General Physics: Phys 1011

Chapter 1
PRELIMINARIES

Solomon Getachew (PhD)

March 2023
Outline
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement
1.1.1. Physical quantities
1.1.2. SI Units: Basic and Derived Units
1.1.3. Conversion of Units
1.2.Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits
1.2.1. Significant Figures
1.3. Vectors: composition and resolution
1.4. Unit Vectors
1.4.1. Adding Vectors Algebraically
1.4.2. Operations with Vectors
1.5. Dot Product
1.6. Cross Product
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement
Physical quantity is a quantifiable or assignable property ascribed to a particular
phenomenon or body , for instance the length of a rod or the mass of a body.
♣ Measurement is the act of comparing
a physical quantity with a certain
standard.
♣Scientists can even make up a
completely new physical quantity that
has not been known if necessary.
However, there is a set of limited number
of physical quantities of fundamental
importance from which all other possible
quantities can be derived. Those
quantities are called Basic Physical
Quantities, and obviously the other
derivatives are called Derived Physical
Quantities
1.1.1. Physical quantities
A. Basic Physical Quantities:
Basic quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other
physical quantity. Example: length, mass and time.

B. Derived Physical Quantities:

Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities. Examples: area, volume, density.

♣ Giving numerical values for physical quantities and equations for physical
principles allows us to understand nature much more deeply than qualitative
descriptions alone.

♣ We shall find that even in the potentially mundane discussion of meters,

kilograms, and seconds, a profound simplicity of nature appears:
♣ All physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of only seven basic
physical quantities.

♣ We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by

stating how it is calculated from other measurements.
1.1.2.SI Units: Basic and Derived Units
♣ SI unit is the abbreviation for International System of Units and is the modern form of
metric system finally agreed upon at the eleventh International conference of weights
and measures,1960.

♣ This system of units is now being adopted throughout the world and will remain the
primary system of units of measurement.
Table 1.2: Derived quantities, their SI units

Table 1.1: Basic quantities and their SI units

1.1.3. Conversion of Units
♣ Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which are standardized
values.
♣ To convert a quantity from one unit to another, multiply by conversions factors in such a
way that you cancel the units you want to get rid of and introduce the units you want to end up
with. Below is the table for commonly used unit conversions (see Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: Unit conversion of basic quantities
Quantity From To Opration
Length inch (in)
foot (ft)
m (inch)x0.0254
Mile (mi)
m (foot)x0.3048
m (mile)x1609.34

Mass pound (lb) Kg

(pound) x0.4536
metric tone (t) Kg
(ton)x1000
ounce kg
(ounce)x0.02835

Volume liter (l) m^3

(liter) x0.001
gallon (ga) m^3
(gallon) x0.00379
Temperature Fahrenheit (F) K
{(F-32)}x5/9+273.15
Celsius (C) K
(Celsius) +273.15

Examples:
1. Length 0.02in can be converted into SI unit in meters using table 1.3 as follow:
Solution: 0.02in= 0.02 x0.0254m = 0.000508m = 5.08 x10 -4 m = 0.503 mm or 508µm.
2. Honda Fit weighs about 2,500 lb. It is equivalent to 2500 x0.4536kg = 1134.0kg.
1.2.Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits

♣ Measurements are always uncertain, but it was always hoped that by designing a better and
better experiment we can improve the uncertainty without limits.
♣ No measurement of a physical quantity can be entirely accurate. It is important to know,
therefore, just how much the measured value is likely to deviate from the unknown, true,
value of the quantity.
♣ The art of estimating these deviations should probably be called uncertainty analysis, but
for historical reasons is referred to as error analysis.
♣ Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of the measure and, which covers the true
value of the measure and. Thus uncertainty characterizes the spread of measurement results.
♣ Therefore, the uncertainty also indicates a doubt about how well the result of the
measurement presents the value of the quantity being measured.
♣ All measurements always have some uncertainty. We refer to the uncertainty as the error in
the measurement. Errors fall into two categories:
1. Systematic Error - errors resulting from measuring devices being out of calibration. Such
measurements will be consistently too small or too large. These errors can be eliminated by
pre-calibrating against a known, trusted standard.
2. Random Errors - errors resulting in the fluctuation of measurements of the same quantity
about the average. The measurements are equally probable of being too large or too small.
These errors generally result from the fineness of scale division of a measuring device. .
Cont...
♣ The following general rules of thumb are often used to determine the uncertainty in a
single measurement when using a scale or digital measuring device.
1. Uncertainty in a scale measuring device is equal to the smallest increment divided by 2.

Example: Meter Stick (scale device)

2. Uncertainty in a digital measuring device is equal to the smallest increment.

Example: A reading from digital Balance (digital device) is 5.7513 kg, therefore
1.2.1. Significant Figures
 The significant figures in a measurement include all of the digits that are known,
plus a last digit that is estimated.
 Measurements must always be reported to the correct number of
significant figures because calculated answers cannot be more precise than
measured data.
 Accuracy of a measurement – how close your number comes to the actual
value
 similar to hitting the bull's-eye on a dart board
 Precision of a measurement – how close your repeated measurements
come to each other (not necessarily the actual value)
 how closely grouped are your 3 darts on the board (even if they’re not close to the
bull's-eye)
 A high-quality measurement is both precise and accurate.
 It is possible for measurements to be precise but not accurate, just as it is possible
to be accurate but not precise
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements
To determine whether a digit in a measured value is significant, you need to apply the following rules.
1. Every nonzero digit is significant.

 Each of these measurements has three significant figures:

24.7 meters
0.743 meter
714 meters

2. Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are significant. These are called “sandwich zeros”.

 Each of these measurements has four significant figures: Why?

7003 meters

40.79 meters

1.503 meters
3: Trailing zeros follow a non zero digit and are significant only if there is a
decimal point.
examples of this rule with the zeros this rule affects in red color boldface:
 0.00500
 0.03040
 2.30 x 10-5
 4.500 x 1012

 100.000
 Determining Significant Figures in Measurements
 Each of these measurements has four significant figures: WHY? (find the
captured & trailing zeros)
43.00 meters
1.010 meters
9.000 meters
 Cont...
Which digits are significant figures?

1. All non zero digits (1 to 9)

2. sandwich zeros – which are between non-zero digits
Example 1,001

3. Trailing zeros – with a decimal point

Example 1,001.000

Which ZERO digits are NOT significant figures?

Leading zeros before real numbers

Example 0.000231

Trailing zeros after real numbers if no decimal is written

Example 1,000,000
Rules for significant figures
Rule 1: Non-zero digits are always significant.
Rule 2: “sandwich zeros” – any zeros between two significant digits are
significant.
Rule 3: Trailing zeros are significant if there is a decimal point
Rule 4 – Unlimited significant figures
Counted values equivalents
 Counting Significant Figures in Measurements
How many significant figures are in each measurement? Give the rule(s) for
counting significant figures

123 m 3 sig-figs -– all nonzero numbers

5 sig-figs -– all nonzero numbers

40,506 mm – sandwich zeros

9.8000 x 104 m 5 sig-figs -– trailing zeros with a decimal are

significant
 1.3. Vectors: composition and resolution
 All physical quantities encountered in this text will be either a scalar or a vector
 A vector quantity has both magnitude (value + unit) and direction
 A scalar is completely specified by only a magnitude (value + unit)
 Vectors and Scalar Quantities

 Vectors  Scalars:
 Displacement  Distance
 Velocity  Speed (magnitude of
(magnitude and velocity)
direction!)  Temperature
 Acceleration  Mass
 Force  Energy
 Momentum  Time
To describe a vector we need more information than to describe a scalar!
Therefore vectors are more complex!
 Important Notation
 To describe vectors we will use:
 The bold font: Vector A is A

 Or an arrow above the vector:⃗

A
 In the pictures, we will always show

vectors as arrows
 Arrows point the direction

 To describe the magnitude of a vector

we will use absolute value sign:

just A, |⃗A|or

 Magnitude is always positive, the

magnitude of a vector is equal to the

length of a vector.
 Properties of Vectors
 Equality of Two Vectors
 Two vectors are equal if they have the same

magnitude and the same direction

 Movement of vectors in a diagram
 Any vector can be moved parallel to itself without

being affected

 Negative Vectors
 Two vectors are negative if they have the same magnitude but are 180°

apart (opposite directions)

    ⃗A
 
A   B; A   A  0
⃗B
 Adding Vectors

 When adding vectors, their directions must be taken into account

 Units must be the same
 Geometric Methods
 Use scale drawings

 Algebraic Methods
 More convenient

September 4, 2008
 Adding Vectors Geometrically (Triangle Method)

 Draw the first vector ⃗A with the

appropriate length and in the
direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system ⃗A+ ⃗
B
 Draw the next vector ⃗ B with the ⃗B
appropriate length and in the
direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system whose origin is the
end of vector ⃗ A and parallel to the
coordinate system used for ⃗A : “tip-to- ⃗A
tail”.
 The resultant is drawn from the origin
of ⃗A to the end of the last vector ⃗B
 Adding Vectors Graphically

 When you have many vectors,

just keep repeating the process
until all are included
⃗A+ ⃗
B
 The resultant is still drawn
from the origin of the first
vector to the end of the last ⃗A+ ⃗
B+ ⃗
C
vector
⃗A+ ⃗
B
 Adding Vectors Geometrically (Polygon Method)

 Draw the first vector ⃗A with the

⃗A+ ⃗
B
appropriate length and in the
direction specified, with respect to
a coordinate system
 Draw the next vector ⃗ B with the ⃗B
appropriate length and in the
direction specified, with respect to
the same coordinate system
 Draw a parallelogram
 The resultant is drawn as a ⃗A
diagonal from the origin
⃗
A+ ⃗
B =⃗
B+ ⃗
A
 Vector Subtraction
 Special case of vector addition
 Add the negative of the subtracted

vector ⃗B
   
A  B A   B  
 Continue with standard vector addition
procedure ⃗A
− ⃗B
⃗A − ⃗B
 Describing Vectors Algebraically

Vectors: Described by the number, units and direction!

Vectors: Can be described by their magnitude and direction. For

example: Your displacement is 1.5 m at an angle of 250.
Can be described by components? For example: your displacement
is 1.36 m in the positive x direction and 0.634 m in the positive y
direction.
 Components of a Vector
 For a right triangle, the functions sinθ , cosθ and tanθ are defined as
follows:
 Definitions of trigonometric functions
 For the right triangle shown,
 Components of a Vector
 So we need a simple, but more general, method for adding vectors.
The usual method makes use of components of vectors.
 It is useful to use rectangular components, these are the
projections of the vector along the x- and y-axes
 Components of a Vector

 The x-component of a vector is

the projection along the x-axis
Ax
cos   Ax  A cos 
A
 The y-component of a vector is
the projection along the y-axis
Ay
sin   Ay  A sin 
A
 Then,

⃗A =⃗A x + ⃗A y
  
A  Ax  Ay
 Components of a Vector

 The previous equations are valid only if θ is measured with respect

to the x-axis
 The components can be positive or negative and will have the same
units as the original vector

θ=0, Ax=A>0, Ay=0

θ=45°, Ax=Acos45°>0, Ay=Asin45°>0
ax < 0 ax > 0
θ=90°, Ax=0, Ay=A>0
ay > 0 ay > 0
θ θ=135°, Ax=Acos135°<0, Ay=Asin135°>0
ax < 0 ax > 0 θ=180°, Ax=-A<0, Ay=0
ay < 0 ay < 0 θ=225°, Ax=Acos225°<0, Ay=Asin225°<0
θ=270°, Ax=0, Ay=-A<0
θ=315°, Ax=Acos315°<0, Ay=Asin315°<0
 More About Components

 The components are the legs of the

right triangle whose hypotenuse is A

2 2  Ay 
1
A A A x y and   tan  
 Ax 
A x =A cos ( θ )

A y =A sin ( θ )
√
|A|= ( A x ) + ( A y )
⃗ 2 2
Or,

tan ( θ )=
Ay
Ax
or θ= tan
( )
−1 A y
Ax
1.4. Unit Vectors
 is a dimensionless whose magnitude is 1.
⃗
A

 Representation of unit vector is ^A , ^B , C^ ,

etc….
 A unit vector along a given vector ⃗A is
given by: ^A= ⃗A
|⃗
A|
 Unit vectors along the x, y and z axis are
 ^j → y
i^ → x k^ → z
y  Component of a vector is still vectors
⃗A =A x i^ +A y ^j
j i
x
k
Magnitude + Sign Unit vector
z
 Unit vectors used to specify direction
Example
1. Which one of the following vectors represent a unit vector?
a) 4 i^ - 3 ^j

b) 0.6 i^ +0.8 ^j

c) ^
0.5 i +
√ 11 ^
j+0.8 k^
10
 1.4.1. Adding Vectors Algebraically
 Consider two vectors
⃗A =A x i^ +A y ^j
⃗B =Bx i^ +B y ^j
 Then
⃗A+ ⃗
B=( A x i^ +A y ^j ) + ( B x i^ +B y ^j )
^ ( A y +B y ) ^j
( A x +Bx ) i+
 If ⃗
C=⃗ A+ ⃗B =( A x +B x ) i^ + ( A y +B y ) ^j
 so C x =A x +Bx C y =A y +B y
  
A  Ax  Ay
 1.4.2. Operations with Vectors
 Vector A is described algebraically as (-3, 5), while vector B
is (4, -2). Find the value of magnitude and direction of the
sum (C) of the vectors A and B.

⃗A =−3 i^ +5 ^j ⃗B=4 i^ −2 ^j
⃗
C=⃗A+ ⃗ B =( − 3+4 ) i^ + ( 5 −2 ) ^j =1 i^ +3 ^j
C x =1 C y =3
C = √ c x + c y = √ 1 + 3 = √ 10
2 2 2 2

Cy
−1 −1 ∘
θ= tan =tan 3=71 . 56
Cx
 1.5. Dot Product

 The dot product (also called 

The dot product says something about how
the scalar product) of two parallel two vectors are.
vectors A and B is denoted by 
The dot product (scalar product) of two
A.B. vectors can be thought of as the projection of
 This quantity is simply the one onto the direction of the other
product of the magnitudes of  Thus, the dot product of two vectors
the two vectors and the cosine simply gives a number, that is, a scalar
of the angle between them: rather than a vector.
⃗
A ⋅ ⃗B =ABcosθ  The number will be positive if θ<90 ,
^ cosθ=A
⃗A ⋅ i=A negative if θ>90, and zero if θ=90.
x
 Components  If the two vectors are perpendicular,
then their dot product is zero.
⃗A ⋅ ⃗B =A x B x +A y B y +A z B z  Note that the dot product is
commutative; as in ordinary
multiplication, the order of the factors
is irrelevant, that is, A.B = B.A.
 Derivation
How do we show that? ⃗ A ⋅ ⃗B =A x B x +A y B y +A z B z
Start with ⃗A =A i^ +A ^j+A k^
x y z
⃗B =Bx i^ +B y ^j +Bz k^
Then ⃗
A⋅⃗ B =( A x i^ +A y ^j +A z k^ ) ⋅ ( B x i^ +B y ^j +Bz k^ )
A x i^ ⋅ ( B x i^ +B y ^j +Bz k^ ) +A y ^j ⋅ ( B x i+B
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
y j +B z k ) +A z k ⋅ ( B x i+B y j +B z k )

But i^ ⋅ i=
^ ^j⋅ ^j= k^ . k^ =1 So ⃗A ⋅ ⃗B =A x i⋅^ B x i+A
^ y ^j⋅ B y ^j +Az k⋅
^ B z k^
i.^ ^j= ^j. k^ = ^k. i=0
^ ⃗A ⋅ ⃗B = A x B x +A y B y +A z B z

Exercises
1. Find the scalar product of ⃗A=8 i+2
^ ^j −3 k^ and ⃗B=3 i−6
^ ^j+4 ^k
2. Find the angle b/n ⃗A=2 i+
^ ^j+2 ^k and ⃗B=4 i^ −3 ^j
 1.6. Cross Product ⃗B
⃗B sin θ
 In contrast to the dot product of two vectors, which is a
scalar, the cross product (also called the vector product) of  ⃗A
two vectors is a vector. The cross product of two vectors A
and B is denoted by AxB. ⃗A sin θ
 The magnitude of this vector is equal to the product of the
y
magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle
between them. j
→ i
C=⃗
A×⃗
x
B z
k
 The cross product of two vectors says something about how
perpendicular they are. i
 Magnitude:
|⃗A × ⃗B|=ABsinθ k j
 θ is smaller angle between the vectors
 If the vectors A and B are parallel, then the cross product
is zero
^ i=
i× ^ ^j × ^j = k^ × k^ =0
 Cross product is maximum for perpendicular vectors ^ ^j =- ^j× i=
i× ^ k^
 Cross products of Cartesian unit vectors: ^j × k^ =- ^k× ^j = i^
k^ × i=-
^ i×^ k^ = ^j
 More about Cross Product
 The quantity ABsinθ is the area of
the parallelogram formed by A and
B
 Cross product is not commutative
⃗A × ⃗B = - ⃗B × ⃗A

The distributive law

⃗A × ( ⃗
B+ ⃗
C )= ⃗
A×⃗
B + ⃗A × C
⃗
 The derivative of cross product
obeys the chain rule d ⃗ ⃗ d⃗ A ⃗ ⃗ d ⃗B

( A × B ) = × B+ A ×
dt dt dt
 Calculate cross product
⃗A × ⃗B =( A y B z − A z B y ) i+
^ ( A z B x − A x B z ) ^j+ ( A x B y − A y B x ) k^
 Derivation
How do we show that ? ⃗A × ⃗B =( A y B z − A z B y ) i+
^ ( A z B x − A x B z ) ^j+ ( A x B y − A y B x ) k^
Start with ⃗A =A i^ +A y ^j+A z k^
x
⃗B =Bx i^ +B y ^j +Bz k^
Then ⃗A×⃗ B =( A x i^ +A y ^j +A z k^ ) × ( B x i^ +B y ^j +Bz k^ )
A x i^ × ( B x i+B
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
y j +B z k ) +A y j× ( B x i +B y j +B z k ) +A z k × ( B x i+B y j +B z k )

But
^ i=
i× ^ ^j × ^j = k^ × k^ =0
^ ^j =- ^j× i=
i× ^ k^
^j × k^ =- ^k× ^j = i^
k^ × i=-
^ i× ^ k^ = ^j
So ⃗A × ⃗B =A x i^ × B y ^j +A x i^ × B z k^ +A y ^j⋅ B x i^ +A y ^j⋅ B z k^
+A z k^ ⋅ B x i^ +Az k⋅
^ B ^j
y

If you are familiar with determinate ⃗a × ⃗b

Examples
1. Find the cross product of ⃗A=3 i−2
^ ^j+ k^ and ⃗B=i+4
^ ^j−2 k^
 Chapter Summary
 Physical quantity is the property of an object that can be quantified.
 Measurement is the act of comparing a physical quantity with its unit.
 Basic quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of
any other physical quantity. Example: length, mass and time.
 Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities.
Example: area, volume, density.
 Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of the measure and, which
covers the true value of the measure and thus uncertainty characterizes the
spread of measurement results.
 A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified by a number and its unit. It
has magnitude but no direction.
 Scalars obey the rules of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass, time, volume,
 A vector is a quantity that is specified by both a magnitude and direction in
space.
 Vector can be represented either by Algebraic method or Geometric
method.
 A single vector that is obtained by adding two or more vectors is called
resultant vector and it is obtained using the following two methods:
 Vectors can be added using the ways Graphical method of vector addition or
Parallelogram law of vector addition.
 Multiplying a Vector by a Vector. There are two ways to multiply a vector
by a vector:
 One way produces a scalar (called the scalar product), and the other
produces a new vector (called the vector product).
