EE 435

Spring 2021

Lecture 1

Course Outline
Amplifier Design Issues

1
 Instructor:
Randy Geiger
2133 Coover
rlgeiger@iastate.edu
www.randygeiger.org

294-7745

Teaching Assistant:
Doug Zuercher dougz@iastate.edu

2
 Course Information:
Analog VLSI Circuit Design
Lecture: MWF 9:55 Online

Labs: Wed 6:10-9:00 Online

Thur 11:00-1:50 Online

Course Web Site: http://class.ece.iastate.edu/ee435/

Course Wiki: http:/wikis.ece.iastate.edu/vlsi
Course Description:

Basic analog integrated circuit and system design including design space
exploration, performance enhancement strategies, operational amplifiers,
references, integrated filters, and data converters.

5
Instructor Access:
• Virtual Office Hours
– MWF 11:00-12:00 (send email and will
set up a zoom link)
• Email
– rlgeiger@iastate.edu
– Include EE 435 in subject
 Course Information:
Required Text:

Analog Integrated Circuit Design (2nd edition)

by T. Carusone, D. Johns and K. Martin, Wiley, 2011

7
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

CMOS Analog Circuit Design (3rd edition)

by Allen and Holberg, Oxford, 2011.

Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits-5th Edition

Gray,Hurst,Lewis and Meyer, Wiley, 2009

8
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits – second edition

by B. Razavi, McGraw Hill, 2016

Analog Circuit Design – Vol 1 (20111), Vol 2 (2013) and Vol 3 (2014)
by B. Dobkin and Jim Williams, Newnes

10
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

Analog Circuits
by Robert Pease, Newnes, 2008

CMOS Mixed-Signal Circuit Design – 2nd edition

by Jacob Baker, Wiley, 2009

11
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

Data Converters
by Franco Maloberti,Springer, 2007

Voltage References
by Gabriel Rincon-Mora, Wiley, 2002

12
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation – Third Edition

by J. Baker, Wiley, 2010.

Fundamentals of Microelectronics – 2nd Edition

by B. Razavi, Wiley, 2013

13
 Course Information:
Reference Texts:

Switched-Capacitor Techniques for High-

Accuracy Filter and ADC Design
by Patrick Quinn and Arthur Van Roermund,
Springer, 2007

VLSI Design Techniques for Analog and Digital Circuits

by Geiger, Allen and Strader, McGraw Hill, 1990

14
 Course Information:
Reference Materials:

15
 Course Information:

Grading: Points will be allocated for several different parts of the course. A
letter grade will be assigned based upon the total points accumulated. The
points allocated for different parts of the course are as listed below:

2 or 3 Exams 300 pts total

Homework 100 pts.total
Lab and Lab Reports 100 pts.total
Design Project 100 pts.

The exams (from during the semester or during finals week) will be equally
weighted.

16
 Course Information:

Design Project:
The final design project will be the design of an 8-bit to 10-bit digital to
analog converter (DAC) or an analog to digital converter (ADC) – specifications
to be determined. Additional details about the design project will be given after
relevant material is covered in class. The option will exist to have this project
fabricated through the MOSIS program. The design should be ready for
fabrication and post-layout simulations are to be included as a part of the
project.

There will also be an operational design project that will be graded as a part
of the laboratory component of the course

17
 Course Information:
E-MAIL: rlgeiger@iastate.edu

I encourage you to take advantage of the e-mail system on campus to

communicate about any issues that arise in the course. I typically check my e-
mail several times a day. Please try to include “EE 435" in the subject field of
any e-mail message that you send so that they stand out from what is often
large volumes of routine e-mail messages.

Equal Access Policy:

Participation in all class functions and provisions for special circumstances
including special needs will be in accord with ISU policy

Honor System:
Since this class will be online, exams will be of take-home format. Students will
be expected to not consult with anyone besides the instructor in any way from
the time the exam is available until the exam is due nor disclose any information
about the exam to anyone else. If violation of this occurs, participating students
will be assigned a grade of F for the course and will be reported to the university
for disciplinary action. 18
 Course Information:
Course Wiki http:/wikis.ece.iastate.edu/vlsi

A Wiki has been set up for circuits and electronics

courses in the department. Links to WEB pages for this
course are on this Wiki. Students are encouraged to use the
Wiki to share information that is relevant for this course and to
access materials such as homework assignments, lecture
notes, laboratory assignments, and other course support
materials. In particular, there is a FAQ section where issues
relating to the material in this course are addressed. Details
about not only accessing a Wiki but using a Wiki to post or
edit materials are also included on the Wiki itself. Students
will be expected to periodically check the Wiki for information
about the course.

19
 Topical Coverage
• Op Amp and Comparator Design
– Design strategies
– Design space exploration *
– Usage and performance requirements
– Building Blocks
• Current Mirrors
• Common Source, Common Drain and Common
Gate Amplifiers
– Simulation Strategies
– Compensation
– Amplifier Architectures
20
 Topical Coverage (cont)
• Data converters : A/D and D/A
– Nyquist-rate
– Oversampled (if time permits)
• Voltage References
– Bandgap References
– VT References
• Integrated Filter Design
– Switched Capacitor
– Continuous-Time
• Phase-locked Loops (if time permits)
21
The MWSCAS Challenge

•27
 The MWSCAS Challenge

• One letter grade increase in grade will be made retroactive if a paper relating
to AMS circuit design is accepted and presented at the MWSCAS

• Several different topics will come up through the course that can be
developed into a good conference paper

• This would be a great opportunity to make a technical contribution and get

experience/exposure in the research community

• Cost of attending the conference will be the responsibility of the student but
the department and university often help cover costs if requests are made in a
timely manner !

28
 The MWSCAS Challenge

Suggested Topics:

• Dynamic comparator

• Integrated temperature sensor

• MOS voltage reference

• Temperature to digital converter

• Statistical matching characteristics of transistors or current

mirrors when operating in weak inversion

• Resistor digital trimming structure

34
 Standard Way Analog Integrated Circuit
Design is Taught/Learned

VDD Two-stage
VDD VDD Op Amps VDD
VDD
M3 M4 M5 VB1
VX4 VX5 M7 M3 M4 M5
VX4 VX5
VOUT M3 M4 M5
VOUT VOUT
VIN CC ZC ZC
VIN M1 M2 CL
VIN VIN
VOUT
VOUT CL VIN M1 M2 VIN CL
VIN CC VIN VIN

Appear
IT VIN M1 M2 VOUT
CL
VB2 VB3 M6 IT
M9
CC VB3 M6 VB3 M6
VX3 IT VB2 M9
VB3 M6 CC
VSS VB2 M9 VX3
VSS

VSS

Analyze

Understand

Modify, Extend, and Create

35
Simulate and Verify
 Will Attempt in the Course to Follow, as
Much as Possible, the Following Approach

Understand

VDD
VDD
VDD
M3 VDD
M4 M5 VX4 VX5

VOUT VX4 VX5 M3 M4 M5 Two-stage

Synthesize VIN

VB2
M1

M9
IT
M2
VIN CC

VB3 M6
CL

VIN VIN
VOUT VIN M1 M2
VIN CC
CL
VOUT VIN VIN
VOUT

VOUT
Op Amps

M7 M3
VDD

VB1
M4 M5

VOUT
IT CC ZC ZC
CC VX3
VX3 VIN M1 M2
VSS VB2 VB3 M6 CL VIN CL
M9
IT
VSS VB3 M6 VB2 VB3 M6
M9

VSS

Analyze (if not available from the Understand step)

Modify, Extend, and Create

Simulate and Verify 36

 Will Strongly Discourage This Approach

VDD Two-stage
Op Amps VDD
VDD
M3 M4 M5 VB1
M7 M3 M4 M5
VOUT M3 M4 M5
VOUT VOUT
VIN CC ZC ZC
VIN M1 M2 CL VOUT
CL VIN M1 M2 VIN CL
VDD VIN CC VDD

Appear
IT VIN M1 M2 CL
VB2 VB3 M6 IT
M9 VX4 VX5
IT VX4 VX5 VB3 M6 VB2 VB3 M6
M9
VB2 VB3 M6
VSS M9
VIN VSS
VIN
VOUT
VIN VIN
VSS VOUT

CC
VX3
CC
VX3

Modify, Extend, and Create

Simulate and Verify

37
 Challenge to Students

Understand

VDD
VDD

VX4 VX5
VX4 VX5

Two-stage

Synthesize VIN

VX3
VIN

CC
VOUT
VIN VIN
VOUT
Op Amps

M7 M3
VDD

VB1
M4 M5

VOUT VOUT
VDD VDD CC ZC ZC
VX3
CL VIN M1 M2 VIN CL
M3 M4 M5 M3 M4 M5 IT
VB3 M6 VB2 VB3 M6
VOUT M9
VOUT
VIN CC
VIN M1 M2 CL VIN CC
VIN M1 M2 CL VSS

IT
VB3 M6 IT
VB2 M9
VB2 VB3 M6
M9

VSS
VSS

Ask WHY? for ANY concept that is not well understood !

38
 Topical Coverage
• Op Amp and Comparator Design
– Design strategies
– Design space exploration *
– Usage and performance requirements
– Building Blocks
• Current Mirrors
• Common Source, Common Drain and Common
Gate Amplifiers
– Simulation Strategies
– Compensation
– Amplifier Architectures
39
What is an operational amplifier ?

40
Fundamental Amplifier Design Issues

• Designer must be aware of what an amplifier really is

• Designer must be aware of the real customer needs

• Design requirements for application-specific amplifier

dramatically different than those of catalog part

• Many amplifiers are over-designed because real needs

of customer not conveyed

• Conventional wisdom will not necessarily provide best or

even good or even viable solution

41
 How does an amplifier differ from
an operational amplifier?
• When operated linearly, an operational amplifier is
a high gain amplifier that is intended to be used in
a feedback application
– Feedback is widely used to improve linearity and gain
accuracy and the improvement is typically dramatic
• The more general amplifier is generally used
open-loop
• Conventional wisdom : an open-loop amplifier is
much simpler to design and use than an op amp,
will have better high-frequency performance, will
be less linear than feedback circuit with op amp
and will be less accurate than feedback circuit with
42
op amp
What is an Operational Amplifier?

Lets see what the experts say !

Consider one of the most popular textbooks on

the subject used in the world today 43
A classic textbook that has helped educate two
generations of engineers

Eighth Edition Nov 2019

First Edition 1982 44

In all editions, concept of the op amp has remained unchanged

APCCAS 2010

46
From earlier edition

47
From seventh edition

48
 What is an Operational Amplifier?

Textbook Definition:
• Voltage Amplifier with Very Large Gain
−Very High Input Impedance
−Very Low Output Impedance

• Differential Input and Single-Ended Output

This represents the Conventional Wisdom !
Does this correctly reflect what an operational amplifier really is?
49
Operational Amplifier Evolution in Time Perspective

Sedra/Smith View of
Op Amp (8 editions)

2030
1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2010

2020
50
 Consider some history leading up to the present concept of the
operational amplifier

H.S. Black sketch of basic concept of feedback on Aug 6, 1927

Black did not use the term operational amplifier but rather focused on basic
51
concepts of feedback involving the use of high-gain amplifiers
 Why are Operational
Amplifiers Used?
Harold Stephen Black (April 14, 1898 – December 11, 1983)
was an American electrical engineer, who revolutionized the field
of applied electronics by inventing the negative feedback amplifier
in 1927. To some, his invention is considered the most important
breakthrough of the twentieth century in the field of electronics,
since it has a wide area of application. This is because all
electronic devices (vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors and MOS
transistors) invented by mankind are basically nonlinear devices.
It is the invention of negative feedback which makes highly linear
amplifiers possible. Negative feedback basically works by
sacrificing gain for higher linearity (or in other words, smaller
distortion or smaller intermodulation). By sacrificing gain, it also
has an additional effect of increasing the bandwidth of the
amplifier. However, a negative feedback amplifier can be unstable
such that it may oscillate. Once the stability problem is solved, the
negative feedback amplifier is extremely useful in the field of
electronics. Black published a famous paper, Stabilized feedback
amplifiers, in 1934. 52
 Why are Operational Amplifiers Used?
H. Black, “Stabilized Feed-Back Amplifiers”, Electrical
Engineering, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 114–120, Jan. 1934

“Due to advances in vacuum-tube development and amplifier technique,

it now is possible to secure any desired amplification of the electrical
waves used in the communication field. When many amplifiers are
worked in tandem, however, it becomes difficult to keep the over-all circuit efficiency
constant, variations in battery potentials and currents, small when considered
individually, adding up to produce serious transmission changes for the over-all circuit.
Furthermore, although it has remarkably linear properties, when the modern vacuum
tube amplifier is used to handle a number of carrier telephone channels, extraneous
frequencies are generated which cause interference between the channels. To keep this
interference within proper bounds involves serious sacrifice of effective amplifier
capacity or the use of a push-pull arrangement which, while giving some increase in
capacity, adds to maintenance difficulty.
However, by building an amplifier whose gain is made deliberately, say 40 decibels
higher than necessary (10000 fold excess on energy basis) and then feeding the output
back to the input in such a way as to throw away the excess gain, it has been found
possible to effect extraordinary improvement in constancy of amplification and
freedom from nonlinearity.” 53
A classic textbook sequence that helped educate the
previous generation of engineers

Vacuum Tube and

Semiconductor
Electronics

By Millman

First Edition 1958 First Edition 1967 First Edition 1972

54
Millman view of an operational amplifier in 1967

Operational Amplifier refers to the entire feedback circuit

Concept of a “Base Amplifier” as the high-gain amplifier block

Note Base Amplifier is modeled as a voltage amplifier with single-ended

input and output
55
Millman view of an operational amplifier in 1972

This book was published several years after the first integrated op amps
were introduced by industry

This fundamentally agrees with that in use today by most authors

Major change in the concept from his own earlier works 56

 Seminal source for “Operational Amplifier” notation:

Seminal source introduced a fundamentally different definition than what is used today

Consistent with the earlier use of the term by Millman 57

 Seminal Publication of Feedback Concepts:

Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Jan. 1934

Uses a differential input high-gain voltage amplifier (voltage series feedback)

Subsequent examples of feedback by Black relaxed the differential input

requirement
58
 59
Operational Amplifier Evolution in Time Perspective

2030
2020
Sedra/Smith
same

View of Op Amp
2000
New Millman View
Do we have it right now?
of Op Amp 1980
Millman and Ragazzini
View of Op Amp 1960
Ragazzini introduces
Operational Amplifier Notation
1940
Black Publishes first Results
on Feedback Amplifiers
Black Introduces
Feedback Concept
1920
 Why are Operational
Amplifiers Used?
XOUT
XIN A

Input and Output Variables intentionally designated as “X” instead of “V”

Xout A A  1
 AF   
Xin 1  Aβ β
Op Amp is Enabling Element Used to Build Feedback Networks !
60
 What type of operational
amplifier is needed?
Example: Standard Textbook Analysis of Finite Gain Voltage Amplifier

 R1   R2  
V1 =   VOUT +   VIN  R2
 1 2
R +R  1 2
R +R  R1
 V1
VOUT = -A V V1  VIN
VOUT
AV
R
- 2 AV  R
VOUT R1
A VF = =  - 2
VIN  R  1  R1
1+  1+ 2  
 R 1  V 
A
Implicit Assumption: Op Amp is a high gain voltage amplifier with
infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
Does this imply that operational amplifiers (at least for this
application) should be good voltage amplifiers?
61
 One of the Most Basic Op Amp
Applications
Model of Op Amp/Amplifier including AV, RIN, RO and RL
R2

From KCL at two nodes:

R1 R0 VOUT
VIN

V1 RIN AVV1 RL V1 G1  G2  GIN   VING1  VOUT G2 



VOUT G2  GO  GL   V1AV GO  G2V1 

Op Amp

VOUT G1  AV GO  G2 

VIN G2  GO  GL G1  G2  GIN   AVGOG2
VOUT G1  AV GO  G1 R
If AV is large    2
VIN  AV GOG2 G2 R1
This result is not dependent upon RIN, R0 or RL
So why was it necessary to assume RIN is large and RO is small and why was
RL ignored? 62
The Four Basic Types of Amplifiers:

Voltage Transconductance

Transresistance Current

63
The Four Basic Types of Amplifiers:
Two-Port Models of Ideal Amplifiers
I1

V1 AVV1 RTI1

Ideal Voltage Amplifier Ideal Transresistance Amplifier

OTA I1

V1 RIN GMV1 AII1

Ideal Transconductance Amplifier Ideal Current Amplifier

64
 What type of operational amplifier is
needed?
R2
R1
V1
VIN VOUT
AV

R2
R2
R1 R1
V1
VIN VOUT VIN
VOUT
GM AI

How would this feedback voltage amplifier perform if the

voltage op amp were replaced with a transconductance
op amp or a current op amp? 65
What type of operational amplifier is needed?
Consider using ideal OTA for “Op Amp”
R2
R1
IOUT = -GMV1  V1
IOUT
 VIN VOUT
 R1   R2  
V1 =   VOUT +   VIN  GM
 R1+R2   R1+R2  

VOUT = V1 + IOUTR2 

R
- 2 GM  R
VOUT R1
A VF = =  - 2
VIN  R  1  R1
1+  1+ 2  
 R1  GMR2 -1

Voltage gain with feedback is identical to that obtained

with a “voltage” Op Amp provided GM large !
66
What type of operational amplifier is needed?
Consider using ideal Current Amplifier for “Op Amp”
R2
R1
VOUT = IOUT R2  VIN IOUT
 I1 VOUT
VIN VOUT 
I1 = +  AI
R1 R2 
IOUT = -AII1 

R2
- AI 
V R1 R2
A VF = OUT
VIN
=
1   -
R1
1+
AI

Voltage gain with feedback is identical to that obtained

with a “voltage” Op Amp provided AI large !
67
What type of operational amplifier is needed?
R2 R2
R1 R1
V1
VIN IOUT VOUT IOUT
VIN
I1 VOUT
GM
AI

How would the voltage gain have changed with the

transcondance amplifier or the current amplifier if RIN,
ROUT, and RL were included?

Voltage gain with feedback is identical to that obtained

with a “voltage” Op Amp provided GM or AI are large !

68
What type of operational amplifier is needed?
R2
R1
V1
VIN VOUT

AV

All four types of amplifiers will give the same closed loop gain
provided the corresponding open loop gain is sufficiently large !

Voltage Transconductance

Transresistance Current

A large gain is needed for an operational amplifier and if the gain

is sufficiently large, the type of amplifier, the port input and
output impedances, and the load are not of concern 69
 Four Feedback Circuits with Same β Network
R2
R2
R1
V1 R1
VIN VOUT VIN
VOUT
AV AI

V R

OUT 2

VIN
R 1

R2
R2
R1
R1
V1 VIN
VIN IOUT VOUT VOUT
I1

GM RT

All have same closed-loop gain and all are independent of RIN, ROUT and RL if gain is large 70
 Amplifier Types
XOUT
XIN A
XOUT A A 1
AF = = 
β XIN 1+Aβ β

Port Type of Amplifier

Variables Amplifier Terminology
Xin Xout A 
V V Voltage Voltage Op Amp
V I Transconductance Transresistance Transconductance
I V Transresistance Transconductance Transresistance
I I Current Current Current

What type of operational amplifier is needed?

71
 What type of operational
amplifier is needed?
Port Amplifier Ideal Port
Variables Terminology Impedances
Xin Xout Input Output
V V Op Amp  0
V I Transconductance  
I V Transresistance 0 0
I I Current 0 

Different types of op amps can be used in feedback amplifier but

summing network performs different functions depending upon type
of op amp used !

Dramatic Differences in Ideal Port Impedances! 72

 What is an Operational Amplifier?

Textbook Definition:

• Voltage Amplifier with Very Large Gain

−Very High Input Impedance
−Very Low Output Impedance

• Differential Input and Single-Ended Output

If the high input impedance and low output impedance
are not needed and amplifier need not be a voltage 73
amplifier, how about the other property?
What is an Operational Amplifier?

•Amplifier with Very Large Gain

• Differential Input and Single-Ended Output ?

74
 Are differential input and single-
ended outputs needed?
Consider Basic Amplifiers
R2
VOUT A V A V  1
R1 A VF = = 
V1 VIN 1+A Vβ β
VOUT
Noninverting Amplifier
VIN AV β=
R1
R1  R 2

VOUT -A Vβ1 A V  -β1

R2
A VF = = 
R1
V1 VIN 1+A Vβ β
VIN VOUT

AV R1 R2 Inverting Amplifier
β= β1=
R1  R 2 R1  R 2

Only single-ended input is needed for Inverting Feedback Amplifier !

Many applications only need single-ended inputs ! 75
AVF is not equal to 1/β !
Basic Inverting Amplifier Using
Single-Ended Op Amp
R2
R1
V1
VIN VOUT

R2

R1
VOUT
VIN
AV
Inverting Amplifier with Single-Ended Op Amp
76
 Concept well known

77

Hex Inverters in 74C04 much less costly than 6 op amps at the time! APCCAS 2010
 Fully Differential Amplifier
R2
R1

VIN VOUT

R1
R2

• Widely (almost exclusively) used in integrated amplifiers

• Seldom available in catalog parts

78
 What is an Operational Amplifier?

Textbook Definition:
– Voltage Amplifier
– Very Large Gain
‒ Differential Input and Single-Ended Outputs
‒ Very High Input Impedance
‒ Very Low Output Impedance
This represents the Conventional Wisdom !
Do we have it right now?

Voltage Amplifier? Low Output Impedance? Single-Ended Output?

High Input Impedance? Differential Input? Large

Large Gain
Gain? !!!

79
 Why are Operational
Amplifiers Used?
XOUT
XIN A

β
Input and Output Variables intentionally designated as “X” instead of “V”

Xout A A  1
 AF   
Xin 1  Aβ β

May still be feedback but block diagram may differ from that above (e.g.)

VOUT -Aβ1 A  -β1

A VF = = 
VIN 1+Aβ β
Op Amp is Enabling Element Used to Build Feedback Networks ! 80
 What Characteristics are Really
Needed for Op Amps?
A 1 -Aβ1 -β1
AF   A VF = 
1  Aβ β 1+ Aβ β
1. Very Large Gain

To make AF (or AVF) insensitive to variations in A

To make AF (or AVF) insensitive to nonlinearities of A

2. Port Configurations Consistent with

Application 81
Port Configurations for Op Amps

(Could also have single-ended input and differential output though less common) 82
What Characteristics do Many Customers and
Designers Assume are Needed for Op Amps?

1. Very Large Voltage Gain

and …
2. Low Output Impedance
3. High Input Impedance
4. Large Output Swing
3. Large Input Range
4. Good High-frequency Performance
5. Fast Settling
6. Adequate Phase Margin
7. Good CMRR
8. Good PSRR
9. Low Power Dissipation

11. …
10. Reasonable Linearity
83
 What Characteristics are
Really Needed for Op Amps?
• For Catalog Components
Those that are needed for the data sheet
• For Integrated Op Amp
– Only those that are needed for the specific
application
– Often only one or two characteristics are of
concern in a specific application
Avoid over-design to meet performance
specifications that are not needed!
84
 What is an Operational Amplifier?

Textbook Definition:
– Voltage Amplifier
– Very Large Gain
‒ Differential Input and Single-Ended Outputs
‒ Very High Input Impedance
‒ Very Low Output Impedance

This represents the Conventional Wisdom !

Do we have it right now?

85
 86
Operational Amplifier Evolution in Time Perspective

2030
2020
Sedra/Smith
same

View of Op Amp You be the judge !

2000
New Millman View
Do we have it right now?
of Op Amp 1980
Millman and Ragazzini
View of Op Amp 1960
Ragazzini introduces
Operational Amplifier Notation
1940
Black Publishes first Results
on Feedback Amplifiers
Black Introduces
Feedback Concept
1920
 Challenge to Students
Understand

Ask WHY? for ANY concept that is not well understood !

par·a·dox
/ˈperəˌdäks/
a statement or proposition that, despite sound (or apparently sound) reasoning
from acceptable premises, leads to a conclusion that seems senseless,
logically unacceptable, or self-contradictory.
• There are numerous concepts in the engineering community that appear to
be paradoxes
• Paradoxes often arise when “Conventional Wisdom” is in conflict with
science or truth
• Identifying and resolving a paradox often improves understanding and productivity
• Will attempt, in this course, to identify some paradoxes that exist in the circuits
community
87
• Please bring forward any paradoxes that you may see in the field !!
Stay Safe and Stay Healthy !
End of Lecture 1

89