Then a semiconductors is P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its donor density. Therefore,
a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

The energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor also differs from that of the pure superconductor. Since there
is an extra number of holes, which tend to attract electrons, they aid in starting current flow. As a result, the
acceptor energy level is also somewhat higher than that of the valence band. However, it is not as high as the
donor level (Fig. 8). P-type semiconductors will conduct easily than pure semiconductors, but not quite as easy
as N-type semiconductors.

7|Page
Effect of temperature

When the temperature of N-type semiconductor is raised, the number of electron-hole pairs due to thermal
excitations from the valence band to the conduction band will increase. The number of electrons coming from
the donor level will remain constant as the donor atoms are already ionized. Obviously, at very high temperature
the concentration of thermally generated free electrons from the valence band will be much larger than the
concentration of free electrons contributed by the donors. At this situation the hole and the electron
concentrations will be nearly equal and the semiconductor will behave like an intrinsic one. On the basis of the
same argument, one can say that a P-type semiconductor will also behave as intrinsic semiconductor at very
high temperature. Generalizing, we can say that as the temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor increases the
semiconductor passes from an extrinsic to an intrinsic one.

4.4. Fermi-Dirac distribution and the concentration of charge carriers

a) Charge carrier densities in extrinsic semiconductors

We have seen that the introduction of impurities in pure semiconductors increases the density of one type
or another type of change carriers. The product of holes and electrons in a semiconductor is constant depending
on the width of energy gap and temperature and hence the introduction of the impurities results in an increase in
the density of one type of carrier and a reduction in the density of the other type of carrier. In an extrinsic
semiconductor, the carriers introduced by the impurities are called majority carriers and the other type are
called minority carriers. It is important to note that the low value for minority carrier density is due to added
recombination.
Let Nd be the donor impurity density, Na the acceptor impurity density, p the density of holes and n the
density of electrons in an extrinsic semiconducting material. From the condition of charge neutrality, we have

8|Page
 b) Donor and accepter states

9|Page
 c) Fermi diaric distribution in extrinsic semiconductors

10 | P a g e
 d) Charge densities in extrinsic semiconductor

e) Effective mass
The mass of a particle is governed by external force and internal periodic potential field. When an external field
is applied to a semiconductor, the charge carriers, i.e., the electrons and the holes, experience forces due to the
external applied field and also due to the internal periodic field produced by the crystal. If the external applied is

11 | P a g e
much weaker than the internal field, the effect of the latter is to modify the mass of the carriers in such a way
that the carriers respond to the applied field with this modified mass obeying the laws of classical mechanics.
This modified mass of the carriers is termed the effective mass of the carriers and usually denoted by m*. m* is
usually different from the electronic mass (m) in vacuum. The effective mass approximation avoids the quantum
nature of the problem and allows us to use classical mechanics to study the effect of external fields or forces on
the charge carriers, i.e., on the electrons or the holes inside the crystal.
They are two types of effective masses
i. Effective mass for density of states calculations
ii. Effective mass for conductivity calculations
Ge Si GaAs
Density calculations m*/m of electron 0.55 1.08 0.067
m*/m of hole 0.37 0.81 0.45
Conductivity m*/m of electron 0.12 0.26 0.067
calculations m*/m of hole 0.21 0.386 0.34

Summary
N-type (e.g. add Phosphorus, Antimony, arsenic)
These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by "electron"
movement and are called, N-type Semiconductors. These types of materials are:
1. The Donors are positively charged.
2. There are a large number of free electrons.
3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
4. Doping gives:
positively charged donors.
negatively charged free electrons.
5. Supply of energy(by applying voltage) gives:
negatively charged free electrons.
positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. add Boron, aluminum, gallium, indium)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by "hole" movement
and are called, P-type Semiconductors. These types of materials are:
1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.
2. There are a large number of holes.
3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
4. Doping gives:
negatively charged acceptors.
positively charged holes.
5. Supply of energy(by applying voltage) gives:
positively charged holes.
negatively charged free electrons.
Merits of Semiconductor materials
1. The devices are much smaller in size and lighter in weight
2. When used as rectifiers and transistors they do not require a heater or filament as is required in electron
tube rectifiers and valves.
3. They consume low power resulting in high efficiency
4. They are almost shock proof.
5. They operate on low voltages
6. They have long life and hardly show ageing effects.
7. The resistance of semiconductors decreases nonlinearly with rise in temperature.

Factors affecting semiconductors

The resistance of semiconductor materials can be controlled by the following factors
1. Temperature: The resistance of the semiconductors decreases with the increase in temperature. This
property is used in thermistors.

12 | P a g e
 2. Illumination: The resistance of semiconductor is low in light and increases in darkness. This property
is used in photo conductive cells.
3. Voltage: The resistance of semiconductor varies with applied voltage. This property is used in
varistors.
4. Electric Field: The resistance of semiconductor greatly depends on the magnitude of elcctric field. The
current in a semiconductor does not follow ohm’s law and increases far more rapidly than the voltage.
This property is used in transistors, amplifiers.
5. Impurities: The resistance of semiconductor varies greatly when a small amount of impurity is
introduced in it. This property is used in rectifiers.

4.5 Drift and Diffusion currents through P-N Junction

The flow of charge current through a semiconductor material is of two types namely drift & diffusion.
The net current that flows through a (PN junction diode) semiconductor material has two components
(i). Drift current and (ii). Diffusion current

Drift current :
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge carriers attain a certain drift
velocity Vd , which is equal to the product of the mobility of the charge carriers and the applied Electric Field
intensity E . Vd = μ * E

Drift velocity Vd = (mobility of the charge carriers)x( Applied Electric field intensity).

Holes move towards the negative terminal of the battery and electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
battery. This combined effect of movement of the charge carriers constitutes a current known as ― drift current‖.
Thus the drift current is defined as the flow of electric current due to the motion of the charge carriers under the
influence of an external electric field. Drift current due to the charge carriers such as free electrons and holes are
the current passing through a square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of flow.

(i) Drift current density Jn , due to free electrons is given by

Jn = q n μn E A / cm2
(ii) Drift current density JP, due to holes is given by
JP = q p μp E A / cm2
Where, n - Number of free electrons per cubic centimeter.
p - Number of holes per cubic centimeter
μ n – Mobility of electrons in cm2 / Vs
μ p – Mobility of holes in cm2 / Vs
E – Applied Electric filed Intensity in V /cm; q – Charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 coulomb).

Diffusion current:

It is possible for an electric current to flow in a semiconductor even in the absence of the applied voltage
provided a concentration gradient exists in the material. A concentration gradient exists if the number of either
electrons or holes is greater in one region of a semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region.

In a semiconductor material the charge carriers have the tendency to move from the region of higher
concentration to that of lower concentration of the same type of charge carriers. Thus the movement of charge
carriers takes place resulting in a current called diffusion current.

4.6. PN Junction DIODE

The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing P and N type materials together
(constructed from the same base—Ge or Si). At the instant the two materials are ―joined‖ the
electrons and holes in the region of the junction will combine, resulting in a lack of carriers in the
13 | P a g e
region near the junction. This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the
depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this region.
Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the
application of a voltage across its terminals
leaves three possibilities: no bias (VD = 0 V),
forward bias (VD > 0 V), and reverse bias (VD <
0 V), Each is a condition that will result in a
response that the user must clearly understand if
the device is to be applied effectively.

No Applied Bias (VD = 0 V)

Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions,
any minority carriers (holes) in the n-type
material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly into the p-type
material. The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the attraction for the layer
of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions in the depletion region of the n-
type material. For the purposes of future discussions we shall assume that all the minority carriers
of the n-type material that find themselves in the depletion region due to their random motion will
pass directly into the p-type material. Similar discussion can be applied to the minority carriers
(electrons) of the p-type material. This carrier flow has been indicated in Fig. 1, for the minority
carriers of each material. The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type material must overcome
the attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material and the shield of negative
ions in the p-type material to migrate into the area beyond the depletion region of the p-type
material. However, the number of majority carriers is so large in the n-type material that there
will invariably be a small number of majority carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass
through the depletion region into the p-type material.

Again, the same type of discussion can be applied to the majority carriers (holes) of the p-type
material. The resulting flow due to the majority carriers is also shown in Fig. 1. A close
examination of Fig. 1 will reveal that the relative magnitudes of the flow vectors are such that the
net flow in either direction is zero. This cancellation of vectors has been indicated by crossed
lines. The length of the vector representing hole flow has been drawn longer than that for electron
flow to demonstrate that the magnitude of each need not be the same for cancellation and that the
doping levels for each material may result in an unequal carrier flow of holes and electrons. In
summary, therefore:
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the
net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

If an external potential of V volts is applied across the
p-n junction such that the positive terminal is
connected to the n-type material and the negative
terminal is connected to the p-type material as shown
in Fig 2, the number of uncovered positive ions in the
depletion region of the n-type material will increase
due to the large number of ―free‖ electrons drawn to the Figure 2: Diode with Reverse Bias
positive potential of the applied voltage. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will
increase in the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region. This
widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to
overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero as shown in Figure 2. The
14 | P a g e
number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the depletion region will not
change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the same magnitude indicated in Fig. 1 with
no applied voltage.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation
current and is represented by Is.
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes except for high-power devices.

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

A forward-bias or ―on‖ condition is established by applying the positive potential to the p-type
material and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in Fig. 3. For future reference,
A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the association p-type and positive
and n-type and negative has been established.
The application of a forward-bias potential VD will
―pressure‖ electrons in the n-type material and holes
in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near
the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion
region as shown in Fig.3. The resulting minority-
carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to
the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type
material to the p-type material) has not changed in
magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled
primarily by the limited number of impurities in the
material), but the reduction in the width of the
depletion region has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction. An electron of the n-
type material now ―sees‖ a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced depletion region and
a strong attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type material.
As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue to decrease
in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in
current as shown in the forward-bias region of the characteristics of Figure.4 Note that the
vertical scale of Fig.4 is measured in milliamperes (although some semiconductor diodes will
have a vertical scale measured in amperes) and the horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has
a maximum of 1V(0.3 for Ge, 0.7 for Si diode). Typically, therefore, the voltage across a
forward-biased diode will be less than 1 V. Note also, how quickly the current rises beyond the
knee of the curve.

The current equation of the diode is given by

Where
Is = Reverse saturation current or current due to minority charges
VD = Forward Bias voltage applied
η = ideality factor or Quality factor or emission coefficient (usually ranges from 1 to 2)
VT = Thermal voltage
K – Boltzman constant : 1.38 X 10-23 J/oK
q - Charge of Electron : 1.602 X 10-19 Coulombs

15 | P a g e
 Figure .4 Diode Characteristics

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
1). Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons.
2). The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
3). A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
4). A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
5). The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
6). The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.
7). When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
8). When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and
the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
9). When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and
the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage
current).

Forward and Reversed Biased Diode Equivalent Circuits

16 | P a g e
We can say that an ideal small signal diode conducts current in one direction (forward-conducting) and blocks
current in the other direction (reverse-blocking). Signal Diodes are used in a wide variety of applications such as
a switch in rectifiers, limiters, snubber circuits or in wave-shaping circuits.

Signal Diode Parameters

Signal Diodes are manufactured in a range of voltage and current ratings and care must be taken when choosing
a diode for a certain application. Some of the important parameters for choosing diode are:

a) Maximum Forward Current

The Maximum Forward Current (IFmax) is as its name implies the maximum forward current allowed to flow
through the device. When the diode is conducting in the forward bias condition, it has a very small "ON"
resistance across the PN junction and therefore, power is dissipated across this junction (Ohm´s Law) in the
form of heat. Then, exceeding its (IFmax) value will cause more heat to be generated across the junction and the
diode will fail due to thermal overload, usually with destructive consequences. When operating diodes around
their maximum current ratings it is always best to provide additional cooling to dissipate the heat produced by
the diode.

For example, 1N4148 signal diode has a maximum current rating of about 150mA with a power dissipation of
500mW at 25oC. Then a resistor must be used in series with the diode to limit the forward current, (IFmax)
through it to below this value.

b) Peak Inverse Voltage

The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Maximum Reverse Voltage (VR(max)), is the maximum allowable Reverse
operating voltage that can be applied across the diode without reverse breakdown and damage occurring to the
device. This rating therefore, is usually less than the "avalanche breakdown" level on the reverse bias
characteristic curve. Typical values of VR(max) range from a few volts to thousands of volts and must be
considered when replacing a diode.

The peak inverse voltage is an important parameter and is mainly used for rectifying diodes in AC rectifier
circuits with reference to the amplitude of the voltage were the sinusoidal waveform changes from a positive to
a negative value on each and every cycle.

c) Forward Power Dissipation

Signal diodes have a Forward Power Dissipation, (PD(max)) rating. This rating is the maximum possible power
dissipation of the diode when it is forward biased (conducting). When current flows through the signal diode the
biasing of the PN junction is not perfect and offers some resistance to the flow of current resulting in power
being dissipated (lost) in the diode in the form of heat. As small signal diodes are nonlinear devices the
resistance of the PN junction is not constant, it is a dynamic property then we cannot use Ohms Law to define
the power in terms of current and resistance or voltage and resistance as we can for resistors. Then to find the

17 | P a g e
power that will be dissipated by the diode we must multiply the voltage drop across it times the current flowing
through it: PD = V*I

d) Maximum Operating Temperature

The Maximum Operating Temperature actually relates to the Junction Temperature (TJ) of the diode and is
related to maximum power dissipation. It is the maximum temperature allowable before the structure of the
o
diode deteriorates and is expressed in units of degrees centigrade per Watt, ( C/W ). This value is linked
closely to the maximum forward current of the device so that at this value the temperature of the junction is not
exceeded. However, the maximum forward current will also depend upon the ambient temperature in which the
device is operating so the maximum forward current is usually quoted for two or more ambient temperature
values such as 25oC or 70oC.

Applications of diode

1. As switch
2. In Power Supplies (as rectifiers)
3. In snubber circuits ( as free wheeling diodes)
4. In clippers and clamping circuits

4.7. Manufacturing Processes of Semiconductors(Diode)

Manufacturing is the process by which raw materials are converted into finished products. The input to the
manufacturing is semiconductor materials, dopants, metals and insulators. After manufacturing the final finished
product can be semiconductor devices (diodes, transistors etc.), Integrated circuits(IC’s), Printed circuit
boards(PCB’s), and ultimately various commercial electronic systems and products( computers, cellular phones,
digital cameras). Here we look the various processes of manufacturing diodes.

Diffused junction: A semiconductor substrate ( eg P-type), (substrate is a device whose reactivity is increased
by a specific enzyme) is put in a furnace at high temperature of about 10000C. Nitogen gas with phosphorous is
passed in the vapour form. At this temperature the compound breaks down and phosphorous atoms deposited on
the substrate surface, slowly diffuse into the semiconductor. Maximum concentration of the diffusing impurity
occurs at the surface and gradually falls towards inside. The junction depth can be controlled by controlling time
and temperature. To prevent diffusion in the unwanted regions silicon dioxide of few microns is grown over
selected areas by photolithographic technique.

Epitaxy: Epitaxy is the growth of one crystalline substance on another so that both have the same crystal
structure. Epitaxial layers are used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices. Here a single layer of silicon
doped with N or P type semiconductor of required resistivity is taken, later it is doped with other impurity.
While doping the crystallographic structure of the substrate is maintained.

Ion Implementation: In this process ions of desired impurity are first accelerated in vacuum to high energies
and then shot at the semiconductor surface. The ions penetrate to a depth of few microns through the crystal
lattice. The substance is then heated to restore the crystal structure and for diffusion of impurities into the
semiconductor.

Alloy Junction: The desired semiconductor say of N type is deposited with an opposite type of impurity say
aluminium, silicon, indium or germanium. It is then put into furnace in an inert atmosphere and temperature is
increased. A thin film of melt is then formed at the interface. The melt is cooled to get solidified into a single
crystal form.
4.8 Applications of semiconducting materials

1. Rectifiers: used for converting AC power into DC power, in power supply unit.
2. Transistors: used in many electronic systems for amplification, signal processing, etc.

18 | P a g e
 3. Photoconductive cells: These are basically light dependent resistors. Cadmium sulphide is used in
these cells. These are used for measuring quality of light(light meter), light operated relays, switches,
breakers and alarms.
4. Temperature sensitive resistors or thermistors: These are thermally sensitive resistors. These are made
from oxides of certain metals such as copper, iron,zinc. These are used for temperature measurement
and control, voltage regulation and in timing circuits.
5. Varistors: The resistance of semiconductor materials changes with applied voltage. The varistors are
used in voltage stabilizers and motor speed control.
6. Strain gauges: Strain gauges are extensively used in measuring the tensile strength of materials and
change in dimensions of structures.
7. Photo diode and photovoltaic cell: Photo diodes are used as switches to detect light as in the case of
photographic exposure meter, automatic aperture control of cameras.
8. Integrated circuits: These are very popular in electronics and electrical engineering; they are built by
using some monolithic techniques comprising hundreds of different semiconductor devices on a single
compact chip. These are much reliable circuits.

19 | P a g e