해양플랫폼 공학 개론

서유택
Energy and Energy balances

• Energy is expensive. We have not yet learned how to use efficiently the
seemingly endless supply of “free” energy provided by the sun, winds, and
tides. Nuclear power generation is feasible, but the need for safe disposal of
radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors is a serious unresolved problem, and
there are not nearly enough waterfalls and dams to provide sufficient
hydroelectric power to meet the world’s energy needs. This leaves us with fuel
combustion - burning a combustible gas, oil, or solid fuel, and using the energy
released as a source of thermal or (indirectly) electrical energy.
• Process industries have always recognized that wasting energy leads to
reduced profits, but throughout much of the last century the cost of energy was
often an insignificant part of the overall process cost, and gross operational
inefficiencies were tolerated. Beginning in the 1970s, a series of sharp
increases in the price of natural gas and petroleum raised the cost of energy
severalfold and intensified the need to eliminate unnecessary energy
consumption. If a plant uses more energy than its competitors, its product could
be priced out of the marketplace.
• As an engineer designing or operating a process, one of your principal jobs
would be to account carefully for the energy that flows into and out of each
process unit and to determine the overall energy requirement for the process.
You would do this by writing energy balances on the process, in much the same
way that you write material balances to account for the mass flows to and from
the process and its units. Typical problems that may be solved using energy
balances include the following:
1. How much power (energy/time) is required to pump 1250 m3/h of water from
a storage vessel to a process unit? (The answer determines the size of the
required pump motor.)
2. How much energy is required to convert 2000 kg of water at 30°C to steam at
180°C?
3. A hydrocarbon mixture is distilled, producing a liquid and a vapor stream,
each with a known or calculable flow rate and composition. The energy input
to the distillation column is provided by condensing saturated steam at a
pressure of 15 bar. At what rate must steam be supplied to process 2000
mol/h of the feed mixture?
4. A highly exothermic chemical reaction A → B takes place in a continuous
reactor. If a 75% conversion of A is to be achieved, at what rate must energy
be transferred from the reactor to keep the contents below a specified
temperature?
5. How much coal must be burned each day to produce enough energy to
generate the steam to run the turbines to produce enough electricity to meet
the daily power requirements of a city of 500,000 people?
6. A chemical process consists of four reactors, 25 pumps, and a number of
compressors, distillation columns, mixing tanks, evaporators, filter presses,
and other materials handling and separation units. Each individual unit either
requires or releases energy.
a. How can the process operation be designed to minimize the total energy requirement?
(For example, can the energy released by an energy-emitting process unit be transferred
to an energy-absorbing process unit?)
b. What is the total energy requirement for the final process design, and how much will it
cost to provide this energy? (The answer could determine whether or not the process is
economically feasible.)
• In this chapter we show how energy balances are formulated and applied.
Section 7.1 defines the types of energy a process system can possess and the
ways in which energy can be transferred to and from a system. Section 7.2
reviews the procedure for calculating the kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy of a process stream. Sections 7.3 and 7.4 derive the general
energy balance for closed (batch) systems and open (semibatch and
continuous) systems, and various applications of these equations are illustrated
in Sections 7.5 through 7.7.
Forms of Energy:
The First Law of Thermodynamics

• The total energy of a system has three components:

1. Kinetic energy: Energy due to the translational motion of the system as a
whole relative to some frame of reference (usually the earth’s surface) or to
rotation of the system about some axis. In this text, we will deal only with
translational kinetic energy.
2. Potential energy: Energy due to the position of the system in a potential field
(such as a gravitational or electromagnetic field). In this text, we will deal only
with gravitational potential energy.
3. Internal energy: All energy possessed by a system other than kinetic and
potential energy, such as energy due to the motion of molecules relative to
the center of mass of the system, to the rotational and vibrational motion and
the electromagnetic interactions of the molecules, and to the motion and
interactions of the atomic and subatomic constituents of the molecules.
• Suppose a process system is closed, meaning that no mass is transferred
across its boundaries while the process is taking place. Energy may be
transferred between such a system and its surroundings in two ways:
1. As heat, or energy that flows as a result of temperature difference between a
system and its surroundings. The direction of flow is always from a higher
temperature to a lower one. Heat is defined as positive when it is transferred
to the system from the surroundings.
2. As work, or energy that flows in response to any driving force other than a
temperature difference, such as a force, a torque, or a voltage. For example,
if a gas in a cylinder expands and moves a piston against a restraining force,
the gas does work on the piston (energy is transferred as work from the gas
to its surroundings, which include the piston). In this text, work—like heat—is
defined as positive if it is transferred to the system from the surroundings.
(Note: The opposite sign convention is sometimes used. The choice is
arbitrary, as long as it is used consistently; however, to avoid confusion when
reading thermodynamics references, you should be sure which convention
has been adopted.)
• The terms “work” and “heat” refer only to energy that is being transferred: you
can speak of the heat or work added to a system or given off by a system, but it
is meaningless to speak of the heat or work possessed by or contained within a
system.
• Energy, like work, has units of force times distance: for example, joules , ergs
(dyne·cm), and . It is also common to use energy units defined in terms of the
amount of heat that must be transferred to a specified mass of water to raise
the temperature of the water by a specified temperature interval at a constant
pressure of 1 atm. The most common of these units are tabulated here.

Unit Symbol Mass of Water Temperature

interval
Kilogram-calorie or Kcal 1 kg 15 oC to 16 oC
kilocalorie
Gram-calorie or Cal 1g 15 oC to 16 oC
calorie
British thermal unit Btu 1 lbm 60 oF to 61 oF
• The principle that underlies all energy balances is the law of conservation of
energy, which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. This law
is also called the first law of thermodynamics. In its most general form, the
first law states that the rate at which energy (kinetic + potential + internal) is
carried into a system by the input streams, plus the rates at which it enters as
heat and work, minus the rate at which it is transported out of the system by the
output streams, equals the rate of accumulation of energy in the system. (That
is, accumulation = input − output, as would be expected.)
• Instead of presenting the equation in its most general form at this point, we will
build up to it in stages. The next section reviews how to evaluate the kinetic and
potential energies of an object and shows how the calculation can readily be
extended to determine the rates at which kinetic and potential energies are
transported by a flowing stream. Section 7 – Part II presents an integrated form
of the transient balance equation that describes the behavior of a system
between an initial state and a final state. This form of the equation is particularly
useful for analyzing batch process systems. In Section 7 – Part II the first law is
developed for a continuous steady-state process.
• Most process systems are conveniently analyzed using one of the two forms of
the energy balance equation presented in Sections 7.3 and 7.4. To perform
energy balance calculations on other types of processes, such as semibatch
processes or continuous processes that are being started up or shut down, the
full transient energy balance equation is required. (later !!)
Test

1. What forms of energy may a system possess? In what forms may energy be
transferred to and from a closed system?
A: Kinetic, potential, internal; heat, work
2. Why is it meaningless to speak of the heat possessed by a system?
A: Heat is only defined in terms of energy being transferred.
3. Suppose the initial energy of a system (internal + kinetic + potential) is 𝐸𝑖 , the
final energy is 𝐸𝑓 , an amount of energy 𝑄 is transferred from the environment
to the system as heat, and an amount 𝑊 is transferred from the environment
to the system as work. According to the first law of thermodynamics, how
must 𝐸𝑖 , 𝐸𝑓 , 𝑄, and 𝑊 be related?
A: 𝐸𝑖 + 𝑄 + 𝑊 = 𝐸𝑓
Kinetic and Potential Energy
• The kinetic energy, 𝐸𝑘 (𝐽), of an object of mass 𝑚(𝑘𝑔) moving with velocity
𝑢(𝑚/𝑠) relative to the surface of the earth is
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑢2
2
• If a fluid enters a system with a mass flow rate 𝑚(ሶ 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠) and uniform velocity
𝑢(𝑚Τ𝑠), then
1
𝐸ሶ 𝑘 = 𝑚𝑢 ሶ 2
2
• 𝐸ሶ 𝑘 (𝐽Τ𝑠) may be thought of as the rate at which kinetic energy is transported into
the system by the fluid.

Example. Water flows into a process unit through a 2-cm ID pipe at a rate of 2.00
m3/h. Calculate 𝐸ሶ 𝑘 for this stream in joules/second.
Answer. First calculate the linear velocity (which equals the volumetric flow rate
divided by the cross-sectional area of the pipe) and the mass flow rate of the fluid:
2.00 𝑚3 1002 𝑐𝑚2 1ℎ
𝑢= = 1.77 𝑚Τ𝑠
ℎ 12 𝑚2 𝜋(1)2 𝑐𝑚2 3600 𝑠
2.00 𝑚3 1000𝑘𝑔 1 ℎ
𝑚ሶ = = 0.556 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠
ℎ 𝑚3 3600 𝑠
0.556 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠 1.772 𝑚2 1𝑁
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐸ሶ 𝑘 = = 0.870 𝑁 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 0.870 𝐽Τ𝑠
2 𝑠2 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚Τ𝑠2
• The gravitational potential energy of an object of mass 𝑚 is
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧
• where 𝑔 is the acceleration of gravity and 𝑧 is the height of the object above a
reference plane at which 𝐸𝑝 is arbitrarily defined to be zero.
• If a fluid enters a system with a mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ and an elevation 𝑧 relative to the
potential energy reference plane, then
𝐸ሶ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧
ሶ
• 𝐸ሶ 𝑝 (𝐽Τ𝑠) may be thought of as the rate at which gravitational potential energy is
transported into the system by the fluid. Since we are normally interested in the
change in potential energy when a body or fluid moves from one elevation to another
[𝐸ሶ 𝑝2 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑝1 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑧
ሶ 2 − 𝑧1 )], the elevation chosen as the reference plane does not
matter
Example. Crude oil is pumped at a rate of 15.0 kg/s from a point 220 meters below the
earth’s surface to a point 20 meters above ground level. Calculate the attendant rate of
increase of potential energy.
Answer. Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote the first and second points, respectively:
15.0𝑘𝑔 9.81𝑚 1𝑁
𝐸ሶ 𝑝2 − 𝐸ሶ 𝑝1 = 𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 20 − −220 𝑚
𝑠 𝑠 2 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚Τ𝑠2
= 35,300 𝑁 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 35,300 𝐽Τ𝑠 = 35,300 𝑊 = 35.3 𝑘𝑊
A pump would have to deliver at least this much power to raise the oil at the given rate.
 Energy Balances on Closed Systems

• A system is termed open or closed according to whether or not mass crosses

the system boundary during the period of time covered by the energy balance.
A batch process system is, by definition, closed, and semibatch and continuous
systems are open.
• An integral energy balance may be derived for a closed system between two
instants of time. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the
generation and consumption terms of the general balance drop out, leaving
a𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
• In deriving the integral mass balance for a closed system in Section 4.2c we
eliminated the input and output terms, since by definition no mass crosses the
boundaries of a closed system. It is possible, however, for energy to be
transferred across the boundaries as heat or work, so that the right side of
Equation 7.3-1 may not be eliminated automatically. As with mass balances,
however, the accumulation term equals the final value of the balanced quantity
(in this case, the system energy) minus the initial value of this quantity. The
balance equation may therefore be written
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
= 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑖𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡)
• Now
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑈𝑖 + 𝐸𝑘𝑖 + 𝐸𝑝𝑖
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑈𝑓 + 𝐸𝑘𝑓 + 𝐸𝑝𝑓
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
where the subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final states of the system and
𝑈, 𝐸𝑘 , 𝐸𝑝 , 𝑄, and 𝑊 represent internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy,
and heat and work transferred to the system from its surroundings. Thus,
(𝑈𝑓 −𝑈𝑖 ) + (𝐸𝑘𝑓 − 𝐸𝑘𝑖 ) + (𝐸𝑝𝑓 − 𝐸𝑝𝑖 ) = 𝑄 + 𝑊
or, if the symbol ∆ is used to signify (final − initial),
∆𝑈 + ∆𝐸𝑘 + ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 𝐸𝑞. (7 − 1)
• Eq. 7-1 is the basic form of the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system.
When applying this equation to a given process, you should be aware of the
following points:
1. The internal energy of a system depends almost entirely on the chemical
composition, state of aggregation (solid, liquid, or gas), and temperature of
the system materials. It is independent of pressure for ideal gases and nearly
independent of pressure for liquids and solids. If no temperature changes,
phase changes, or chemical reactions occur in a closed system and if
pressure changes are less than a few atmospheres, then ∆𝑈 ≈ 0.
2. If a system is not accelerating, then ∆𝐸𝑘 = 0. If a system is not rising or
falling, then ∆𝐸𝑝 = 0.
3. If a system and its surroundings are at the same temperature or the system is
perfectly insulated, then 𝑄 = 0. The process is then termed adiabatic.
4. Work done on or by a closed system is accomplished by movement of the
system boundary against a resisting force or the passage of an electrical
current or radiation across the system boundary. Examples of the first type of
work are motion of a piston or rotation of a shaft that projects through the
system boundary. If there are no moving parts or electrical currents or
radiation at the system boundary, then 𝑊 = 0.
Test

1. What do the terms closed system and open system mean? What is an
adiabatic process?
A: Closed system: no mass crosses system boundaries. Open system: mass crosses
system boundaries. Adiabatic system: no heat transferred to or from system.
2. If 250 J is added to a system as heat, what is the value of Q in the energy
balance equation? If 250 J of work is done by the system, what is the value of
Q?
A: Q = 250 J, W = - 250 J
3. If a closed system has an internal energy of 100 kcal at the beginning of a
process and 50 kcal at the end, what is ?
A: ∆𝑈 = −50 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
4. Under what circumstances might be considered independent of pressure for
a pure substance?
A: If the substance is a liquid or a solid, or a gas under nearly ideal conditions, it is
reasonable to neglect the dependence of U on pressure.
Thank you