ACM 01

Basic Electrical Engineering 1

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

INTRODUCTION
In a conductor, the charge carriers are the free electrons that
are moved due to the voltage of an externally applied source.
As these electrons move through the material, they constantly
collide with atoms and other electrons within the conductor.
In a process similar to friction, the moving electrons give up
some of their energy in the form of heat. These collisions
represent an opposition to charge movement that is called
resistance. The greater the opposition (i.e., the greater the
resistance), the smaller will be the current for a given applied
voltage.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

 2.1 RESISTANCE

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

RESISTANCE
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to
which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity
through it.
Opposition – due to collisions and friction between free electrons
Collision and friction – convert electrical energy into HEAT.
Electric friction is similar to friction in mechanics.
Metals (as a class), acids and solutions are good conductor
of electricity. Amongst pure metals, silver, copper and
aluminum are very good conductors in the given order.
This is due to the presence of a large number of free or
loosely-attached electrons in their atoms. These electrons
while flowing pass through the molecules or the atoms of
the conductor collides.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

RESISTANCE
Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or
hindrance to the passage of these electrons are said to be
relatively poor conductors of electricity like bakelite, mica,
glass, rubber, p.v.c. and dry wood, etc. Amongst good
insulators can be include fibrous substance such as paper and
cotton when dry, mineral oils free from acids and water,
ceramics.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

 2.2 UNIT OF RESISTANCE

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

UNIT OF RESISTANCE
The resistance is denoted by the symbol “R” and practically,
the unit of resistance R is “Ohm”, named in honor of Georg
Simon Ohm and is usually abbreviated by the Ω (capital
omega) symbol.
A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it
permits one ampere current to flow through it when one
volt is impressed across its terminals.
An element that has a resistance R is
called a resistor.
A resistor is an electrical component
with a predetermined electrical
resistance.
A resistor is represented by the two-
terminal symbol shown in figure 2.1.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

 2.3 THE LAW OF
RESISTANCE

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on
the following factors:

(a) It varies directly as its Length (L).

If we were to double the length of the wire, we can
expect that the number of collisions over the length
of the wire would double, thereby causing the
resistance to double.
𝑅∝𝐿
• Measured in meters (m) or feet (ft)
• Denoted by “L”

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
(b) It varies inversely as the cross-sectional area (A) of the
conductor.
As the cross-sectional area is increased, the moving electrons
are able to move more freely through the conductor, just as
water moves more freely through a large diameter pipe than a
small diameter pipe.
If the cross-sectional area is doubled, the electrons would be
involved in half as many collisions over the length of the wire.
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
• Denoted by “A”
• Measured in “square meter or circular mil”

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
Circular Mils (CM) – The area contained within a
circle having a diameter (d) of 1 mil.
mil – a unit of measurement for length.
Circular Mil (CM) vs Square mil

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
Applying the definition to a wire having a diameter of 1 mil.

π 4
Since 1CM = sq. mils, ∴ 1sq. mils = π CM
4
For a wire having a diameter “n” mils,
𝜋
𝐴 = (𝑛)2 sq. mils
4
𝜋 2
4
𝐴= 𝑛 CM
4 2 π
𝐴 = 𝑛 in CM
Since, 𝑛 = 𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
∴ 𝐴𝐶𝑀 = (𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 )2

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
(c) It depends on the nature of the material.
If a certain length of wire is subjected to a current, the moving
electrons will collide with other electrons within the material.
Differences at the atomic level of various materials cause
variation in how the collisions affect resistance.
Silver has more free electrons than copper, and so the
resistance of a silver wire will be less than the resistance of
copper wire having the identical dimensions.
• Measured in ohm-meter or 𝒐𝒉𝒎−𝒄𝒎𝒊𝒍 𝒇𝒕
• The effect of nature of material is considered through the
constant proportionality denoted by 𝝆 (𝒓𝒉𝒐) called
resistivity or specific resistance.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
Table 2.1 list the resistivities of various materials at room
temperature (𝟐𝟎℃).
A material with highest value of resistivity is the best insulator
while with the poorest value of resistivity is the best
conductor.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a given
temperature may be summarized mathematically as follow:

𝜌𝐿
𝑅= 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑕𝑚𝑠 Ω 𝐸𝑞. 2.1
𝐴
Where:
𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑕𝑚 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 Ω − 𝑚
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕, 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚2 )
Since most conductors are circular, we may determine the
cross-sectional area from either the radius or the diameter
as follows;
2
𝜋 2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑑
4
LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance
EXAMPLE
Ex.2.1 Determine the cross-sectional area in circular mil of a
wire having a diameter of 0.0159 inch.
Solution
𝑑 = 0.0159 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑕 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 1 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑕 = 15.9 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
𝐴𝐶𝑀 = (𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠 )2
𝐴𝐶𝑀 = (15.9 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠)2
∴ 𝐴𝐶𝑀 = 252.81 𝐶𝑀

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.2 An aluminum conductor, 1 km long has a diameter of
0.5 cm. Determine the resistance of the conductor.
Solution: The resistance of a conductor is assumed to be
measured at room temperature (20℃).

From table 2.1. resistivity of material.

𝜌𝐿 1𝑥103 𝑚
𝑅= = 2.83𝑥10−8 Ω − 𝑚 𝜋
𝐴 0.5𝑥10−2 𝑚 2
4

∴ 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟓 Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.3 A 1.5mile long conductor is made up of annealed
copper whose diameter is 0.1 inch. Determine the resistance
of the conductor.
Solution: The given diameter is in inch., it is more convenient
to use the resistivity of a material in ohm-cmil per ft.
The resistance of a conductor is assumed to be measured at
room temperature (20℃).
From table 2.1. resistivity of material.
5280 𝑓𝑡
𝜌𝐿 Ω − 𝐶𝑀 1.5 𝑚𝑖
1 𝑚𝑖
𝑅= = 10.37
𝐴 𝑓𝑡 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙 2
0.1 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑕 𝑥
1𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑕
∴ 𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟒 Ω
Note: 𝑨𝑪𝑴 = (𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔 )𝟐

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.4 A 7 strand hard drawn copper wire is 800 m. Each
strand has a diameter of 0.1 cm. Determine the resistance of
the conductor.
Solution: The resistance of a conductor is assumed to be
measured at room temperature (20℃).
From table 2.1. resistivity of material.
𝜌𝐿 −8 800𝑚
𝑅= = 1.77𝑥10 Ω − 𝑚 𝜋
𝐴 0.1𝑥10−2 2 (7)
4

∴ 𝑹 = 2.575581708 Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.5 A copper transmission line is to be replaced by one of
aluminum having the same total resistance. If the cross sectional
area of the copper wire is 500MCM, what would be the cross
sectional area of the new aluminum wire?
Solution: Same resistance, same length. Cross sectional area given
is in MCM, Use annealed copper.
From table 2.1. resistivity of material.
𝜌𝑎 = 17 Ω − 𝐶𝑀 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡; 𝜌𝑐 = 10.37 Ω − 𝐶𝑀 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑐
𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑐
𝜌𝑎 = 𝜌𝑐
𝐴 𝐴
𝜌𝑎𝑎 𝜌𝑐 𝑐
=
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝜌𝑎 500 𝑀𝐶𝑀 17 Ω − 𝐶𝑀 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑎 = =
𝜌𝑐 10.37 Ω − 𝐶𝑀 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑎 = 819.67213115 𝑀𝐶𝑀

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
CONDUCTORS UNDERGONE PROCESS (DRAWING/DIE
CASTING)
Its volume will remain the same however, its diameter and
length will change.
𝑳 𝑳 𝑳𝟐
𝑹 = 𝝆 ∙ = 𝝆 ; 𝑹 ∝ 𝑳𝟐
𝑨 𝑳 𝑽

𝑳 𝑨 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝝆 ∙ = 𝝆 𝟐 ; 𝑹 ∝ 𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑹 ∝ 𝟒
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝒅

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.6 A 6 km wire having 11.7 mm diameter and a resistance of 0.031Ω is
drawn so that its diameter is 5.0 mm. What does its resistance become?
Solution: Keyword for this problem is drawn (this conductor undergone
process).
Let 𝑅1 = 0.031Ω, 𝑑1 = 11.7 𝑚𝑚, 𝑅2 =? , 𝑑2 = 5 𝑚𝑚.
1
𝑅∝ 4
𝑑
𝑅2 𝑑1 4
=
𝑅1 𝑑2 4
𝑑1 4
𝑅2 = 𝑅1
𝑑2 4
11.7𝑥10−3 4
𝑅2 = 0.031
5𝑥10−3 4
∴ 𝑅2 = 0.9294480562 Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
(d) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
As temperature increases, more electrons will escape their
orbits, causing additional collisions within the conductor. For
most conductive materials, the increase in the number of
collisions translates into a relatively linear increase in
resistance, as shown in Figure 2.2.

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
The rate at which the resistance of a material changes with a
variation in temperature is dependent on the temperature
coefficient of the material, which is assigned the Greek letter
alpha (𝛼 ).
By examining the straight-line portion of the graph in figure
2.2, we see that we have two similar triangles, one with the
apex at point 1 and the other with the apex at point 2.
The following relationship applies for these similar triangles.
𝑅2 𝑅1
=
𝑇 + 𝑇2 𝑇 + 𝑇1

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
The expression may be written to solve for the resistance 𝑅2
at any temperature 𝑇2 as follows;
𝑇 + 𝑇2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 𝐸𝑞. 2.2
𝑇 + 𝑇1

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.7 An aluminum conductor, 1 km long has a diameter of
0.5 cm. Determine the resistance at 35℃.
Solution. First, determine 𝑅1 . The resistance of a conductor is
assumed to be measured at room temperature (20℃).
3𝑚
𝜌𝐿 1𝑥10
𝑅1 @ 20℃ = = 2.83𝑥10−8 Ω − 𝑚 𝜋
𝐴 0.5𝑥10 −2 𝑚 2
4
𝑅1 @ 20℃ = 1.441307165 Ω
From eq. 2.2 using values from table 2.2.
𝑇 + 𝑇2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1
𝑇 + 𝑇1
−228℃ + 35℃
𝑅2 = 1.441307165 Ω
−228℃ + 20℃
∴ 𝑹𝟐 @ 𝟑𝟓℃ = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟐 Ω
LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance
EXAMPLE
Ex.2.8 A 7 strand hard drawn copper wire is 800 m. Each strand
has a diameter of 0.1 cm. determine the resistance at 40°C.
Solution. First, determine 𝑅1 . The resistance of a conductor is
assumed to be measured at room temperature (20℃).
𝜌𝐿 −8
800𝑚
𝑅1 @20℃ = = 1.77𝑥10 Ω − 𝑚 𝜋
𝐴 0.1𝑥10 −2 2 (7)
4
𝑅1 @20℃ = 2.575581708 Ω
From eq. 2.2 using values from table 2.2.
𝑇 + 𝑇2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1
𝑇 + 𝑇1
−241℃ + 40℃
𝑅2 = 2.575581708 Ω
−241℃ + 20℃
∴ 𝑹𝟐 @ 𝟒𝟎℃ = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟗𝟏 Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
Alternate method of determining the resistance 𝑅2 of a
conductor at a temperature 𝑇2 is to use the temperature
coefficient 𝛼 of the material. The temperature coefficient 𝛼 is
defined as
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝑚) ∆𝑅 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝛼= ;𝑚 = =
𝑅1 ∆𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Therefore,
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝛼=
𝑅1
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝛼 = , 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2 − 𝑇1

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

LAW OF RESISTANCE
Therefore, the derived expression
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 1 + 𝛼 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

The temperature coefficient (𝛼 ) is measured in

(℃ )−1 and also the temperature coefficient of the
conductor 𝑅1 at any temperature 𝑇1 which can be
expressed as,

𝑅2 = 𝑅1 1 + 𝛼1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝐸𝑞. 2.3

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Ex.2.9 A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100Ω when its
temperature is 𝟎℃. Determine its resistance at 𝟕𝟎℃ if the
temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 𝟎℃ is
0.0043/℃.
Solution: From eq. 2.3
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 1 + 𝛼1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Where 𝑅2 is the resistance at 70℃ and 𝑅1 = 100Ω, the
resistance at 0℃

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXAMPLE
Therefore, if the resistance of a material at 0℃ is known, the
resistance at any other temperature can be determined from:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼0 𝑇
Where,
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇℃
𝑅0 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0℃
𝛼0 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0℃

Hence, resistance at 70℃

𝑅70 = 100 1 + (0.0043)(70)

∴ 𝑹𝟕𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟏 Ω
LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance
EXAMPLE
Ex.2.10 A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 10Ω at 𝟐𝟎℃.
If the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at
𝟐𝟎℃ is 0.004/℃, determine the resistance of the coil when
the temperature rises to 100℃.
Solution: From eq. 2.3

𝑅2 = 𝑅1 1 + 𝛼1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 100℃, 𝑅1 = 10Ω, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 20℃

𝑅100 = 10 1 + 0.004 100 − 20
∴ 𝑹𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

 EXERCISE

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXERCISE
1. A 7 strand annealed copper conductor, 1.5 km long has a
strand diameter of 0.15 cm. Determine the resistance of
the conductor.
An𝒔. 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟐𝟕 Ω
2. A piece of wire of cross-sectional area 2𝑚𝑚2 has a
resistance of 300 Ω. Find the resistance of a wire of the same
length and material if the cross-sectional area is 5𝑚𝑚2 .
An𝒔. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 Ω
3. A copper wire of unknown length has a resistance of 0.8
ohm. By successive passes through drawing dies, the length of
the wire is increased to 2 ½ times its original value. Assuming
that resistivity remains unchanged during the drawing
process, determine the new value of its resistance.
An𝒔. 𝑹 = 𝟓 Ω

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXERCISE
4. A 7 strand annealed copper conductor, 1.5 km long has a
strand diameter of 0.15 cm. At what temperature will the
resistance become 3Ω?
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑡2 = 96.88635408 ℃
5. A coil has a resistance of 18Ω when its temperature is 20°C
and 20Ω when its temperature is 50°C. Find its temperature
rise when its resistance is 21Ω and the surrounding
temperature is 15°C.
An𝒔. 𝟓𝟎℃
6. The field winding of a series motor has a resistance of 120
ohms at 15℃. After running for two hours, the resistance
increase to 140 ohms. If the temperature coefficient of the
winding at 0℃ is 0.004. Find the new temperature of the
windings.
An𝒔. 𝟓9.16℃

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance

EXERCISE
7. A 7 strand aluminum conductor is 1.2 miles long.
Its resistance at 35°C is 2 Ω. Determine the diameter
of each strand in inches.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. d = 0.09032751468 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑕

LECTURE 2 – Electrical Resistance