Astro - all - 2023 [152 marks]

1a. The light from a distant galaxy shows that z = 0. 11. [1 mark]
size of the universe when the light was emitted
Calculate the ratio .
size of the universe at present

Markscheme
R
« R0 =»
1
1.11 OR 0. 90 OR 90% ✓

1b. Outline how Hubble’s law is related to z. [1 mark]

Markscheme
«Hubble’s » measure of v/recessional speed uses redshift which is z
OR
redshift (z) of galaxies is proportional to distance «from earth»
OR
combines v = Hd  AND  z = vc into one expression, e.g. z = Hd c
✓

OWTTE
1c. Hubble originally linked galactic redshift to a Doppler effect arising from [3 marks]
galactic recession. Hubble’s law is now regarded as being due to
cosmological redshift, not the Doppler effect. Explain the observed galactic
redshift in cosmological terms.

Markscheme
reference to «redshift due to» expansion of the universe, «not recessional
speed» ✓
expansion of universe stretches spacetime / increases distance between
objects ✓
«so» wavelength stretches / increases leading to observed redshift ✓
 The data for the star Eta Aquilae A are given in the table.

L⊙ is the luminosity of the Sun and M⊙ is the mass of the Sun.

2a. Show by calculation that Eta Aquilae A is not on the main sequence. [2 marks]

Markscheme
M 3.5
« LL⊙ = = 5. 703.5 = » 442 ✓
M ⊙3.5
the luminosity of Eta (2630L⊙ ) is very different «so it is not main sequence» ✓
1
Allow calculation of L 3.5 to give M = 9. 5 M⊙ so not main sequence
OWTTE

2b. Estimate, in pc, the distance to Eta Aquilae A using the parallax angle in [1 mark]
the table.
 Markscheme
1
d« = » = 424 « pc » ✓
2.36×10−3

2c. Estimate, in pc, the distance to Eta Aquilae A using the luminosity in the [3 marks]
table, given that L⊙ = 3. 83 × 1026 W .

Markscheme
Use of d = √ 4Lπb ✓

= √ 2630×3.83×10
26
−10 ✓
4π×7.20×10
1.055×1019
«= » = 342 « pc » ✓
3.26×9.46×1015

Award [3] marks for a bald correct answer between 340 and 344 « pc »
2d. Suggest why your answers to (b)(i) and (b)(ii) are different. [2 marks]

Markscheme
parallax angle in milliarc seconds/very small/at the limits of measurement ✓
uncertainties/error in measuring L οr b or θ ✓
values same order of magnitude, so not significantly different ✓

Accept answers where MP1 and MP2 both refer to parallax angle
OWTTE

2e. Eta Aquilae A is a Cepheid variable. Explain why the brightness of Eta [3 marks]
Aquilae A varies.
 Markscheme
reference to change in size ✓
reference to change in temperature ✓
reference to periodicity of the process ✓
reference to transparency / opaqueness ✓

2f. Eta Aquilae A was on the main sequence before it became a variable [2 marks]
star. Compare, without calculation, the time Eta Aquilae A spent on the
main sequence to the total time the Sun is likely to spend on the main sequence.

Markscheme
shorter time ✓
star more massive and mass related to luminosity
OR
star more massive and mass related to time in main sequence
OR
position on HR diagram to the left and above shows that will reach red giant
region sooner ✓
3. In 2017, two neutron stars were observed to merge, forming a black [2 marks]
hole. The material released included chemical elements produced by the
r process of neutron capture. Describe two characteristics of the elements
produced by the r process.

Markscheme
higher atomic number than iron ✓
excess of neutrons ✓
radioactive/undergoing beta decay ✓

Allow heavier than iron for MP1

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation is observed to have

anisotropies.

4a. State the nature of the anisotropies observed in the CMB radiation. [1 mark]

Markscheme
the temperature/«peak» wavelength/intensity «of the CMBR» varies «slightly»
/ is not constant in different directions ✓
4b. Identify two possible causes of the anisotropies in (a). [2 marks]

Markscheme
quantum fluctuations «that have expanded» ✓
density perturbations «that resulted in galaxies and clusters of galaxies» ✓
dipole distortion «due to the motion of the Earth» ✓

5a. Outline how the light spectra of distant galaxies are used to confirm [2 marks]
hypotheses about the expansion of the universe.
 Markscheme
spectra of galaxies are redshifted «compared to spectra on Earth» ✔
redshift/longer wavelength implies galaxies recede/ move away from us
OR
redshift is interpreted as cosmological expansion of space ✔
«hence universe expands»
NOTE: Universe expansion is given, so no mark for repeating this.
Do not accept answers based on CMB radiation.

5b. Light from a hydrogen source in a laboratory on Earth contains a [2 marks]

spectral line of wavelength 122 nm. Light from the same spectral line
reaching Earth from a distant galaxy has a wavelength of 392 nm. Determine the
ratio of the present size of the universe to the size of the universe when the light
was emitted by the galaxy.

Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
392−122
z= 122 = 2. 21 ✔
R
R0
= «2. 21 + 1 = » 3. 21 ✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
R 392
R0
= 122 ✔
= 3.21 ✔
 Evidence from the Planck space observatory suggests that the density of matter
in the universe is about 32 % of the critical density of the universe.

5c. State what is meant by the critical density. [1 mark]

Markscheme
density of flat/Euclidean universe
OR
density for which universe has zero curvature
OR
density resulting in universe expansion rate tending to zero ✔

5d. Calculate the density of matter in the universe, using the Hubble [3 marks]
constant 70 km s–1 Mpc–1.
 Markscheme
70×103
H=« = »2. 27 × 10−18 «s−1 »✔
( 106×3.26×9.46×1015 )
2
3× ( 2.27×10−18 )
ρ = 0. 32 × ✔
8π×6.67×10−11

3. 0 × 10−27 « kg m−3 »✔
NOTE: MP1 for conversion of H to base units.
Allow ECF from MP1, but NOT if H is left as 70.

5e. It is estimated that less than 20 % of the matter in the universe is [2 marks]
observable. Discuss how scientists use galactic rotation curves to explain
this.

Markscheme
rotation speed of galaxies is larger than expected away from the centre ✔
there must be more mass «at the edges» than is visually observable
«indicating the presence of dark matter» ✔
6a. Proxima Centauri is a main sequence star with a mass of 0.12 solar [2 marks]
masses.
lifetime on main sequence of Proxima Centauri
Estimate .
lifetime on main sequence of Sun

Markscheme
mass
realization that lifetime T ∝ luminosity
✔
−2.5
T
T⊙
= (M
M
⊙
) = 0. 12−2.5 = 200 ✔

6b. Describe why iron is the heaviest element that can be produced by [2 marks]
nuclear fusion processes inside stars.

Markscheme
the binding energy per nucleon is a maximum for iron ✔
formation of heavier elements than iron by fusion is not energetically possible
✔
NOTE: For MP2 some reference to energy is needed
6c. Discuss one process by which elements heavier than iron are formed in [3 marks]
stars.

Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1 — s-process
s-process involves «slow» neutron capture ✔
in s-process beta decay occurs before another neutron is captured ✔
s-process occurs in giant stars «AGB stars» ✔
s-process terminates at bismuth/lead/polonium ✔

ALTERNATIVE 2 — r-process
r-process involves «rapid» neutron capture ✔
in r-process further neutrons are captured before the beta decay occurs ✔
r-process occurs in type II supernovae ✔
r-process can lead to elements heavier than bismuth/lead/polonium ✔
NOTE: If the type of the process (r or s/rapid or slow) is not mentioned, award
[2 max].

7a. Describe the mechanism of formation of type I a supernovae. [2 marks]

 Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
a white dwarf star in a binary system accretes mass from the companion star
✔
when the white dwarf star mass reaches the Chandrasekhar limit the star
explodes «due to fusion reactions»✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
it can be formed in the collision of two white dwarf stars ✔
where shock waves from the collision rip both stars apart ✔

7b. Describe the mechanism of formation of type II supernovae. [1 mark]

Markscheme
a red supergiant star explodes when its core collapses ✔

7c. Suggest why type I a supernovae were used in the study that led to the [2 marks]
conclusion that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.
 Markscheme
«it was necessary» to measure the distance «of very distant objects more
accurately» ✔
type I a are standard candles/objects of known luminosity ✔

8a. Light from distant galaxies is redshifted. Explain the cosmological origin [2 marks]
of this redshift.

Markscheme
«according to general relativity» space expands stretching distances between
far away objects ✔
wavelengths of photons «received a long time after they were emitted» are
thus longer leading to the observed redshift ✔
Do not accept references to the Doppler effect.
 The graph shows the variation with time of the cosmic scale factor R of the
universe for the flat model of the universe without dark energy.

8b. Draw, on the axes, a graph to show the variation with time of the cosmic [1 mark]
scale factor R for the flat model of the universe with dark energy.

Markscheme

✔
8c. Compare and contrast, the variation with time of the temperature of the [2 marks]
cosmic background (CMB) radiation, for the two models from the present
time onward.

Markscheme
1
«since T ∝ R » the temperature drops for both models ✔

but in the accelerating model R increases faster and so the temperature drops
faster ✔

9a. Explain the formation of a type I a supernova which enables the star to [3 marks]
be used as a standard candle.
 Markscheme
white dwarf attracts mass from another star ✔
explodes/becomes supernova when mass equals/exceeds the Chandrasekhar
limit / 1.4MSUN ✔
hence luminosity of all type I a supernova is the same ✔
OWTTE

9b. Describe the r process which occurs during type II supernovae [2 marks]
nucleosynthesis.

Markscheme
«successive» rapid neutron capture ✔
faster than «β» decay can occur ✔
results in formation of heavier/neutron rich isotopes ✔
OWTTE
 The homogeneous model of the universe predicts that it may be considered as a
spherical cloud of matter of radius r and uniform density ρ. Consider a particle of
mass m at the edge of the universe moving with velocity v and obeying Hubble’s
law.

10a. Justify that the total energy of this particle is E = 12 mv2 − 43 πGrr2 m. [2 marks]

Markscheme
total energy=kinetic energy+potential energy
OR
total energy= 12 mv2 − GM m
r
✔

substitution of M = 43 πr3 ρ ✔

«Hence answer given»

Answer given so for MP2 look for clear evidence that MUniverse( 43 πr3 ρ) is
stated and substituted.
10b. At critical density there is zero total energy. Show that the critical [2 marks]
3H 02
density of the universe is: rc = 8π G
.

Markscheme
substitutes H0r for v ✔
«total energy = 0»
1 2 2
2 mH 0 r = 43 πGρr2 m ✔
3H 02
«hence ρc = 8 G »
π
Answer given, check working carefully.

10c. The accepted value for the Hubble constant is 2.3 × 10−18 s−1. Estimate [1 mark]
the critical density of the universe.
 Markscheme
9.5 × 10−27 « kgm–3» ✔

A distinctive feature of the constellation Orion is the Trapezium, an open cluster of

stars within Orion.

11a. Distinguish between a constellation and an open cluster. [2 marks]

Markscheme
In cluster, stars are gravitationally bound OR constellation not ✔
In cluster, stars are the same/similar age OR in constellation not ✔
Stars in cluster are close in space/the same distance OR in constellation not ✔
Cluster stars appear closer in night sky than constellation ✔
Clusters originate from same gas cloud OR constellation does not ✔
 Mintaka is one of the stars in Orion.

11b. The parallax angle of Mintaka measured from Earth is 3.64 × 10–3 arc- [1 mark]
second. Calculate, in parsec, the approximate distance of Mintaka from
Earth.

Markscheme
d = 275 «pc» ✔

11c. State why there is a maximum distance that astronomers can measure [1 mark]
using stellar parallax.

Markscheme
because of the difficulty of measuring very small angles ✔
11d. The Great Nebula is located in Orion. Describe, using the Jeans [2 marks]
criterion, the necessary condition for a nebula to form a star.

Markscheme
mass of gas cloud > Jeans mass ✔
«magnitude of» gravitational potential energy > Ek of particles ✔
cloud collapses/coalesces «to form a protostar» ✔

The surface temperature of the star Epsilon Indi is 4600 K.

12a. Determine the peak wavelength of the radiation emitted by Epsilon Indi. [1 mark]

Markscheme
2.9×10−3
λ=« 4600
=» 630 «nm» ✔
12b. Using the axis, draw the variation with wavelength of the intensity of [2 marks]
the radiation emitted by Epsilon Indi.

Markscheme
black body curve shape ✔
peaked at a value from range 600 to 660 nm ✔
12c. The following data are available for the Sun. [2 marks]
Surface temperature = 5800 K
Luminosity = L⊙
Mass = M⊙
Radius = R⊙
Epsilon Indi has a radius of 0.73 R⊙ . Show that the luminosity of Epsilon Indi is 0.2 
L⊙ .

Markscheme
0.73R ⊙ 2
( R⊙ )
4
L
L⊙
= × ( 4600
5800
) ✔
L = 0.211 L⊙ ✔

12d. Epsilon Indi is a main sequence star. Show that the mass of Epsilon Indi [1 mark]
is 0.64 M⊙ .
 Markscheme
1
M = «0.21 3.5 M⊙ =» 0.640 M⊙ ✔

12e. The Sun will spend about nine billion years on the main sequence. [2 marks]
Calculate how long Epsilon Indi will spend on the main sequence.

Markscheme
ME
TE 0.64
T⊙
=« LE
M⊙ = 0.21
=» 3.0 ✔
L⊙

T ≈ 27 billion years ✔
12f. Describe the stages in the evolution of Epsilon Indi from the point when [3 marks]
it leaves the main sequence until its final stable state.

Markscheme
red giant ✔
planetary nebula ✔
white dwarf ✔

do NOT accept supernova, red supergiant, neutron star or black hole as

stages
 The graph shows the variation with distance from the Earth of the recessional
velocities of distant galaxies.

13a. Outline how Hubble measured the recessional velocities of galaxies. [2 marks]

Markscheme
measured redshift «z» of star ✔
use of Doppler formula OR z∼v/c OR v = cΔλ to find v ✔
λ
OWTTE
13b. Use the graph to determine the age of the universe in s. [3 marks]

Markscheme
use of gradient or any point on the line to obtain any expression for either
H = dv or t = dv ✔
correct conversion of d to m and v to m/s ✔
= 4.6 × 1017 «s» ✔

14a. Outline what is meant by dark energy. [2 marks]

Markscheme
energy filling all space ✔
resulting in a repulsive force/force opposing gravity ✔
accounts for the accelerating universe ✔
makes up about 70% of «the energy» of universe ✔
14b. State two candidates for dark matter. [2 marks]

Markscheme
black hole ✔
brown dwarf ✔
massive compact halo object /MACHO✔
neutrinos ✔
weakly interacting massive particle /WIMP ✔

15a. Show that the temperature of the universe is inversely proportional to [3 marks]
the cosmic scale factor.
 Markscheme
«wavelength of light/CBR» λ ∝ R ✔
reference to Wien’s law showing that λ ∝  1 ✔
T
combine to get result ✔

OWTTE

15b. The present temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) [1 mark]
radiation is 3 K. Estimate the size of the universe relative to the present
size of the universe when the temperature of the CMB was 300 K.

Markscheme
R past 3
R now
= 300
= 0.01 ✔

16a. Describe the formation of a type Ia supernova. [2 marks]

 Markscheme
a white dwarf accretes mass «from a binary partner»
when the mass becomes more than the Chandrasekhar limit (1.4Ms) «then
asupernova explosion takes place»
[2 marks]

Type Ia supernovae typically have a peak luminosity of around 5 × 105 Ls, where
Ls is the luminosity of the Sun (3.8 × 1026 W). A type Ia supernova is observed
with an apparent peak brightness of 1.6 × 10–6 W m –2.

16b. Show that the distance to the supernova is approximately 3.1 × 1018 m. [2 marks]

Markscheme
d = √ 4Lb = √ 5×10 ×3.8×10
5 26
−6
π 4π×1.6×10
d = 3.07 × 1018 «m»
At least 3 sig fig required for MP2.
[2 marks]
16c. State one assumption made in your calculation. [1 mark]

Markscheme
type Ia supernova can be used as standard candles
there is no dust absorbing light between Earth and supernova
their supernova is a typical type Ia
[1 mark]

A galaxy can be modelled as a sphere of radius R0. The distance of a star from the
centre of the galaxy is r.

For this model the graph is a simplified representation of the variation with r of
the mass of visible matter enclosed inside r.

17a. The mass of visible matter in the galaxy is M. [1 mark]

Show that for stars where r > R0 the velocity of orbit is v = √ GrM .
 Markscheme
mv2 GM m
r
= r2
and correct rearranging

[1 mark]

17b. Draw on the axes the observed variation with r of the orbital speed v of [2 marks]
stars in a galaxy.

Markscheme
linear / rising until R0
then «almost» constant
[2 marks]
17c. Explain, using the equation in (a) and the graphs, why the presence of [2 marks]
visible matter alone cannot account for the velocity of stars when r >
R0.

Markscheme
for v to stay constant for r greater than R0, M has to be proportional to r
but this contradicts the information from the M-r graph
OR
−1
if M is constant for r greater than R0, then we would expect v ∝ r 2

but this contradicts the information from the v-r graph

[2 marks]

18a. Outline, with reference to the Jeans criterion, why a cold dense gas [2 marks]
cloud is more likely to form new stars than a hot diffuse gas cloud.
 Markscheme
«For a star to form»: magnitude of PE of gas cloud > KE of gas cloud
OR
Mass of cloud > Jean's mass
OR
Jean’s criterion is the critical mass
hence a hot diffuse cloud could have KE which is too large/PE too small
OR
hence a cold dense cloud will have low KE/high PE
OR
a cold dense cloud is more likely to exceed Jeans mass
OR
a hot diffuse cloud is less likely to exceed the Jeans mass
Accept Ep + Ek < 0
[2 marks]

18b. Explain how neutron capture can produce elements with an atomic [2 marks]
number greater than iron.
 Markscheme
Neutron capture creates heavier isotopes / heavier nuclei / more unstable
nucleus
β– decay of heavy elements/iron increases atomic number «by 1»
OWTTE
[2 marks]

19a. Explain the evidence that indicates the location of dark matter in [3 marks]
galaxies.

Markscheme
«rotational» velocity of stars are expected to decrease as distance from centre
of galaxy increases
the observed velocity of outer stars is constant/greater than predicted
implying large mass on the edge «which is dark matter»
OWTTE
1st and 2nd marking points can be awarded from an annotated sketch with
similar shape as the one below

[3 marks]
19b. Outline why a hypothesis of dark energy has been developed. [3 marks]

Markscheme
data from type 1a supernovae shows universe expanding at an accelerated
rate
gravity was expected to slow down the expansion of the universe
OR
this did not fit the hypotheses at that time
dark energy counteracts/opposes gravity
OR
dark energy causes the acceleration
OWTTE
[3 marks]
20a. The Sun is a second generation star. Outline, with reference to the [4 marks]
Jeans criterion (MJ ), how the Sun is likely to have been formed.

Markscheme
interstellar gas/dust «from earlier supernova»
gravitational attraction between particles
if the mass is greater than the Jean’s mass/Mj the interstellar gas coalesces
as gas collapses temperature increases leading to nuclear fusion
MP3 can be expressed in terms of potential and kinetic energy

20b. Suggest how fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) [3 marks]
radiation are linked to the observation that galaxies collide.
 Markscheme
fluctuations in CMB due to differences in temperature/mass/density
during the inflationary period/epoch/early universe
leading to the formation of galaxies/stars/structures
gravitational interaction between galaxies can lead to collision
[Max 3 Marks]

20c. Show that the critical density of the universe is [3 marks]

3H 2
8πG
where H is the Hubble parameter and G is the gravitational constant.
 Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
kinetic energy of galaxy 12 mv2 = 12 mH 2r2 «uses Hubble’s law»

potential energy = GM m = G 4 πr 3 ρ m «introduces density»

r 3 r
KE=PE to get expression for critical ρ

ALTERNATIVE 2

escape velocity of distant galaxy v = √ 2GrM

where H0r = √ 2GrM

substitutes M = 43 πr3ρ to get result

21a. Outline, with reference to star formation, what is meant by the Jeans [2 marks]
criterion.

Markscheme
a star will form out of a cloud of gas
when the gravitational potential energy of the cloud exceeds the total random
kinetic energy of the particles of the cloud
OR
the mass exceeds a critical mass for a particular radius and temperature
[2 marks]
21b. In the proton–proton cycle, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to produce one [2 marks]
nucleus of helium releasing a total of 4.3 × 10 –12 J of energy. The Sun
will spend 10 10 years on the main sequence. It may be assumed that during this
time the Sun maintains a constant luminosity of 3.8 × 1026 W.

Show that the total mass of hydrogen that is converted into helium while the Sun
is on the main sequence is 2 × 1029 kg.

Markscheme
1010×365×24×3600×3.8×1026
number of reactions is = 2.79 × 1055
4.3×10−12
55 −27
H mass used is 2.79 × 10 × 4 × 1.67 × 10 = 1.86 × 1029 «kg»
[2 marks]

21c. Massive stars that have left the main sequence have a layered structure[2 marks]
with different chemical elements in different layers. Discuss this
structure by reference to the nuclear reactions taking place in such stars.
 Markscheme
nuclear fusion reactions produce ever heavier elements depending on the
mass of the star / temperature of the core
the elements / nuclear reactions arrange themselves in layers, heaviest at the
core lightest in the envelope
[2 marks]

22a. The graph shows the variation with time t of the cosmic scale factor R in [1 mark]
the flat model of the universe in which dark energy is ignored.

On the axes above draw a graph to show the variation of R with time, when dark
energy is present.
 Markscheme
curve starting earlier, touching at now and going off to infinity

[1 mark]

Recent evidence from the Planck observatory suggests that the matter density of
the universe is ρm = 0.32 ρc, where ρc ≈ 10–26 kgm–3 is the critical density.

22b. The density of the observable matter in the universe is only 0.05 ρc. [1 mark]
Suggest how the remaining 0.27 ρc is accounted for.

Markscheme
there is dark matter that does not radiate / cannot be observed
Unexplained mention of "dark matter" is not sufficient for the mark.
[1 mark]

2
22c. The density of dark energy is ρΛc2 where ρΛ = ρc – ρm. Calculate the [2 marks]
amount of dark energy in 1 m3 of space.

Markscheme
ρΛ = 0.68ρc = 0.68 × 10−26 «kgm−3»
energy in 1 m 3 is therefore 0.68 × 10−26 × 9 × 1016 ≈ 6 × 10−10 «J»
[2 marks]

23a. Derive, using the concept of the cosmological origin of redshift, the [2 marks]
relation
1
T∝ R
between the temperature T of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
and the cosmic scale factor R.
 Markscheme
the cosmological origin of redshift implies that the wavelength is proportional
to the scale factor: λ ∝ R
1
combining this with Wien’s law λ∝ T
OR
hc
use of kT ∝ λ
«gives the result»
k
Evidence of correct algebra is needed as relationship T = R is given.
[2 marks]

23b. The present temperature of the CMB is 2.8 K. This radiation was [2 marks]
emitted when the universe was smaller by a factor of 1100. Estimate
the temperature of the CMB at the time of its emission.

Markscheme
use of T ∝ R1
= 2.8 x 1100 x 3080 ≈ 3100 «K»
[2 marks]
23c. State how the anisotropies in the CMB distribution are interpreted. [1 mark]

Markscheme
CMB anisotropies are related to fluctuations in density which are the cause for
the formation of structures/nebulae/stars/galaxies
OWTTE
[1 mark]

24a. Describe what is meant by dark matter. [2 marks]

Markscheme
dark matter is invisible/cannot be seen directly
OR
does not interact with EM force/radiate light/reflect light

interacts with gravitational force

OR
accounts for galactic rotation curves
OR
accounts for some of the “missing” mass/energy of galaxies/the universe
OWTTE
[6 marks]
24b. The distribution of mass in a spherical system is such that the density ρ [1 mark]
varies with distance r from the centre as
ρ = k2
r
where k is a constant.
Show that the rotation curve of this system is described by
v = constant.

Markscheme
v=√ v = √ 4π3Gk
4πGρ
«from data booklet formula» 3
r substitute to get
Substitution of ρ must be seen.
[1 mark]
24c. Curve A shows the actual rotation curve of a nearby galaxy. Curve B [2 marks]
shows the predicted rotation curve based on the visible stars in the
galaxy.

Explain how curve A provides evidence for dark matter.

Markscheme
curve A shows that the outer regions of the galaxy are rotating faster than
predicted
this suggests that there is more mass in the outer regions that is not visible
OR
more mass in the form of dark matter
OWTTE
[2 marks]
25a. Describe how some white dwarf stars become type Ia supernovae. [3 marks]

Markscheme
white dwarf must have companion «in binary system»
white dwarf gains material «from companion»
when dwarf reaches and exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit/1.4 MSUN supernova
can occur

25b. Hence, explain why a type Ia supernova is used as a standard candle. [2 marks]
 Markscheme
a standard candle represents a «stellar object» with a known luminosity
this supernova occurs at an certain/known/exact mass so luminosity/energy
released is also known
OWTTE
MP1 for indication of known luminosity, MP2 for any relevant supportive
argument.

25c. Explain how the observation of type Ia supernovae led to the hypothesis[3 marks]
that dark energy exists.

Markscheme
distant supernovae were dimmer/further away than expected
hence universe is accelerating
dark energy «is a hypothesis to» explain this
 The graph shows the observed orbital velocities of stars in a galaxy against their
distance from the centre of the galaxy. The core of the galaxy has a radius of 4.0
kpc.

26a. Calculate the rotation velocity of stars 4.0 kpc from the centre of the [2 marks]
galaxy. The average density of the galaxy is 5.0 × 10 –21 kg m–3.

Markscheme
v = «√
4πGρ
3
r»
= √ 43 × π × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.0 × 10−21 × (4000 × 3.1 × 1016 )
v is about 146000 «m s–1» or 146 «km s–1»
Accept answer in the range of 140000 to 160000 «m s–1».
 26b. Explain why the rotation curves are evidence for the existence of dark [2 marks]
matter.

Markscheme
rotation curves/velocity of stars were expected to decrease outside core of
galaxy
flat curve suggests existence of matter/mass that cannot be seen – now called
dark matter

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