Matery Boct

BASIC OIL TANKER & CHEMICAL TANKER CARGO OPERATION
I. SAFE CARGO OPERATION OF OIL AND CHEMICAL

TANKER
1.1 Basic of Tanker
Tanker Ship
A tanker (or tankship) is a ship designed to transport liquids in bulk. Major types of
tankship include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, and the liquefied natural gas carrier.
1.1.1 Background
Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred tons, which includes vessels
for servicing small harbors and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, for
long-range haulage. Besides ocean-or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland-
waterway tankers which operate on rivers and canals with an average cargo capacity up to
some thousand tons. A wide range of products are carried by tankers, including:
■ hydrocarbon products such as oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and liquefied
natural gas (LNG)
■ chemicals, such as ammonia, chlorine, and styrene monomer
■ freshwater
■ wine
■ molasses
Tankers are a relatively new concept, dating from the later years of the 19th century.
Before this, technology had simply not supported the idea of carrying bulk liquids. The
market was also not geared towards transporting or selling cargo in bulk, therefore most
SEKOLAH TINGGI ILMU PELAYARAN Page 1

ships carried a wide range of different products in different holds and traded outside fixed
routes. Liquids were usually loaded in casks—hence the term "tonnage", which refers to
the volume of the holds in terms of how many tuns or casks of wine could be carried. Even
potable water, vital for the survival of the crew, was stowed in casks. Carrying bulk liquids
in earlier ships posed several problems:
■ The holds: on timber ships the holds were not sufficiently water, oil or air-tight to
prevent a liquid cargo from spoiling or leaking. The development of iron and steel hulls
solved this problem.
■ Loading and discharging: Bulk liquids must be pumped - the development of
efficient pumps and piping systems was vital to the development of the tanker. Steam
engines were developed as prime-movers for early pumping systems. Dedicated cargo
handling facilities were now required ashore too - as was a market for receiving a
product in that quantity. Casks could be unloaded using ordinary cranes, and the
awkward nature of the casks meant that the volume of liquid was always relatively small
- therefore keeping the market more stable.
■ Free Surface Effect: a large body of liquid carried aboard a ship will impact on the
ship's stability, particularly when the liquid is flowing around the hold or tank in
response to the ship's movements. The effect was negligible in casks, but could cause
capsizing if the tank extended the width of the ship; a problem solved by extensive
subdivision of the tanks.
Tankers were first used by the oil industry to transfer refined fuel in bulk from refineries to
customers. This would then be stored in large tanks ashore, and subdivided for delivery to
individual locations. The use of tankers caught on because other liquids were also cheaper
to transport in bulk, store in dedicated terminals, then subdivide. Even the Guinness
brewery used tankers to transport the stout across the Irish Sea. Different products require
different handling and transport, with specialized variants such as "chemical tankers", "oil
tankers", and "LNG carriers" developed to handle dangerous chemicals, oil and oil-derived
products, and liquefied natural gas respectively. Among oil tankers, supertankers are
designed for transporting oil around the Horn of Africa from the Middle East. The
supertanker Sea wise Giant, scrapped in 2010, was 458 meters (1,503 ft) in length and 69
meters (226 ft) wide. Supertankers are one of the three preferred methods for transporting
large quantities of oil, along with pipeline transport and rail. Despite being highly regulated,

tankers have been involved in environmental disasters resulting from oil spills. See Exxon
Valdez, Braer, Prestige oil spill, Torrey Canyon, and Erika for examples of coastal
accidents.
1.1.2 Tanker capacity

Tankers used for liquid fuels are classified according to their capacity.
In 1954, Shell Oil developed the average freight rate assessment (AFRA) system which
classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted
the London Tanker Brokers Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General
Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships
between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Large Range for the then-enormous ships that were
larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, and the list was
extended, where the tons afe long tons:[1]
■ 10,000-24,999 DWT: General Purpose tanker
■ 25,000-44,999 DWT: Medium Range tanker
■ 45,000-79,999 DWT: Long Range 1 (LR1)
■ 80,000-159,999 DWT: Long Range 2 (LR2)
■ 160,000-319,999 DWT: Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC)
■ 320,000-549,999 DWT: Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC)
Petroleum Tankers
Typical Min Typical Max
Class Length Beam Draft
DWT DWT
Seaway max 226 m (741 ft) 24 m (79 ft) 7.92 m (26.0 10,000 DWT 60,000 DWT
ft)
228.6 m 32.3 m 12.6 m (41
Panamax 60,000 DWT 80,000 DWT
(750 ft) (106 ft) ft)
253.0 m 44.2 m 11.6 m (38
Aframax 80,000 DWT 120,000 DWT
(830.1 ft) (145 ft) ft)
Suezmax 16 m (52 ft) 120,000 DWT 200,000 DWT
VLCC 470 m 60 m (200
20 m (66 ft) 200,000 DWT 315,000 DWT
(Malaccamax) (1,540 ft) ft)
ULCC 320,000 DWT 550,000 DWT

Very Large Crude Carrier Size Range
There are more ships smaller in size. At nearly 380 vessels in the size range 279,000
DWT to 320,000 DWT, these are by far the most popular size range among the larger
VLCCs. Only seven vessels are larger than this, and approximately 90 between
220,000 DWT and 279,000 DWT.[2]
1.1.3 Fleets of the world
Flag states
As of 2005, the United States Maritime Administration's statistics count 4,024 tankers of
10,000 DWT or greater world wide P^ 2,582 of these are double-hulled. Panama is the
leading flag state of tankers with 592 registered ships. Five other flag states have more
than two hundred registered tankers: Liberia (520), The Marshall Islands (323), Greece
(233), Singapore (274) and The Bahamas (215). These flag states are also the top six in
terms of fleet size in terms of deadweight tonnage.^
Largest fleets
Greece, Japan, and the United States are the top three owners of tankers (including those
owned but registered to other nations), with 733, 394, and 311 vessels respectively. These
three nations account for 1,438 vessels or over 36% of the world's fleet.

Builders
Asian companies dominate the construction of tankers. Of the world's 4,024 tankers, 2,822
or over 70% were built in South Korea, Japan or China
Compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the
forward most. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the after
part ships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center.''
A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from
heat, fire, or collision. Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo
tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks. A pump room houses all the pumps
connected to a tanker's cargo lines. Some larger tankers have two pump rooms. A pump
room generally spans the total breadth of the ship.
1.1.4 Hull designs

Every crude oil tanker of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above and every product carrier
of 30,000 tonnes deadweight and above delivered after 1 June 1982, as defined in
regulation 1.28.4, shall be provided with segregated ballast tanks and shall comply with
paragraphs 2, 3 and 4, or 5 as appropriate, of this regulation. (MARPOL Annex I Reg 18.1)
In every crude oil tanker of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above and every product
carrier of 30,000 tonnes deadweight and above delivered after 1 June 1982, as defined in
regulation 1.28.4, except those tankers that meet regulation 19, the segregated ballast
tanks required to provide the capacity to comply with the requirements of paragraph 2 of
this regulation, which are located within the cargo tank length, shall be arranged in
accordance with the requirements of paragraphs 13, 14 and 15 of this regulation to
provide a measure of protection against oil outflow in the event of grounding or collision.
(MARPOL Annex I Reg 18.12) Double hull and double bottom requirements for oil tankers
delivered before 6 July 1996 For the purposes of this regulation, oil tankers are divided
into the following categories:
- Category 2 oil tanker means an oil tanker of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above
carrying crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil or lubricating oil as cargo, and of 30,000
tonnes deadweight and above carrying oil

other than the above, which complies with the requirements for oil tankers delivered
after 1 June 1982, as defined in regulation 1.28.4 of this Annex; and
- Category 3 oil tanker means an oil tanker of 5,000 tonnes deadweight and above
but less than that
specified in subparagraph 1 or 2 of this paragraph.
(MARPOL Annex I Reg 20.3.1/2/3)
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A
tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be single-
hulled. Most newer tankers are double-hulled, with an extra space between the hull and
the storage tanks. Hybrid designs such as double-bottom and double-sided combine
aspects of single and double-hull designs. All single-hulled tankers around the world will
be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). The United Nations has decided to phase out
single hull oil tankers by 2010. In 1998, the Marine Board of the National Academy of
Science conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull
design. Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include
ease of ballasting in emergency situations reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo
tanks decreases corrosion increased environmental protection cargo discharge is quicker,
more complete and easier tank washing is more efficient and better protection in low-
impact collisions and grounding. The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to
the double-hull design, including higher build costs greater operating expenses (e.g.
higher canal and port tariffs) difficulties in ballast tank ventilation the fact that ballast tanks
need continuous monitoring and maintenance increased transverse free surface the
greater number of surfaces to maintain the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a
vapor detection system not fitted and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double
hull ships
In all, double-hull tankers are said to be safer than a single-hull in a grounding incident,
especially when the shore is not very rocky. The safety benefits are less clear on larger
vessels and in cases of high speed impact. Although double-hull design is superior in low
energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties
where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea.

1.2 Cargo Operations
1.2.1 Pipeline systems
Pipelines are simply what their name suggests, lengths of steel pipes which connect
groups of cargo tanks to one another and by which those tanks are loaded and
discharged. Short lengths are bolted together by means of flanges or expansion joints.
The latter consists of an oil-tight metal collar which surrounds the ends of two lengths and
as the ends of the lengths do not touch, any horizontal thermal expansion or contraction
will not damage the pipeline. Figure 5.1 shows a cross-section of an expansion joint. Lines
pass directly through bulkheads, once again being secured by oil-tight flanges, and any
sharp turns are constructed by bolting short curved lengths of pipe,' known as bends, into
the system. Branch lines are short lengths of pipes which serve individual tanks, the ends
of such pipes expanding into a shape known as 'bell mouth', 'elephant's foot', or simply
'tank suction'. The tank main pipelines connect with cargo pumps and the deck pipelines,
the diameter of the pipes varying from 25-30 cm (10-12 in) to 91 cm (36 in) depending
upon the size of the vessel.

Figure 1 . 1 Expansion joint. For purposes of clarity only two bolts are shown
The various valves fitted within the pipeline system fall into five basic categories:
Manifold valves
Cargo is loaded or discharged via shore hoses or metal loading arms which connect to
athwart ships deck pipelines known as manifolds. Valves which are constructed in the
lines close to the connecting flanges route the cargo as desired by the ship's officers.
Drop valves
Each of the main tank pipelines has a counterpart on deck and loading lines which lead
vertically from the deck lines to the tank lines are known as drop lines. Each main line has
one or two drop lines and drop valves control the flow of oil in those lines. Refer to Figure
5.2 and locate the drop valves and the other valves mentioned in this section.
Master valves
At each place where a fore-and-aft pipeline passes through a tank bulkhead a valve is
fitted in the line. This is known as a master valve and separates tanks served by the same
fore-and-aft line. Tanks are usually constructed in sets of three transversely and are
numbered from forward, e.g. the foremost three tanks are called 'One Port' (IP), 'One
Centre' (1C), and 'One Starboard' (IS). The three tanks as a set are known as 'One

Across1 (IX). Thus to separate the cargo in IX from 2X the master valves in the lines at the
athwart ships bulkhead between the tanks must be closed.
Crossover valves
Athwart ships tank lines joining the main lines are known as crossover lines and the
crossover valves separate the main lines from each other as well as separating individual
tanks. Thus 2P can be separated from 2C by a crossover valve. Briefly, master valves
separate in a fore-and-aft direction and crossovers in athwart ships direction.
Tank valves
Close to each bell mouth is located a valve which controls the flow of oil into and out of
that tank.
These valves are operated either manually from the deck above or automatically from the
cargo control room. Manual valves are operated by turning a wheel on a deck stand; this
turns a metal extended spindle rod which opens the valve in the pipeline. Automatic
valves are activated by an hydraulic oil pipeline system similar to that which operates
steering gears. Many manual valves are of the 'gate' type; a threaded spindle when
turned, vertically moves a steel plate which is fitted in grooves in the pipeline, thus
opening or closing the valve. Automatic valves are often of the 'butterfly' type; these are
circular valves which turn on a central spindle. When open the plate is parallel to the pipe
direction and the oil flows past it; when closed the plate turns across the pipe, thus
preventing the flow of oil. Figures 5.3 and 5.4 show the operation of a gate valve during a
discharging operation.


TO PUMPROOM
MANIFOLD
FROM
DROPLINE
AFT
FORWARD
PUMPROOM

Ring main system
This system is now found only on older ships. It has basically a 'square' or 'circular' layout
whereby, if necessary, oil can be pumped up one side of the ship, across to the other, and
then back down that side. On vessels with mid ship's pump rooms one ring main serves
the tanks forward of the pump room while another ring main serves the after tanks. On
ships with an aft pump room several layouts are common. One is shown in Figure 5.5
Where by one main serves the forward tanks and the outer pumps and another the after
tanks and inner pumps, both ring mains being connected with each other in three wings by
short lengths of pipes.
Ring main systems are generally found on older product carriers ('products' refers to oils
such as petrol which have been refined from crude oil) where versatility is required for the
carrying of various grades of products. Versatility is the keyword for this system; with both
ring mains being connected to each other any pump can discharge any tank. It also
assists the loading and transporting of grades as one can ensure good pipeline
SEKOLAH TINGGI ILMU PELAYARAN
segregation of cargo. A high standard of tank and line cleanliness is essential for carrying
products and the circular layout aids tank and line washing. A major disadvantage of the
system is that it is expensive to build due to the extra lengths of piping required and the
necessary proliferation of joints, bends and valves. An offshoot of this is the problem and
expense of the maintenance of joints, etc. Erosion of bends is a problem, due to the
turbulence produced by the oil changing direction, and leaks on the external radius of
bends are not uncommon on older ships. If the cargo is pumped by a 'roundabout' route
line friction slows the pumping rate, e.g. in Figure 5.5 a slow rate can be expected if the
vessel discharges 5P with the starboard pump. Line washing can take longer due to the
number of pipes involved and it is essential to ensure that all crossover lines are washed
through by pumping sea water across from one main line to another.
Direct line system

The system is common on VLCCs (very large crude carriers) as it facilitates quick loading
and discharging, the cargo being natural unrefined oil. The shorter pipe lengths and fewer
bends ensure that there is less loss of pressure due to pipeline friction during both
operations and when discharging the direct line to a pump provides better suction (Figure
5.6). The system is cheaper to construct than ring main and requires less maintenance.
Leaks are minimized as there are fewer bends to erode and the fewer the joints the fewer
should be the leaks from that source. Line washing time is also considerably shortened.
However, as there is no circular system lines can often be difficult to wash and one simply
has to flush the lines into tanks with sea water. Due to the fact that one has fewer valves
some pipeline leaks will be difficult to control and the effect of such leaks cannot be as
readily minimized as with other systems. The layout lacks versatility and fewer grades can
be carried due to the problem of line and valve segregation.
A common layout on many tankers incorporates the better features of both the ring main
and direct line systems. Examples of this combined system can be seen in Figures 5.2
and 5.7.

Free flow system

On some VLCCs the main pipeline is not used for discharging. Gate valves (sometimes
known as sluice valves) are constructed in the tank bulkheads, and when these are
opened the stern trim causes the oil to flow to the aftermost tanks where direct lines to
the cargo pumps are located (Fig 5.8). This is a very fast method of discharging and the
tanks are efficiently drained as the targe bulkhead sluice valves permit the oil residue
readily flow aft.

Symbols V Tank valve A Direct

suction to main cargo pumps
X Pipeline
Figure 5.8 Free flowvalve O Bulkhead
system
sluice valves (gate type)
Stripping lines
All the above layouts have stripping lines, separate from the cargo lines, incorporated into
the systems. These are small pipelines, connected to low-capacity pumps, which are used
for draining or stripping out the last few centimeters of oil in the tanks. The oil stripped out
is pumped to an aft cargo tank, known as the slop tank, and from there it is pumped
ashore by a main cargo pump. The stripping lines and pumps are also used in tank
washing an ballast operations.

Lining u p pipelines and cargo operations

Cargo calculations are not dealt with in this chapter as there are several goo. tanker books
already available which give instruction on that complex area o tanker operations. The
quantity of cargo in a tank is obtained by measuring the amount of space above the oil
level which is not occupied by cargo. This i known as taking the ullage or ullaging and is
the distance from the top of th cargo to the deck level. The ullage is then applied to the
tank calibration tabel to obtain the cubic capacity or volume of the space occupied by the
cargo ii that tank. Corrections for specific gravity (or relative density), temperature and trim
are then applied to the volume to find the weight or quantity of the cargo.
Loading
Constant reference should be made to Figure 5.2 while reading this section on lining up.
Loading one grade

The shore loading arms or hoses will be connected to the manifold flanges which have
been selected for the cargo. The oil can either be loaded through the drop lines which lead
directly from the cargo lines on deck to the main lines in the tanks or via the pump room
lines to the tanks. The former method is to be preferred as it lessens the chances of oil
leaking through faulty pump room valves, thence overboard. Valves in the deck lines can
be used to isolate pump rooms, e.g. in a tanker with an aft pump room these valves would
be aft of the drop lines but forward of the pump room. With this system there is no need for
a complicated lining up of valves in the pump room.
If the vessel is loaded through the pump room all pumps must be isolated by closing the
valves on the suction lines to them and also the valves on the deck delivery lines coming
from the pumps (refer to Figure 5.9).

Pump room arrangement

j Discharge to deck
Figure 5.9 Pump room pipeline system of a product

tanker
Hand-operated valves which are to be kept shut during loading should have their wheels
lashed in the closed position. This serves the dual purpose of warning crew members not
to open the valves and of preventing such valves 'walking back' or opening due to
vibration or cargo pressure. Overboard sea discharge valves which are located in the
pump room are the valves through which the clean ballast is discharged prior to loading.
When de-ballasting is completed such valves must be lashed in the closed position. Usually
the Shore Liaison Officer will not permit loading to commence until he has seen the
lashings. The final line setting will now be carried out with all lines being made common so
that the cargo can flow to any tank, the flow into each tank being controlled by that
particular tank valve.
When all the preparations have been completed and the appropriate tank valves opened,
the manifold valves will be opened and loading commenced. It is general practice to
commence loading into one or two tanks only, so as to ensure that the vessel has been
lined up properly. A man should be stationed at the manifolds, ready to instruct the shore
to stop loading in the event of a leaking connection or any other safety or cargo hazard. It
is also common practice to load 'groups' of tanks, e.g. the wing tanks can be loaded first
and then 'topped-up' during the loading of the centre tanks. The term 'topping-up' is used
to describe the operation whereby the oil level in a tank is slowly brought up to its final
ullage. Tanks should also be 'stepped down' to further spread out the time of the topping-
up period, i.e. if it was possible to view a group of tanks from the side they should have
the appearance of stairs (Figure 5.10). These procedures space out the topping-up
operations and prevent 'panic stations' when quite a few tanks require topping-up at the
same time. Accidents sometimes occur when changing over from full tanks to empty
ones. Empty tanks must always be partially opened some time prior to the changeover,
otherwise cargo-loading pressure may prevent valves opening or closing and thus
causing a spill.
Figure 5.10 Stepping down oil cargo tanks
Loading more than one grade

The number of grades carried will depend very much on the design of the vessel. Many
ships can carry only two or three grades but product carriers are usually multi-grade.
Product carriers are often divided into two classes, those which carry 'white' or 'clean' oils
and those which carry 'black', 'dirty' or grades of crude oils. White or clean oils are highly
refined products such as motor and aviation spirits and black or dirty products are diesel,
fuel and furnace oil.
The ideal arrangement is to have a separate pipeline and a separate pump for each grade;
this is seldom possible. However, compatibility charts are available which give instructions
as to whether certain grades may be loaded through the same line. Thus some slight
contamination is permissible and several grades may be loaded via one line. Any such
instructions must be adhered to as consignees are very strict with regard to contamination
standards. There should be a two-valve separation, if possible, between different grades.
Bulkhead leakage is a problem when carrying grades. When carrying incompatible grades
the one most likely to be adversely affected by mixing should be loaded to a higher level
than the less vulnerable grades in adjoining compartments. Thus diesel oil should be
loaded to a higher level than furnace oil (both black oils); any leak of diesel would enhance
the furnace oil. Similarly, kerosene (paraffin) should be loaded higher than motor spirit;
although both are white oils, any contamination of kerosene by motor spirit could be
disastrous for an unfortunate householder or camper.

Discharging
While the shore hoses are being connected the tanks should be ullaged, water dips,
temperatures and samples taken, and the pumps warmed through. Water dips ascertain
the amount of water, if any, which has settled out of the cargo during transit. A tank is
'sounded' by manually lowering a metal rod with a paste smeared upon it to the bottom of
the tank. If water is present the color of the paste changes, thus indicating the water level.
Tank calibration tables convert this figure to the amount of water in a tank.
The pipeline suction valves to the pumps and on the deck delivery lines should be opened,
leaving the tank and manifold valves to be opened just before discharging commences.
Once again it is a safe practice to commence discharging from one tank only in order to
ensure that the ship and shore lines have been set properly. Sometimes more than one
grade will have to be discharged using the same pump. Some contamination will result but
by working with the terminal representative this can be kept to an acceptable minimum. As
above, the vulnerable grade should be discharged first. If a pump is to be used for diesel
oil and marine fuel, then the diesel should be discharged first.
A discharge plan must be adopted which will allow the main pumps to work for as long as
possible while permitting the stripping pumps to drain some tanks when there is still a
considerable amount of cargo in other tanks. Most of the tanks should already have been
drained before the final tanks are pumped dry. A good stern trim must be maintained
during the discharge in order to assist tank stripping.
Ballasting
It is best to ballast the vessel when the discharge is completed. However, it may be
necessary in exposed locations to ballast during discharge. The tanks to be ballasted must
be completely isolated from the cargo and a two-valve separation should be regarded as a
minimum separation in any pipeline which contains both water and oil. It is sometimes
possible to commence ballast without using the pumps, i.e. 'running in' the sea water. This
can result in oil escaping overboard and the author would not use that method. Cargo
pumps used for ballasting should be started at a slow rate before opening the sea valves.
At some terminals de-ballasting is concurrent with loading; extreme care must be taken
during the operation. During the voyage clean ballast will have been pumped into some
cargo tanks and all pumps and lines will have been thoroughly cleaned. Part of the ballast
will be run out before berthing, leaving only sufficient on board to keep the vessel
manageable. At the end of the de-ballasting operation the tanks will have been fully

drained and the main cargo pumps and lines will also have been stripped. Under current
regulations some ships will have permanent clean ballast tanks. These are known as
segregated tanks and are served by pumps and a line system which are entirely separate
from cargo pumps and lines. Cargo and segregated ballast systems are usually worked
simultaneously.
1.3 The Physical Properties of Oil and Chemical
Master should acquire the correct chemical name of the cargo to be loaded and, if the
cargo is not adequately covered by the data sheet kept on board, sufficient additional
information required for its safe and efficient carriage should be obtained from the shipper
and other parties concerned (shore terminal).
Master and all those concerned should use the data sheet and/or any other relevant
information to acquaint themselves with all characteristics of each cargo to be loaded. If
relevant information essential to its safe and efficient carriage is not available, despite
Master's efforts to acquire, loading of the cargo may be deferred.
Knowledge of the physical and chemical properties, hazards and response action to be
taken in the event of emergency is essential for the safe and efficient carriage and
handling of chemical cargoes.
The following notes are intended to give guidance to Master and all those concerned on
the use of the cargo data sheet to achieve safety.
1.3.1. Physical Data
1) Specific gravity
To safeguard the structure, cargo tanks should not be subjected to a greater
hydrostatic pressure than that they are designed. Master should ascertain this pressure
and ensure that the weight and vapor pressure of cargo does not exceed the design
pressure.
When loading cargoes of high specific gravity, Master should be aware of the following:
a) Effect of free surface and sloshing in slack tanks.
b) Effect of slack and/or empty tanks on stability.
c) Effect of slack and/or empty tanks on structural stresses on Vessel.

2) Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

The vapor pressure is an indication of the tendency of a liquid to vaporize. When a
liquid is put in a closed container the vapor pressure at a constant ambient temperature
reaches an equilibrium value known as the vapor pressure of the liquid at that
temperature. As the temperature is raised the vapor pressure increases and when it
becomes equal to the ambient pressure of the liquid, bubbling in the liquid takes place
which is said to boil. The boiling point of a liquid is that temperature at which the vapor
pressure is equal to the external pressure on the liquid. In the data sheet the vapor
pressure is given as absolute pressure at the stated temperature, usually in units of
millimetres of mercury column (mmHg). Unless otherwise stated (usually for liquefied
gases) the boiling point is the normal boiling point, that is the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid equals the standard external pressure of 760 mmHg (760
mmHg = 14.25 psi = 1kg/ = 1 standard atmosphere).
Note: Liquefied Gases will not be carried by Company's vessels. We carry chemicals
which have the vapor pressure of less than 1.033 kg/ = absolute at 37.8 °C
3) Freezing Point
Freezing Point is same as Melting Point.
Taking into account the minimum air and water temperature expected, the freezing
point indicates whether or not cargo heating will be required. A cargo with a high
freezing point may solidify in tank and cargo line, sometimes in vent line. Special
attention is emphasized during loading in the winter due to cargo freezed. To make
transportation of certain cargoes easier, at cargo owner's Instruction, freezing point will
be made lower by adding fresh water into some chemical cargoes with a high freezing
point. [ Exp.: Phenol, Neopentil glycol ]
Solidified cargoes should be paid careful attention for cargo custody. Master have to
handle them in accordance with the Appendix "HANDLING MANUAL for THE
SOLIDIFYING CARGO". When a cargo is heated, special consideration should be
given to the possible effects of heat transfer to unheated cargoes in adjacent tanks,
particularly if cargoes are self-reactive or have a high vapor pressure. [See to Chapter
4 for details]

4) Coefficient of Cubical Expansion

As a safeguard against possible overflow or over-pressure, expansion of the liquid over
any expected increase in temperature during the voyage should be considered in
determining the ullage to which a tank should be filled during loading.
Filling ratio for cargoes which are liquid at ambient temperatures.
Using the coefficient of expansion given on the data sheet the filling ratio, allowing
for expansion may be circulated as:
Filling ratio (% full) = 100x(1-RxT)-S
where R = coefficient of expansion per
°C
T = expected maximum temperature rise °C
S = Safety margin, usually 2% of capacity
5) Vapor Density
The vapor density is expressed relative to air and is a main factor controlling the
dispersion of cargo vapor released to the air during loading and accumulating in
enclosed spaces. Most of cargo vapors are heavier than air and when released into the
atmosphere will tend to fall, especially in still conditions. Such vapors should always be
vented at the highest possible level to give the greatest chance of them being diluted to
harmless concentrations before reaching working areas. When empty enclosed spaces
are being checked for vapor, special attention should be given to the bottom of the
spaces where the vapor is most likely to accumulate. Conversely, when the vapor is
lighter than air special attention should be given to the upper part of enclosed spaces.
Attention is drawn to those cargoes which may react with metals to form hydrogen, a
light gas which forms flammable mixtures in air.
6) Solubility
A cargo, which is highly or completely soluble in water, is likely to destroy normal fire-
fighting foam. A cargo with low solubility will form a separate layer above or below a
water layer depending on the specific gravity. When the specific gravity is high, a layer
of cargo should always be suspected beneath water (e.g. in pump room bilges), which
may result in hazardous vapors being released when the layers are disturbed.

The hazard arising from reactions between water and some cargoes is referred to
para.15.16.2 of IBC code. [Exp. Sulfuric Acid, TDI (Toluene di-isocyanate)]
7) Electrostatic Generation
Entries in the data sheets under this heading are, with the exception of cargoes carried
as liquefied gases, in terms of two classes as follows'-
Class A Electrical Conductivity less than 1Cf12Q/cm
These materials are capable of retaining an electrostatic charge and precautions should
be taken for overall loading, etc. [ Exp.: CPP, BTX, other flammable chemicals ]
Class B Electrical Conductivity greater than 10" 12Q /cm
These materials do not present a static electricity hazard during normal cargo handling
operations.
[ Exp.: Inorganic liquid products, Vegetable oils, CTC, etc.]
I.3.2. Chemical Data

Reactivity draws attention to the possibility of some cargoes undergoing chemical reaction
with potentially hazardous consequences.
1) Chemical Reactivity
Chemical reaction may produce heat which in turn may accelerate the reaction, may
cause the release of a large volume of vapour and/or pressure rise, or may cause the
formation of flammable and/or harmful vapours that otherwise would not expected. In
principle the dangers arising from chemical reaction are those of increased fire and
health hazards. Three main types of reaction have to be considered:
a) Self-reaction and reaction with air where only the particular chemical itself is
involved. Small amounts of other chemicals or contact with certain metals ma promote
reaction. Polymerization is a common type of self-reaction. [Exp.: Styrene Monomer]
b) Reaction as a result of mixing one chemical with another, neutralization of an acid

with an alkali is a typical example of one chemical reaction. A cargo that is self-reactive
as in (a) may also react with other cargoes. [Exp.: Caustic Soda with Methanol].
Reaction as a result of mixing with water.
A cargo, which is self-reactive as in (a) or reacts with others in (b) may also react with
water. [Exp.: Sulphuric Acid, TDI, etc.]

2) Corrosive Liquids
Corrosive liquids in general have three characteristics, which require special

consideration. [Exp. Phenol, Caustic Soda, etc.,]
a) Corrosivity
Generally, they corrode normal construction materials at an excessive rate and need
special materials for the cargo tanks and handling system to ensure safe containment.
b) Fire
When they corrode metals, hydrogen may be produced which forms flammable
mixtures with air. Contact with fibrous materials such as cloth, sawdust, etc., may in
some cases cause ignition of the material. Some corrosive liquids are combustible.
c) Health
They destroy human tissue causing serious damage, which may be permanent. This is
usually, but not always, accompanied by severe pain. Less corrosive liquids may only
be irritating to the skin, but can result in serious damage to the eyes or mucous
membrane.
I.3.3. Fire and Explosion Data

The vapour given off by a flammable liquid may burns, and not the liquid itself. A mixture
of vapour and air cannot be ignited unless the proportion of vapor and air lies between two
concentrations known as the Lower Flammable (Explosive) Limit (LFL or LED and the
Upper Flammable (Explosive) Limit (UFL or UEL). The limits vary depending on a cargo
(see data sheets). Concentrations below LEL (too-lean) or above UEL (too-rich) are
incapable of burning, but it is important to remember that concentrations above LEL may
burn or explode when it is diluted by air to a concentration within the flammable range.
Vapor concentration of a cargo varies depending on the vapor pressure and temperature
of the cargo. As the temperature increases so does the vapor pressure and vapor
concentration above the liquid. For each liquid there is a temperature at which the vapor
concentration reaches the LEL, and another higher temperature at which the concentration
exceeds UEL. The more readily the liquid vaporizes, the lower the temperature at which
the LEL is reached.
The flash point of a liquid is a temperature at which the liquid give off sufficient vapor of
the concentration in air equivalent to the LFL. Some cargoes form flammable mixtures at

all ambient temperatures, others only at higher ambient temperatures and others only
when heated.
For the purposes of the safe handling procedures dealt with in this guide, the flammability
characteristics of cargoes are divided into three broad categories according to the flash
point:
Flammable cargoes, those with a flash point below 80°F. Combustible cargoes, those with
a flash point above 80°F. Non-Combustible cargoes, those which have no flash point and
do not burn.
The above description of flammability considers cargo vapor mixed with air. If air is mixed
with sufficient inert gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, its oxygen content will no
longer be capable of supporting the combustion of chemical vapor. Suppression of
combustion by this means is known as inerting and is a measure, which may be
recommended or otherwise adopted for preventing ignition of vapors within enclosed
spaces such as cargo tanks. It is important to remember that an inerted mixture may
become flammable on mixing again with air, for instance, on venting the mixture to
atmosphere or during gas-freeing with air.
I.3.4. Health Data

The health data describes the potential danger to personnel from contact with the cargo
liquid or vapor. Cargoes may be harmful if the liquid comes in contact with the skin, if their
vapors are inhaled or if the liquid is swallowed. The seriousness of the effect depends on
both the physical properties of the cargo and on its toxicity or irritant nature.
Absorption of a cargo through the skin depends on the solvent nature of cargo. If the
cargo cannot pass readily through the skin, no skin absorption hazard exists even if the
liquid is a poison. The inhalation hazard of a cargo depends primarily on its volatility.
1.3.5 Emergency Procedure

The emergency procedure given on the data sheet is self-explanatory. All Crew should be
given basic training in emergency procedure such as the use of breathing apparatus and
protective clothing and the application of first-aid. For first response to an accident
involving hazardous cargo, see Emergency
Response Guidebook published by U.S. Department of Transportation and Company's
Emergency Response and Salvage Manual (FP-17) which are kept on board.

1.4 Tanker Safety Culture and Safety Management
I.4.1. TOXICITY
Toxicity is the ability of a chemical compound to produce injury once it reaches a

susceptible site in or on the body. Toxic substances may take various forms such as dust,
fumes, mists, vapours and liquids. Routes of absorption into the blood stream by toxic
materials can be through inhalation, absorption, ingestion or swallowing. The first two
routes of absorption are of primary interest to the liquid cargo carrier. The hazards of
handling toxic or poisonous materials can be reduced if the materials are recognized as
potentially hazardous and proper precautions are taken, namely proper ventilation,
protective clothing, the use of respirators where required and a respect for safe
procedures and practices.
The two most commonly used methods of expressing the concentration of a toxic material
in the atmosphere are:
1) Threshold Limit Value (TLV), PEL (=Permissible exposure Limit)
An airborne concentration of a product expressed in ppm by Volume in air. These
values represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effects. The values refer to time-
weighted average (TWA) concentrations for a notional working day.
2) TWA (Time-Weighted Average)
(TWA) concentrations believed to be safe for the average person during an 8-hour
workday and 40-
hour workweek for prolonged periods. The susceptibility of individuals will vary.
3) Maximum Acceptable Concentrations (MAC)
These values are defined as the limits which should never be exceeded. For gases
and vapours, both are expressed in parts per million (ppm) i.e. parts of the gas or
vapour per million parts of air. Fumes, mist and dust are similarly valued.
1.4.2 GAS-FREEING
Gas freeing involves the elimination of the risk of explosion and toxic hazards by removing
the sources of chemical vapours through cleaning and driving off the explosive or toxic

vapours by ventilation. Gas freeing makes tanks safe for men to enter them and adjacent
gas-free compartments and contributes generally to the safety of Vessel, crew, other
personnel and the surrounding area.
When gas-freeing for shipyard or hot work, it is essential to remove oil held by rust, cracks
of coating or scale to guard against the regeneration of vapors by welding or burning.
Adequate ventilation must be provided before or during cleaning. This may be natural
ventilation by opening OTH and TCH or forced by using water-driven fans or blowers. It is
stressed that large volumes of gas will be dissipated and al I sources of vapour ignition
must be excluded from the work area.
1.4.2.1 General Preparation For Gas-Freeing

Gas freeing should be completed before berthing as far as it is practicable.
1. Natural ventilation of cargo tank and cargo line should be always carried out under
good condition, when seawater or rain does not enter through OTH (Oil Tank
Hatchcover) and TCH (Tank Cleaning Hatchcover).
2. Openings of cargo tank must not be tightly closed before inspection by survey or,
for the purpose of further effective ventilation.
1.4.2.2 Guide To Effective Gas-Freeing Work

Vapour concentration in cargo tank will sometimes become denser than TLV(Threshold
Limit Value) due to insufficient gas-freeing of the following vapour/gas.
• Solvent used for tank-cleaning
• Previous cargo absorbed by coating or remaining in gaskets
• Solvent of recoated paint in short time after recoating
Note: Maximum allowable content is regulated in VCR B.C. as follows:

*. Methanol-------------Less than 160 PPM (TLV = 200PPM)
*. Styrene Monomer---Less than 40 PPM (TLV = 50PPM)
*. Toluene --------------Less than 80 PPM (TLV = 100PPM)
In such case, the following procedure should be followed in order to eliminate gas and/or
odour out of cargo tank, according to under-mentioned precautions.

Procedure:
Fixed fan or 2(two) sets of water driven fan (1 fan for supply, 1 fan for exhaust )should be
placed on TCH, with air duct( Explosion proof type )without fail. Note: An end of duct
should be kept at about 3 - 4 feet height from tank bottom.
1. Empty tank heating should be carried out through steam lines (Heating coils in
cargo tank) just after starting to drive fans.
Note:
1) Working time should be decided depends on condition of each cargo tank.
2) Checking leakage of heating coil should be carried out to prevent contamination as
usual manner.
Precautions :
1. To verify that the atmosphere in cargo tank is less than L.E.L. (Lower Explosive
Limit )by inflammable gas detector without fail before setting gas free fans. In case
that the atmosphere in cargo tank is in explosion range, never to operate above
PROCEDURE 2. Until it become lower than L.E.L. (Lower Explosive Limit ) by
procedure 1.
2. To prevent ignition source, not to carry out any work, which can cause sparks.
3. To release static electricity from human body before going to deck.
4. To open valves of cargo line and a breather valve of vent line.
5. To keep checking temperature in cargo tank so that it may not become more than
40°C.
6. To wear gas mask and/or protective suits as necessary.
7. To verify that vapour content of solvent-gas in cargo tank is lower than regulated
maximum allowable content( as above mentioned )by toxic gas detector.
8. To shut off the steam inlet line of cargo tank on deck with spectacle blind flange after
completion of gas freeing without fail.
9. To close all openings and valves after completion of gas freeing, and to confirm it by
responsible officer.
10. Not to carry out the procedure in this guide to the tank which is adjacent to the tank
stowing polymerizing cargo (i.e. SM) or highly volatile cargo (i.e. MEC)
1.4.3. Entry into Tanks (Eclosed space entry permit)

Before men are permitted to enter a tank it must be tested, inspected by gas-detector
and/or 02 METER and certified gas-free and containing sufficient fresh air by a authorized
ship's officer as per entry permit. Men should not enter a tank except at the express
direction of the officer in charge and a safetyman should be stationed on deck beside the
tank hatch coming.
The gas-free and safe condition must be maintained by constant ventilation while men
are present regardless of meter readings and the ambience must be tested repeatedly at
regular intervals.
If for some special inevitable reason it becomes necessary for a man to enter a tank
before it has been proved gas-free and safe, approved breathing apparatus and a lifeline
must be worn and two
safety attendants stationed to observe the man. It must be noted that a metered content of
as little as 0.1% of hydrocarbon vapour is an indication that a tank is unsafe. A specific
working permit for entry must be obtained before such work is carried out.
1.4.4. VAPOUR DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT

Three kinds of instrument for measuring gas and air mixtures are essential for safety.
Flammability meters are related to the avoidance of explosion and fire, while toxic gas
detectors concern dangers to health. A third kind of instrument, the oxygen meter is used
to ensure safety when entering tanks.
1.4.5. FLAMMABILITY METERS

The preferred type is catalytic in which the gas to be sampled is oxidized by oxygen from
the air in the presence of a heated catalyst i.e. a non-reacting chemical element, usually
in the form of thin platinum wire.
Oxidation raises the temperature and thus lowers the electrical resistance of the wire. The
wire form some part of a Whetstone bridge circuit, where the resistance is indicated
directly as a percentage of LFL (Lower Flammable Limit).
Another type of instrument operates on the principle that the refractive index (the extent to
which light rays are bent) of a gas/air mixture changes with the gas/air ratio. It does not
directly measure flammability but indicates the gas concentration, which must then be
compared with the known LFL (Lower Flammable Limit) and UFL (Upper Flammable Limit)
of the gas involved.
All the concerned crew should be acquainted how to use and be used to use it by training.

1.4.6 TOXIC GAS DETECTORS

There are many sorts of instruments to deal with the wide variety of toxic gases. When
only a limited number of types are carried, it is advisable for a vessel to have appropriate
specialised instruments. Otherwise, multi-purpose kits with components for the variety of
gases, which may be generated, should be embarked and the Dragger type aspiration
tester is recommended. This equipment forces a known volume of the air to be sampled
through a transparent tube filled with a dry chemical which reacts visibly with a specific
contaminant. Different tubes must be used to test for different contaminants. Aspiration
may be by hand bulb, battery-operated pump or vacuum induced by the ships compressed
air supply.
Gas detectors are mechanical devices and thus at times can become inoperative without
warning.
All the concerned crew should be acquainted how to use and be used to use it by training.
1.4.7 IGNITION HAZARDS

Precautions must be taken to eliminate potential sources of ignition. Smoking is prohibited
by Company's regulation outside the smoking spaces designated by Master. No portable
electrical
equipment should be used within cargo areas or compartment which has not been certified
gas-free and unless adjacent are compartments gas-free, inerted or filled with water or a
safe liquid, and secured. The exceptions are that illumination may be obtained from
explosion-proofed, self-contained and battery-fed lamps and intrinsically safe transceivers
may be used. Further precautions are necessary when using tank-washing equipment.
For any work accompanied by ignition hazard, work permit must be obtained as per
Company's rule.
1.4.8 ELECTRICAL CONTINUITY

Considerable electrostatic charges can build up in a tank during cargo loading and
mechanical tank washing. Any equipment lowered into a tank must therefore be reliably
earthed to eliminate the risk of spark discharge.
The need for good ear thing applies particularly to portable tank washing machines. Tank
washing hoses must have an ear thing wire incorporated, running uninterruptedly
2. PRECAUTION TO PREVENT HAZARDS
2.1. Hazards association with Tanker Operation

Hazards of Petroleum
In order to appreciate the reasons for the practices adopted to ensure safety in tanker and
terminal operations, all personnel should be familiar with the flammable properties of
petroleum, the effects of the density of petroleum gases and their toxic properties.
Flammability
When petroleum is ignited, it is the gas progressively given off by the liquid which burns as
a visible flame. The quantity of gas available to be given off by petroleum liquid depends
on its volatility which is frequently expressed for purposes of comparison in terms of Reid
vapour pressure. A more informative measure of volatility is the true vapour pressure but
unfortunately this is not easily measured. It is referred to in this guide only in connection
with venting problems associated with very volatile cargoes, such as some crude oils and
natural gasoline’s.
Petroleum gases can be ignited and will burn only when mixed with air in certain
proportions. If there is too little or too much petroleum gas the mixture cannot burn. The
limiting proportions, expressed as percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, are
known as the lower and upper flammable limits. They vary amongst the different possible
components of petroleum gases. For the gas mixtures from the petroleum liquids
encountered in normal tanker practice the overall range is from a minimum lower
flammable limit of about 1 % gas by volume in air to a maximum upper flammable limit of
about 10% gas by volume in air.
As a petroleum liquid Is heated the concentration of gas in air above it increases. The
temperature of the liquid at which this concentration, using a specific measuring technique,
reaches the lower flammable limit is known as the flashpoint of the liquid.
Flammability Classification
There are many classification systems for defining the flammability characteristics of
petroleum liquids, most of which are based on flashpoint and Reid vapour pressure data.
For the purpose of this guide, which deals only with the particular conditions in petroleum
tanker cargo handling, the division of such liquids into the two broad categories of non-

volatile and volatile, as defined below, is in general sufficient to ensure that proper
precautions can be specified.
• Non-Volatile
Flashpoint of 60°C or above as determined by the closed cup method of testing.
• Volatile
Flashpoint below 60°C as determined by the closed cup method of testing.
Gas Density
The gases from normal petroleum liquids are heavier than air and inert gas, thus the
possibility of layering of gases is very important in cargo handling operations. The density
of the undiluted gas from a high vapour pressure distillate, such as motor gasoline, is likely
to be about twice that of air and about 1.5 times that from a typical crude oil. These density
differences diminish as the gases are diluted with air. Flammable mixtures usually contain
at least 90% by volume of air and consequently have densities almost indistinguishable
from that of air. More detailed information on the density of petroleum gases is given in
Chapter 15.
Toxicity
Comparatively small quantities of petroleum gas when inhaled can cause symptoms of
diminished responsibility and dizziness similar to drunkenness, with headache and
irritation of the eyes. The inhalation of a sufficient quantity can be fatal.
These symptoms can occur at concentrations well below the lower flammable limit.
However, petroleum gases vary in their physiological effects and human tolerance to these
effects also varies widely. It should not be assumed that because conditions can be
tolerated the gas concentration is within safe limits.
The smell of petroleum gas mixtures is very variable, and in some cases the gases may
dull the sense of smell. The impairment of smell is especially likely and particularly serious
if the mixture contains hydrogen sulphide.
The absence of smell should never be taken to indicate the absence of gas.
More detailed information on the toxic properties of petroleum, and of substances
associated with the carriage of petroleum, is given in Chapter 16

2.2 Hazards Control

General Precautions on Tankers
This Chapter deals primarily with the precautions to be taken on board a tanker whenever
operational at sea or in port. Reference should be made to the appropriate Chapters for
precautions relating to specific operations such as cargo handling, ballasting, tank
cleaning, inerting or entry into enclosed spaces. Chapter 4 should be consulted for
additional precautions to be taken while the vessel is in port.
2.1 General Principles

In order to eliminate the risk of fire and explosion on a tanker, it is necessary to avoid a
source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being present in the same place at the
same time. It is not always possible to exclude both these factors and precautions are
therefore directed towards excluding or controlling one of them.
In the case of cargo compartments, pump rooms, and at times the tank deck, flammable
gases are to be expected and the strict elimination of all possible sources of ignition in
these locations is essential.
Cabins galleys and other areas within the accommodation block inevitably contain ignition
sources such as electrical equipment, matches and cigarette lighters. While it is sound
practice to minimize and control such sources of ignition, it is essential to avoid the entry
of flammable gas.
In engine and boiler rooms, ignition sources such as those arising from boiler operations
and electrical equipment cannot be avoided. It is therefore essential to prevent he entry of
flammable gases into such compartments. The contamination of bunker fuel breakthrough
bulkhead leaks, pipeline mixture or any other cause will introduce an Additional danger.
The routine checking of bunker spaces for flammability by tanker and terminal personnel is
therefore to be encouraged.
It is possible by good design and operational practice, for both flammable gases and
ignition sources to be safely controlled in deck workshops, store rooms, forecastle, centre
castle dry cargo holds etc. The means for such control must, however, be rigorously
maintained In this connection it should be realized that an additional danger would be
introduced into such areas by the contamination of bunker tanks with volatile cargo.
Although the installation and the correct operation of an inert gas system provides an
added measure of safety, it does not preclude the need for close attention to the
precautions set out in this chapter.

2.2 Smoking And Naked Lights
2.2.1 Smoking at Sea

While a tanker is at sea, smoking should be permitted only at times and in places specific
by the master. Criteria which should be taken into account in determiner the location of
smoking places. Smoking must be prohibited on the tank deck or any other place where
petroleum gas may be encountered. Additional restrictions on smoking on boardship are
contained in Section 4.8.
2.2.2 Matches and Cigarette Lighters

The use of matches and cigarette lighters outside accommodation spaces should
prohibited, except in places where smoking is permitted. Matches and cigarette light
should not be taken outside these places by personnel, nor should they be carried on
cargo oil tank and deck or in any other place where petroleum gas may be encountered.
The risk involved in carrying matches, and more particularly cigarette lighters, should
impressed on all personnel. Matches used on board should only be of the 'safety' type.
2.2.3 Naked Lights (Open Flame)

Naked lights must be prohibited on the tank deck and in any other place where there is a
that petroleum gas may be present.
2.2.4 Notices
Portable and permanent notices prohibiting smoking and the use of naked lights should
conspicuously displayed at the point of access to the vessel and at the exits from
accommodation area. Within the accommodation area, instructions should be
conspicuously displayed.
2.3 Galley
It is essential that galley personnel be instructed in the safe operation of galley equipment
Unauthorized and inexperienced persons should not be allowed to use such facilities.
A frequent cause of fires is the accumulation of unburn fuel or fatty deposits In galley is
within flue pipes and filter cowls of galley vents. Such areas require frequent inspect
ensure that they are maintained in a clean condition. Oil and deep fat fries should be with
thermostats to cut off the electrical power and so prevent accidental fires.
Galley staff should be trained in handling fire emergencies. The appropriate fire extinguish
and fire blankets should be provided.
Additional restrictions on the use of galleys while in port are contained in Section A:
1.4 Portable Lamps and Electrical Equipment
2.4.1 General
All portable electrical equipment including lamps should be approved by an authority and
must be carefully examined for possible defects before being used, care should be taken
to ensure that the insulation is undamaged and that cables are \ attached and will remain
so while the equipment is in use. Special care should also l to prevent mechanical damage
to flexible cables (wandering leads).
2.4.2 Lamps and Other Electrical Equipment on Flexible Cables (Wandering

Leads)
The use of portable electrical equipment on wandering leads should be prohibited within
cargo tanks and adjacent spaces, or over the tank deck, unless throughout the period the
equipment is in use:
• The compartment within which or over which the equipment and the lead are to be
used is safe for hot work (see Section 2.8), and
• The adjacent compartments are also safe for hot work, or have been purged of
hydrocarbon to less than 2% by volume and inserted, or are completely filled with ballast
water, or any combination of these, (see Section 2.8) and
• All tank openings to other compartments not safe for hot work or purged as previous
point are closed and remain so; or
• The equipment, including all wandering leads, is intrinsically safe; or
• The equipment is contained within an approved explosion-proof housing. Any flexible
cables should be of a type approved for extra hard usage, have an earth conductor, and
be permanently attached to the explosion-proof housing in an approved manner.
In addition there are certain types of equipment which are approved for use over the tank
deck only.
The foregoing does not apply to the proper use of flexible cables used with signal or
navigation lights or with approved types of telephones.

2.4.3 Air Driven Lamps

Air driven lamps of an approved type may be used in non-gas free atmospheres although,
to avoid the accumulation of static electricity at the appliance, the following precautions
should be observed:
• The air supply should be fitted with a water trap; and
• The supply hose should be of a low electrical resistance. Permanently installed units
should be earthed.
1.4.4 Flashlights (Torches), Lamps and Portable Battery Powered Equipment

Only flashlights that have been approved by a competent authority for use in flammable
atmospheres must be used on board tankers.
UHFA/HF portable transceivers must be of an intrinsically safe type.
Small battery powered personal items such as watches, miniature hearing aids and heart
pacemakers are not significant ignition sources.
Unless approved for use in a flammable atmosphere, portable radios,, tape recorders,
electronic calculators, cameras containing batteries, photographic flash units, portable
telephones and radio pagers must not be used on the tank deck or in areas where
flammable gas may be present (see Section 4.10.2).
2.5 Fixed Electrical Equipment

Fixed electrical equipment in dangerous areas, and even in locations where a flammable
atmosphere is to be expected infrequently, must be of an approved type and be properly
maintained so as to ensure that neither the equipment nor the wiring becomes a source of
ignition.
2.6 Synthetic Clothing

Experience has shown that clothing made from synthetic material does not give rise to any
significant electrostatic hazard under conditions normally encountered on tankers.
However, the tendency for synthetic material to melt and fuse together when exposed to
high temperatures leads to a concentrated heat source which causes severe damage to
body tissue. Clothing made of such material is therefore not considered suitable for
persons who may in the course of their duties be exposed to flame or hot surfaces.

2.7 Radio Transmitting Antennae

During medium and high frequency radio transmission (300 kHz - 30 MHz), significant
energy is radiated which can, at distances extending to 500 metres from the transmitting
antennae, induce an electrical potential in unearthed 'receivers' (derricks, rigging, mast
stays etc.) 2.8.3. capable of producing an incentive discharge. Transmissions can also
cause arcing over the surface of antenna insulators when they have a surface coating of
salt, dirt or water. It is therefore recommended that:
• All stays, derricks, and fittings should be earthed. Bearings of booms should be treated
with a graphite grease to maintain electrical continuity.
• Transmissions should not be permitted during periods when there is likely to be a
flammable gas in the region of the transmitting antennae.
Low energy transmissions, such as are used for satellite and VHF communications, do not
produce the same sources of ignition. Further restrictions on the use of radio 2.8.4.
communications when at a petroleum berth are given in Section 4.11.
2.8 Hot Work

2.8.1 General
Hot work is any work involving welding or burning, and other work including certain drilling
and grinding operations, electrical work and the use of non-intrinsically safe electrical
equipment, which might produce an incentive spark.
Hot work outside the main machinery spaces (and in the main machinery spaces when
associated with fuel tanks and fuel pipelines) must take into account the possible presence
of hydrocarbon vapours in the atmosphere, and the existence of potential ignition sources.
Hot work should only be carried out outside the main machinery spaces if no other viable
means of repair exists. Alternatives to be considered include cold work, or removal of the
work piece to the main machinery spaces.
Hot work outside the main machinery spaces should only be permitted in accordance with
prevailing national or international regulations and/or port/terminal requirements and
should be subject to the restrictions of a shipboard hot work permit procedure.
Hot work for which a hot work permit is required should be prohibited during cargo, ballast,
tank cleaning, gas freeing, purging or inserting operations.
2.8.2 Assessment of Hot Work

The master should decide whether the hot work is justifiable, and safe, and on the extent
of the precautions necessary. Hot work in areas outside the main machinery spaces and
other areas designated by the operator should not be proceeded with until the master has
informed the operator's shore office of details of the work proposed, and a procedure has
been discussed and agreed
Before hot work is started a safety meeting under the chairmanship of the master should
be held at which the planned work and the safety precautions should be carefully
reviewed. The meeting should be attended at least by all those who will have
responsibilities in connection with the work An agreed plan for the work and the related
safety precautions should be made The plan must clearly and unambiguously designate
one officer who is responsible for the supervision of the work, and another officer who is
responsible for safety precautions including means of communication between all parties
involved.
All personnel involved in the preparations and in the hot work operation, must be briefed
and instructed in their own role. They must clearly understand which officer is responsible
for work supervision and which for safety precautions. A written hot work permit (see
Appendix F) should be issued for each intended task. The permit should specify the
duration of validity, which should not exceed a working day.
A flow-chart for guidance is shown in Figure 2-1
2.8.3. Preparations for Hot Work

All operations utilizing the cargo or ballast system, including tank cleaning, gas freeing,
purging or inserting should be stopped before hot work is undertaken, and throughout the
duration of the hot work. If hot work is interrupted to permit pumping of ballast or other
operations using the cargo, venting or inserting system, hot work should not be re-started
until all precautions have been re-checked, and a new hot work permit has been issued.
No hot work should be carried out on bulkheads of bunker tanks containing bunkers, or
within 0.5 metres from such bulkheads.
2.8.4. Hot Work in Enclosed Spaces

A compartment in which hot work is to be undertaken should be cleaned and ventilated
until tests of the atmosphere indicate 21 % oxygen content by volume and not more than 1
% LFL. It is important to continue ventilation during hot work.
Adjacent cargo tanks, including diagonally positioned cargo tanks, should either have
been cleaned and gas freed to hot work standard or cleaned and hydrocarbon vapour
content reduced to not more than 1 % by volume and kept inserted, or completely filled

with water. Other cargo tanks which are not gas free should be purged of hydrocarbon
vapour to less than 2% by volume and kept inserted and secured.
On a vessel without an inert gas system/all cargo tanks except tanks containing slops
should be cleaned and gas freed. Slops should be placed in a tank as far as possible from
the hot work area, and the tank kept closed.
Adjacent ballast tanks, and compartments other than cargo tanks, should be checked to
ensure they are gas free and safe for hot work. If found to be contaminated by
hydrocarbon liquid or vapours, the cause of the contamination should be determined and
the tank(s) cleaned and gas freed.
All interconnecting pipelines to other compartments should be flushed through with water,
drained vented and isolated from the compartment where hot work will take place. Cargo
lines may be subsequently inserted or completely filled with water if considered necessary.
Vapour lines and inert gas lines to the compartment should also be ventilated and isolated.
Heating coils should be flushed.
All sludqe cargo-impregnated scale, sediment or other material likely to give off vapour
which is flammable, should be removed from an area of at least 10 metres around the
area of hot work Special attention must be given to the reverse sides of frames and
bulkheads. Other areas that may be affected by the hot work, such as the area
immediately below, should also be cleaned.
An adjacent fuel oil bunker tank may be considered safe if tests using a combustible gas
indicator give a reading of not more than 1 % LFL in the ullage space of the bunker tank,
and no heat transfer through the bulkhead of the bunker tank will be caused by the hot
work.
2.8.5. Hot Work on the Open Deck

If hot work is to be undertaken on the open deck, cargo and slop tanks within a radius of at
least 30 meters around the working area must be cleaned and hydrocarbon vapour
content reduced to less than 1 % by volume and inerted. All other cargo tanks in the cargo
area must be inerted with openings closed.
ensure they are gas-free and safe for hot work. If found to be contaminated by
hydrocarbon liquid or vapours they should be cleaned and gas freed.
On a vessel without an inert gas system all cargo tanks except those containing slops,
must be cleaned and freed of hydrocarbon vapour to less than 1 % LFL. Tanks containing
slops should be kept closed and be beyond 30 metres from the work area.
2.8.6 Hot Work on Pipelines

Hot work on pipelines and valves should only be permitted when the appropriate item has
been detached from the system by cold work, and the remaining system blanked off. The
item to be worked on should be cleaned and gas freed to a "safe for hot work" standard,
regardless of whether or not it is removed from the hazardous cargo area. Heating coils
should be flushed and opened to ensure that they are clean and free of hydrocarbons.
2.8.7 Checks by Officer Responsible for Safety

Immediately before hot work is started the officer responsible for safety precautions should
examine the area where hot work is to be undertaken, and ensure that the oxygen content
is 21% by volume and that tests with a combustible gas indicator show not more than 1%
LFL.
Adequate fire-fighting equipment must be laid out and be ready for immediate use. Fire
watch procedures must be established for the area of hot work, and in adjacent, non-
inerted spaces where the transfer of heat, or accidental damage, may create a hazard eg
damage to hydraulic lines, electrical cables, thermal oil lines etc. Monitoring should be
continued for sufficient time after completion of hot work. Effective means of containing
and extinguishing welding sparks and molten slag must be established.
The work area must be adequately and continuously ventilated. The frequency of
atmosphere monitoring must be established. Atmospheres should be re-tested after each
break in work periods, and at regular intervals. Checks should be made to ensure there is
no ingress of flammable vapours or liquids, toxic gases or inert gas from adjacent or
connected spaces.
Welding and other equipment employed should be carefully inspected before each
occasion of use to ensure it is in good condition. Where required it must be correctly
earthed. Special attention must be paid when using electric-arc equipment ensuring:
• That electrical supply connections are made in a gas free space;

• That existing supply wiring is adequate to carry the electrical current demanded
without overloading, causing heating;
• The insulation of flexible electric cables laid across the deck is in good condition;
• The cable route to the worksite is the safest possible, only passing over gas free or
inerted spaces; and

• The earthing connection is adjacent to the work site with the earth return cable led
directly back to the welding machine.
Any changes in the conditions which formed the basis for issuing the original hotwork
permit should invalidate it. Hot work should cease, and not be restarted until all safety
precautions have been re-checked and a new hot work permit has been issued.
2.9 Use Of Tools

2.9.1 Grit Blasting and Mechanically Powered Tools
It should be noted that grit blasting and use of mechanically powered tools are not
normally considered as coming within the definition of hot work. However, both these
operations should only be permitted under the following conditions:
 The work area should not be subject to vapour release, or a concentration of
combustible vapours, and should be free of combustible material.
 The area should be gas-free, and tests with a combustible gas indicator should qive
a reading of not more than 1% LFL
 The ship must not be alongside at a terminal.
 There must be no cargo, bunkering, ballasting, tank cleaning, gas-freeing, purginq
or inerting operations in progress.
Adequate fire-fighting equipment must be laid out, and ready for immediate use.
The hopper and hose nozzle of a grit blasting machine should be electrically bonded and
earthed to the deck or fitting being worked on.
There is a risk of perforation of pipelines when gritblasting or chipping, and great care
must be taken when planning such work. Before work on cargo lines on deck commences
they should be flushed, drop line valves closed, bottom lines filled with water, and the
atmosphere inside the part to be worked on confirmed as either inerted to less than 8%
oxygen by volume or gas-free to not more than 1 % LFL. Similar precautions should be
adopted as appropriate for inert gas and crude oil washing lines.
2.9.2 Hand Tools

The use of hand tools such as chipping hammers and scrapers for steel preparation and
maintenance may be permitted without a hot work permit. Their use must be restricted to
the actual deck areas and fittings not connected to the cargo system.

The work area should be gas-free and clear of combustible materials. The ship must not
be engaged in any cargo, bunker, ballasting, tank cleaning, gas-freeing, purginq or inertinq
operations.
Non-ferrous, so called non-sparking, tools are only marginally less likely to give rise to an
incendive spark, and, because of their comparative softness, are not as efficient as their
ferrous equivalents. Particles of concrete, sand or other rock-like substances are likely to
become embedded in the working face or edge of such tools, and can then cause
incendive sparks on impact with ferrous or other hard metals. The use of non-ferrous tools
is therefore not recommended.
2.10 Aluminium
Aluminium equipment should not be dragged or rubbed across steel since it may leave a
smear which, if it is on rusty steel and is subsequently struck, can cause an incendive
spark.
It is therefore recommended that the undersides of aluminium gangways and other heavy
portable aluminium structures be protected with a hard plastic or wooden strip.
2.11 Cathodic Protection Anodes In Cargo Tanks

Magnesium anodes are very likely to produce incendive sparks on impact with rusty steel.
Such anodes must not be fitted in tanks where flammable gases can be present.
Aluminium anodes give raise to incendive sparking on violent impact and should never be
moved to another location without proper supervision. Moreover, as aluminium anodes
could easily be mistaken for zinc anodes and installed in potentially dangerous locations, it
is advisable to restrict their use to permanent ballast tanks.
Zinc anodes do not generate an incendive spark on impact with rusty steel and therefore
are not subject to the above restrictions. The location, securing and type of anode are
subject to approval by the appropriate authorities. Their recommendations should be
observed and inspections made as frequently as possible to check the security of the
anodes and mountings. With the advent of high capacity tank washing machines, anodes
are more liable to physical damage.
2.12 Spontaneous Combustion

Some materials when damp or soaked with oil, especially oil of vegetable origin, are liable
to ignite without

2.13 Auto-Ignition
Petroleum liquids when heated sufficiently will ignite without the application of a naked
flame. This process of auto-ignition is most common where fuel or lubricating oil under
pressure sprays onto a hot surface. It also occurs when oil spills onto lagging, vaporizes
and bursts into flame. Both instances have been responsible for serious engine room fires.
Oil feeder lines require particular attention to avoid oil being sprayed from leaks. Oil
saturated lagging should be removed and personal protected from any re-ignition of
vapours during the process.
2.14 Engine And Boiler Rooms

2.14.1 Combustion Equipment
As a precaution against funnel fires and sparks, burners, tubes, uptakes, exhaust,
manifold and spark
arresters should be maintained in good working condition. If there is a funnel fire or sparks
are emitted from the funnel, the tanker should, if necessary, altercourse as soon as
possible to avoid sparks falling on the tank deck. Any cargo, ballasting or tank cleaning
operations that are taking place must be stopped and all tank openings closed.
2.14.2 Blowing Boiler Tubes

Boiler tubes should be soot blown prior to arrival and after departure from a port. The
officer on bridge watch should be consulted prior to the operation commencing and the
vessel's course altered if necessary. Boiler tubes should not be soot blown when the
vessel is in port.
2.14.3 Cleaning Liquids

It is preferable that cleaning liquids be non-toxic and non-flammable. If flammable liquids
are used, they should have a high flashpoint. Highly volatile liquids such as gasoline or
naphtha should never be used.
Cleaning liquids which are flammable should be kept in closed, unbreakable, correctly
labelled containers and stored in a suitable compartment when not in use.
Cleaning liquids should only be used in places where ventilation is adequate taking into
consideration the volatility of the liquids being used. All such liquids should be stowed and
used in compliance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Direct skin contact with, or the contamination of clothing by, cleaning liquids should be
avoided.
2.14.4 Oil Spillage and Leakage

Oil spillage and leakage in the engine and boiler rooms is not only a fire hazard, but can
also cause slips and falls. Spills and leaks should therefore be avoided. Floor plates
should be kept clean and bilges should be kept free of oil and waste.
2.14.5 Personal Hygiene
In view of the danger to health which may arise from prolonged contact with oil, personal
hygiene is most important. Direct skin contact with oil or with oily clothing should be
avoided.
2.14.6 Bunker Safety

Although residual fuel oil normally has a flashpoint above 60°C, it should be remembered
that it is often stored and managed at temperatures close to, or even above, its flashpoint.
High flashpoint fuels sometimes contain residual quantities of light components which
slowly migrate into vapour spaces after loading, so raising the flammability. It must
therefore never be assumed that the vapour spaces in, and emissions from, bunker tanks
will always be safe simply on account of a high specified flashpoint.
2.15 Cold Weather Precautions

During cold weather the functioning of pressure/vacuum relief valves and high velocity
vents should be checked. It is also possible that humid air vented from a cargo tank may
condense and freeze on gauze screens thus inhibiting ventilation.
On vessels fitted with inert gas systems, care must be taken to maintain the water supply
to the deck water seal, to prevent freezing of static water and to control the heating of such
water to prevent boiling. In addition the pressure/vacuum breaker, if filled with water, must
be protected from freezing by adding glycol.
Precautions should be taken to ensure that the fire main system is kept operational. Steam
operated winches and windlasses should be rotated slowly to avoid damage.
2.16 Entry Into Enclosed Spaces

Because of the possibility of oxygen deficiency, as well as the presence of hydrocarbon or
toxic gas in a cargo tank, cofferdam, double bottom tank or any enclosed space, it is the
master's responsibility to identify such spaces and to establish procedures for safe entry.
Guidance is to be found in Chapter 11.

Personnel should consult the responsible officer to determine whether entry into such
enclosed spaces is permitted. It is the duty of the responsible officer to check the
atmosphere in the compartment, ventilate the space, ensure the appropriate procedures
are followed, ensure the safety of the personnel concerned, and issue an entry permit.
2.17. Pump rooms

2.17.1 General Precautions
Cargo pump rooms, by virtue of their location, design and operation which require the
space to be routinely entered by personnel, constitute a particular hazard and therefore
necessitate special precautions. A pump room contains the largest concentration of cargo
pipelines of any space within the ship and leakage of a volatile product from any part of
this system could lead to the rapid generation of a flammable or toxic atmosphere. The
pump room may also contain a number of potential ignition sources unless formal,
structured maintenance, inspection and monitoring procedures are strictly adhered to.
2.17.2 Routine Maintenance and Housekeeping Issues

Pump room bilges should be kept clean and dry. Particular care should be taken to
prevent the escape of hydrocarbon liquids or vapour into the pump room.
It is important that the integrity of pipelines and pumps is maintained and any leaks are
detected and rectified in a timely fashion. Pipelines should be visually examined and
subjected to routine pressure tests to verify their condition. Other means of non-
destructive testing or examination, such as ultra-sonic wall thickness measurement, may
be considered appropriate, but should always be supplemented by visual examination.
Procedures should be established to verify that mud boxes and filters are properly sealed
after they have been opened up for routine cleaning or examination.
Valve glands and drain cocks should be regularly inspected to ensure that they do not
leak.
Bulkhead penetrations should be routinely checked to ensure their effectiveness.
The security of critical bolts on the cargo pumps and associated fittings, such as pedestal
fixing bolts, pump casing bolts and bolts securing shaft guards, should be ensured. In
addition, requirements for their examination should be included in routine maintenance
procedures.

2.17.3 Ventilation
Because of the potential for the presence of hydrocarbon gas in the pump room, SOLAS
(Chapter II-2, Regulation 59.3) requires the use of mechanical ventilation to maintain the
atmosphere in a safe condition.
The pump room should be continuously ventilated during all cargo operations.
Before anyone enters a pump room it should be thoroughly ventilated, the oxygen content
of the atmosphere should be verified and the atmosphere checked for the presence of
hydrocarbon and toxic gases.
Ventilation should be continuous until access is no longer required or cargo operations
have been completed.
2.17.4 Pump room Entry

It is strongly recommended that operators develop procedures to control pump room entry,
regardless of whether or not a fixed gas detection system is in use. Clear procedures
should be established with regard to undertaking pre-entry checks, gas testing, and
subsequent regular atmosphere monitoring.
In addition to detailing pre-entry checks, procedures should include the use of personal
gas monitors for those entering the space.
A communications system should provide links between the pump room, navigation
bridge, engine room and cargo control room. In addition, audible and visual repeaters for
essential alarm systems, such as the general alarm, should be provided within the pump
room.
Arrangements should be established to enable effective communication to be maintained
at all times between personnel within the pump room and those outside. Regular
communication checks should be made at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond
should be cause
to raise the alarm.
The frequency of pump room entry for routine inspection purposes during cargo operations
should be reviewed with a view to minimizing personnel exposure.
Notices should be displayed at the pump room entrance prohibiting entry without
permission.

2.17.5 Maintenance of Electrical Equipment

The integrity of the protection afforded by the design of explosion proof or intrinsically safe
electrical equipment may be compromised by incorrect maintenance procedures. Even the
simplest of repair and maintenance operations must be carried out in strict compliance
with the manufacturers instructions in order to ensure that such equipment remains in a
safe condition. This is particularly relevant in the case of explosion proof lights where
incorrect closing after simply changing a light bulb could compromise the integrity of the
light.
In order to assist with routine servicing and repair, ships should be provided with detailed
maintenance manuals for the specific systems and arrangements as fitted on board.
2.17.6 Inspection and Maintenance of Ventilation Fans

Pump room ventilation fans are required to operate by drawing air out of the space. As a
consequence, should gas be present in the pump room the vapours will be drawn through
the blades of the fan impeller and could be ignited if the blades contacted the casing or if
the fan's bearings or seals over-heated.
Pump room extractor fans, including impellers, shafts and gas seals, should be inspected
on a regular basis. At the same time, the condition of the fan trucking should be inspected
and the proper operation of change-over flaps and fire dampers confirmed. Routine
vibration monitoring and analysis should be considered as a means for providing early
detection of component wear.
2.17.7 Cargo Draining Procedures

On some existing tankers, no provision is made for effective line draining and, in order to
meet the demands of certain product trades, final line contents are drained to the pump
room bilge. This is an unsafe practice and it is recommended that cargo procedures are
reviewed with the aim of preventing a volatile product being drained to the bilge.
It is recommended that consideration be given to the provision of a comprehensive
stripping arrangement to enable all lines and pumps to be effectively drained to a cargo
tank, slop tank or dedicated reception tank for subsequent discharge ashore.
2.17.8 Miscellaneous
Which operators may wish Manually activated trips for the main cargo pumps provided at
the lower pump room order to reduce

2.3 MSDSS (Material Safety Data Sheet)

Example of MSDS





CHAPTER III
HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND MEASURES
3.1. Function And Proper Use Of Gas-Measuring Instruments And

Similar Equipment
The P-200 series gas detectors are rugged, lightweight, handheld portables for detecting
combustible gases/vapors and monitoring atmospheric oxygen content. Engineered to

serve the demanding field requirements of industrial, public works, utilities, and landfills,
these instruments share many common features and offer the user distinct advantages in
terms of economy, dependability, maintainability and ease of operation. Built to withstand
rough field environments, all Series P-200 instruments are constructed with rugged cast
aluminum housings, and incorporate highly reliable electrical design characteristics. All
active and passive components are mounted on easily accessible printed circuit boards. In
operation, all P-200 instruments are not only easy to use, sharing common functional
characteristics, but they are extraordinarily fast in providing accurate readings. For
combustible indicators, the response time is about 4 seconds, and for oxygen indicators
an
Model GP-204 NP-204 XP-204 XP-204A
Combustible Natural Gas Oxygen Oxygen,
Indicator Detector Deficiency Amplified
Indicator Dual Range
Indicator
Part Number 72-0001RK 72-0004RK 72-0050RK 72-0052RK
Range 0 - 100% LEL 0 - 100% LEL 0 - 25% Vol. 0 - 25% Vol.
0 - 100% Vol. 0 - 5% Vol.
Calibration Methane Methane Oxygen Oxygen
Detection Catalytic Catalytic Combustion Electro-chemical Electro-
Method Combustion (LEL) Sensor chemical
Thermal Conductivity Sensor
(Vol)
Response 4 seconds 4 seconds 6 seconds 6 seconds
Time
Sampling Hand aspirated Hand aspirated Hand aspirated Hand
Method aspirated
Batteries 2 “D” size 2 “D” size 9 volt 9 volt
(Alkaline or Ni-Cad) (Alkaline or Ni-Cad) transistor type transistor
type
Operating 6 6 30 30
Hours
Operating 0 - 120 F 0 - 120 F 10 - 110 F 10 - 110 F
Temperature (-15 to +50 C) (-15 to +50 C) (-12 to +45 C) (-12 to +45 C)
Meter Light Standard Standard N/A N/A
Size 6.5” x 5.3” x 4” 6.5” x 5.3” x 4” 6.5” x 5.3” x 4” 6.5” x 5.3” x
4”
Weight 5 lbs 5 lbs 3 lbs 3 lbs
accurate reading is attained within 6 seconds.
By maximizing the use of common components and operating characteristics, RKI offers
not only high quality field instruments, but has greatly simplified and expedited other very
important considerations, such as field service, personnel training and accessory

interchangeability. The commonality of components can save valuable time when field
service becomes necessary. Fundamental operating features are easy to under-stand and
all components are very accessible for checkout, replacement or repair.
3.1.1. Model GP-204 Portable Combustible Gas Monitor
a. General Description
The model GP-204 HAND HELD PORTABLE COMBUSTIBLE GAS DETECTOR is a
compact battery operated portable instrument used for taking an air sample and indicating
the presence and concentration of combustible gas. Samples of the air under test are
drawn by means or a rubber aspirator bulb and analyzed for combustible gas content on a
heated platinum filament in a Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit. A built-in meter
indicates combustible gas content in units of explosibility. Power for operation or the
instrument is provided by two size "D" alkaline or Ni-Cad batteries. A probe and extension
hose permit withdrawal of samples from remote locations and the instrument fits in a
compact leather case with over the shoulder carrying strap. The model GP-204 is suitable
and recommended for testing tanks, manholes, vessels, pressure cylinders, pipelines, and
other closed systems or confined spaces to determine presence or absence of
combustible gas. It is a valuable aid for safety of operations whenever combustible gases
Vapors are handled.
b. Operation
Before taking instrument on the job, check battery voltage. To check, put switch in VOLT
ADJ position. Meter should rise to the "CHECK" position near top of scale. Lift and turn
VOLT ADJ control clockwise to determine maximum voltage setting. If it cannot be set
beyond mark, batteries need recharging or replacement. Do not attempt to use instrument
at all if voltage reading cannot be set up to mark.
If voltage is satisfactory, continue with the next steps of preliminary adjustment as follows:
- Confirm operation of pilot light/meter illuminating lamp.
- With sample inlet in fresh air, squeeze bulb several times to flush out any remaining
gas.
- Check zero setting by turning switch to ON position. Meter should read close to
zero. Lift and turn ZERO knob to bring reading to exactly 0.
- Couple sampling hose to instrument inlet on left hand end, and connect probe to
end of hose. Hold finger over probe to block flow and squeeze bulb. Bulb should
remain squeezed while finger blocks inlet.

- Admit a sample of some combustible gas to end of probe, and confirm that meter
rises upscale.
- Instrument is adjusted and ready to use. lt may be turned off and carried to the job.
To make a gas test, proceed as follows:

- Turn to VOLT ADJ. position, adjust voltage if necessary, then turn to ON.
- Hold probe within space to be tested. Squeeze bulb several times while watching
meter, and observe maximum reading.
- After completion of test, remove probe from test space, flush with fresh air for 4 or 5
squeezes of bulb, and turn off.
c. Interpretation
Meter readings are taken on a scale graduated 0 - 100% LEL. The abbreviation L.E.L.
stands for Lower Explosive Limit, and represents the lowest concentration, which can be
ignited by a source of ignition, hence the lowest concentration which can produce an
explosion. This quantity is also spoken of as the Lower Flammable Limit (L. F. L.).
The model GP-204 is calibrated before shipment to read directly in percent L.E.L. of
methane in air, based on the known L.E.L. for methane of 5.0% by volume. That is, a 5.0%
by volume will produce a reading of 100%, and smaller concentrations will read in
proportion.
Other combustible gases will read in approximate terms of explosibility. For maximum
accuracy, the unit should be calibrated to the gas intended to be detected.
Concentrations may also be interpreted in terms of volume percent by multiplying the
percent L.E.L. in the sample (determined from the meter reading and the curve) by the
published figure for L.E.L. in volume percent. as noted on the curve. The maximum
concentration allowable in a space where men are working or where welding operations
are carried out is primarily a matter of local regulation and of judgement based on
knowledge of conditions. A maximum reading of l0% or 20% is usually allowed. If 20% is
selected, this is often spoken of as a factor safety of 5, as the concentration must be
increased five times before explosive conditions are reached.
d. Maintenance
 Calibration and Adjustment
In addition to the normal operating controls found on the top panel, the following
auxiliary controls are available.
Calibration Potentiometer
This adjustment is used to set the meter reading to the desired level, while sampling a
known concentration or combustible gas. To access this adjustment, the top plate must
be removed by taking out the screws in each corner. The calibration potentiometer is a
slotted-shaft control located above the right upper corner of meter. Turn clockwise to
increase meter reading.
 Sensor replacement
The sensor assembly consists of an active filament and a similar but enclosed
reference filament, potted into a flame arrestor. It should be replaced if zero cannot be
set within the range of the ZERO ADJ., or if reading cannot be set high enough on a
calibration gas sample using calibration potentiometer. To replace:
- Loosen the two panel hold-down screws. Remove and invert top panel.
- With switch off, loosen (do not remove) the three screws holding the terminals
for red, black and white wires. Pull wires from terminals.
- Remove the four screws holding the rectangular sensor plate. Pull out sensor
and replace with the new one in same position. Check that the gasket is in place
on chamber before installation of new sensor. Install wires on terminals as
before.
- Turn instrument on and adjust zero.
- Recalibrate the new sensor using span gas.
 Batteries
The model GP-204 is furnished with two standard size D batteries, either alkaline or Ni-
Cad. These batteries will give 4 to 5 hours of operating life before replacement or
recharge. When meter cannot be set as high as the "CHECK" line with switch in VOLT
ADJ. position and VOLT ADJ. knob all the way clockwise. batteries require
replacement or recharging.
To replace batteries, remove instrument from leather case, and loosen the coin slotted
captive screw found in center of bottom plate. Remove plate, exposing batteries in
their spring contact holders. Pull old batteries out, and install new ones in the same
position, observing polarity as marked on holder.
 Sample system
1) Hose
The hose used is teflon-lined, synthetic rubber jacketed, and immune to absorption or
attack by any combustible vapors or solvents. Keep hose clean and be sure that

couplings make air tight contact, checking occasionally by holding finger over hose
inlet. Bulb should remain flattened after squeezing if there is no leak. Extension hoses
in various lengths are available.
2) Flame arrestor / Sensor assembly

The active filament is installed within a sintered bronze porous metal cup, which acts
as a flame arrestor to retain explosions that may occur when sampling explosive gas
and air mixtures. The flame arrestor is part of the sensor assembly, which may be
removed by taking out the four screws that hold the sensor plate. If the flame arrestor
is dusty, wet, oily or corroded, it must replaced by replacing the sensor assembly.
Before reinstalling sensor in instrument, be sure that the reaction chamber cavity and
incoming lines are clean and dry.
 Meter lamp
The meter lamp is on whenever the instrument is on, and provides illumination to
permit meter reading in dark places. If lamp fails, it should be replaced as follows:
Remove four screws holding top plate to the top panel. Take off top plate exposing
lamp. Loosen set screws, which lock lamp wires to terminals, and pull lamp out. Install
new lamp in the same position.
e. Precautions And Notes On Operation

 Heated samples
When sampling spaces such as hot tanks that are warmer than the instrument,
remember that condensation can occur as the sample passes through the cool sample
line. Water vapor condensed in this way can block the flow system and corrode the
flame arrestor. A water trap can be used to control this, and is available as an
accessory.
If heated hydrocarbon vapors of the heavier hydrocarbons (flash point 90° F or above)
are present, they may also condense in the sample line and fail to reached the
filament. Thus an erroneous low reading may be obtained.
 Element poisoning
Certain substances have the property of desensitizing the catalytic surface of the
platinum filament. These substances are termed "catalyst poisons" and can result in
reduced sensitivity or in failure to give a reading on samples containing combustible

gas. The most commonly encountered catalyst poisons are silicone vapors, and
samples containing such vapors even in small proportions should be avoided.
Occasional calibration checks on known gas samples are necessary, especially if the
possibility exists of exposure to silicones. A calibration check on a known methane gas
concentration is the most dependable as an indication of normal sensitivity. A
convenient calibration kit is available and described under "Accessories".
 Rich mixtures
When high concentrations of gas are sampled, especially those above the
considerable heat is liberated at the filament. This heat may cause damage to the
filament or tend to shorten its life, so sustained testing of samples beyond the meter
range should be avoided. When sampling rich mixtures, the following instrument action
may be expected:
- Mixtures up to 100% L.E.L. reading on scale.
- Mixtures between L.E.L. and Upper Explosion Limit (U.E.L.) readings at top of
meter.
- Mixtures above U.E.L. - As sampling continues the meter first goes to top of
scale, then comes back down on scale, depending upon concentration.
- Oxygen deficient mixtures
Samples which do not have the normal proportion of oxygen may tend to read
low, if there is not enough oxygen to react with all combustible gas present in
the sample. As a general rule, samples containing 10% oxygen or more have
enough oxygen to give a full reading on any combustible gas sample up to the
L.E.L.
- Oxygen - Enrich mixtures
Sample having more than the normal proportion or oxygen will give a normal reading.
However, they should be avoided because the flame arrestor used is not dense
enough to arrest flames from combustible gas in oxygen, which can be much more
intense than those in air. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO USE THE MODEL GP-204 ON
SAMPLES OF COMBUSTIBLE GAS IN OXYGEN.
Instruments for measurement of oxygen concentration are available from RKI
Instruments Inc.
f. Accessories
 Extension hoses

Additional lengths of hose may be used for sampling from deep tanks and manholes.
The polyurethane hoses are satisfactory for most samples including natural gas,
hydrogen, propane, and gasoline vapors.
 Water trap (Option)
Where there is danger or water being drawn into the instrument, a water trap should be
used. This glass bodied trap with sintered metal filter couples to indicator inlet and will
collect water that is drawn into or condensed in the sample hose. Inspect trap
periodically while in use, and empty or clean bowl and filter whenever visible water or
dust accumulate. Regular sample hoses connect to inlet of trap when it is installed on
instrument.
g. Parts List
The following parts are considered as normal repair or replacement items (Option) and
may be ordered separately, by description and number. Always specify model and serial
number of instrument for which parts and accessories are required. For problems with
parts not listed, write RKI Instruments Inc. for information or request shipping instructions
for return or the instrument for repair.
Part Number Description
30-0401RK Aspirator bulb
49-1140RK Battery, size D, Alkaline
49-1240RK Battery, size D, Ni-Cad
62-0110RK Sensor / flame arrestor assembly
80-0150RK Sampling probe, 10", plastic
80-0001RK Hose, 1 m teflon-lined, complete with couplings
80-0002RK Hose, 2 m teflon-lined, complete with couplings
80-0007RK-10 Hose, 10 ft. polyurethane, complete with couplings
0-0220RK Water trap
81-GP204 Cal Kit for GP-204, 2.5% Methane in Air

CO
3.1.2. CO METER PPM

a. Front Panel Description 26.3 °C
3-1 Display 3-8 Screws for Battery Compartment

3-2 Power Button 3-9 Stand
3-3 Hold Button ( Esc Button ) 3-10 Tripod Fix Nut
3-4 REC Button ( Enter Button )
3-5 Set Button ( A Button ) 3-11 RS-232 Output Terminal
3-6 Alarm Button ( T Button ) 3-12 DC 9V Power Adapter Input Socket
3-7 Battery Compartment/Cover 3-13 Reset button.
3-14 CO Sensing Head
b. Measuring Procedure
 CO measurement
Power on the meter by pressing the " Power Button " ( 3-2, Fig. 1), wait about 30
seconds to warm up the meter, Display ( 3-1, Fig. 1 ) will show the CO value with
the " PPM " unit in the upper display, at the same time the lower display will show
the Temp, value that sensing from the " CO Sensing Head " ( 3-14, Fig. 1 ).
Remark :

* If the measuring environment is not existing the CO value, the upper display
will show 0 to 1 ppm. Under open air environment,
* If Display show few digits CO value, please make the Zero adjustment",
* Response time of CO measurement is < 30 seconds typically, however It is
depend on the environment air circulation.
* The Temp, display unit is defaulted to " t ". If intend to let the meter's
temperature unit default to " °F ".
 CO Alarm Setting
During the CO measurement, press the " Alarm Button " ( 3-6, Fig. ) once, the
display will show the indicator" ALARM " and going on to execute the CO alarm
function. If the measurement value over the " Alarm setting value ", the buzzer will
sound.
* When the Display show the " ALARM " indicator, press the " Alarm Button "
( 3-6, Fig. ) once again, will disable the CO alarm function, the ' ALARM "
indicator on the LCD will be disappeared.
* The procedures of setting the CO alarm value.
 Data Hold
During the measurement, press the " Hold Button " ( 3-3, Fig. ) once will hold the
measured value & the LCD will' display a " HOLD " symbol.
* Press the " Hold Button " once again will release the data hold function.
 Data Record ( Max., Min. reading)

* The data record function records the maximum and minimum readings. Press
the " REC Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) once to start the Data Record function and
there will be a " REC. " symbol on the display.
* With the " REC. " symbol on the display :
- Press the " REC Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) once, the " REC. MAX. " symbol
along with the maximum value ( will appear on the display. If intend to
delete the maximum value, just press the " Hold Button " ( 3-3, Fig. ) once,
then the display will show the " REC. " symbol only & execute the memory
function continuously.

- Press the " REC Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) again, the " REC. MIN." symbol along
with the minimum value will appear on the display. If intend to delete the
minimum value, just press the " Hold Button " ( 3-3, Fig. ) once, then the
display will show the " REC. " symbol only & execute the memory function
continuously.
- To exit the memory record function, just press the " REC " button for 2
seconds at least. The display will revert to the current reading.
c. Advanced Setting
When execute the following Advanced Setting Procedures should cancel the " Hold
function " and the " Record function " first. The display will not show the " HOLD " and the "
REC " indicator
Press the " Set Button " ( 3-5, Fig. ) continuously at least two seconds will enter the "
Advanced Setting ", then press the " Button " ( 3-5, Fig. ) or" Button " ( 3-6, Fig. ) once a
while in sequence to select the three main function, the lower display will show:
PoFF. Auto power ON/OFF management

t-CF Change the Temp °C, °F unit
AL Setting the CO alarm value
 Auto power ON/OFF

When the lower display show " PoFF " :
1. Press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) once, the upper display will show " YES ", use
the " ▲ Button " ( 3-5, Fig. ) or " Button " ( 3-6, Fig. ) to select the upper text to " no
" or " YES ". no - Auto Power Off management will disable.
YES - Auto Power Off management will enable..
2. After select the upper text to " no " or" YES ", press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. )
will save the setting value ( function ) with default.
If before press the " Enter Button ", just press the " ESC Button " ( 3-3, Fig.) will
escape the Advanced Setting procedures without saving the value (function ) into
the circuit memory.
 Change the Temp °C, °F unit

When the lower display show " t-CF " :

1. Press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) once, the upper display will show " C " or" F ",
use the " Button " ( 3-5, Fig. ) or " Button " ( 3-6, Fig. ) to select the upper text to"
C" or" F ".
C - The Temp, unit is °C.
F - The Temp, unit is °F.
2. After select the upper text to " C " or" F ", press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) will
save the setting Temp, unit (°C,°F ) with default.
If before press the " Enter Button ", just press the " ESC Button " ( 3-3, Fig.) will
escape the Advanced Setting procedures without saving the value (function ) into
the circuit memory.
 Setting the CO alarm value

When the lower display show " AL " :
1. Press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. ) once, the upper display will show " CO alarm
value " with PPM unit,use the " Button " ( 3-5, Fig. 1) or "
Button " ( 3-6, Fig. ) to select the " CO alarm value ".
2. After setting the CO alarm value, press the " Enter Button " ( 3-4, Fig. 1) will save
the setting value with default.
If before press the " Enter Button ", just press the " ESC Button " ( 3-3, Fig. 1 ) will
escape the Advanced Setting procedures without saving the alarm value into the
circuit memory.
d. Rs232 Pc Serial Interface

The instrument has RS232 PC serial interface via a 3.5 mm terminal ( 3-11, Fig.).
The data output is a 16 digit stream which can be utilized for user's specific application. A
RS232 lead with the following connection will be required to link the instrument with the
PC serial port.

Meter PC
(3.5 mm jack plug) (9W “D” Connector)
Center Pin……………..Pin 4
Ground/shield…………Pin 2 2.2 K
resister
Pin 5
The 16 digits data stream will be displayed in the following format :
D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D9 D8 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
Each digit indicates the following status :

D15 Start Word = 02
D14 4
D13 When send the upper display data = 1
When send the lower display data = 2

e. Battery Replacement
1. When the left corner of LCD display show " ", it is necessary to replace
the battery. However, in-spec. measurement may still be made for several hours
after low battery indicator appears before the instrument become inaccurate.
2. Loose the " Screws for Battery Compartment" ( 3-8, Fig.) take the " Battery
Cover" ( 3-7, Fig.) away from the instrument and remove the battery.
3. Replace with DC 1.5 V battery ( UM4, AAA, Alkaline/heavy duty ) x 6 PCs, and
reinstate the cover.
4. Make sure the battery cover is secured after changing the battery.
f. Zero Adjustment
Put the meter into the clean air environment ( not contain any CO value ), power on the
meter by pressing the " Power Button " ( 3-2, Fig. ), wait about 30 seconds to warm up the
meter. If the display not show " Zero " CO value, then pressing " Alarm Button " ( 3-6, Fig. )
continuously at least two second will offset the display value and show " 0 PPM ".
* The zero adjustment procedures are effected only existing Display value is within 10
PPM.
g. System Reset
If the meter happen the troubles such as :
CPU system is hold ( for example, the key button can not be operated...).
Then make the system RESET will fix the problem. The system RESET procedures will be
either following method :
During the power on, use a pin to press the " Reset Button " ( 3-13, Fig. ) once a while will
rest the circuit system, After execute the "System reset" the setting value of : Advanced
Setting " will be cleared and return to default value.

h. CO value via Health Information

0 to 1 PPM General environment
9 PPM Max. exposure time : 8 hours
* United States Environmental Protection Agency
35 PPM Max. exposure time : 1 hour
* United States Environmental Protection Agency
50 PPM Max. exposure time : 8 hour
*OSHA
100 PPM Max. exposure : 100 minutes
* Circulation air * UL2034
200 PPM Headache, tired : Two to three hours
Max. exposure : 35 minutes
* UL2034
400 PPM Headache, tired : One to two hours
Harm the life : Three hours
Max. exposure : 15 minutes
* UL2034
800 PPM Headache, tired : 45 minutes Death : Two to three hours.
1600 PPM Death : One hour.
Attention :
* Above health information are for reference only.
* The different age, sex, weight and personal heath condition will get the different
effecting.

3.1.3. OXYGEN METER

a. Front Panel Description
4-1 Display 4-12 02 Cal. button

4-2 Power Off/On button 4-13 MT. ( Mountain Height) button
4-3 Data Hold button 4-14 Battery compartment/cover
4-4 °C / °F button 4-15 Probe input socket
4-5 LCD Contrast Adjust VR 4-16 RS-232 input terminal
4-6 Memory record button 4-17 Oxygen Probe handle
4-7 Memory call button 4-18 Temperature sensor
4-8 Factor Adj. button 4-19 Probe head with diaphragm
4-9 Zero button 4-20 Protection cover for probe head
4-10 % Salt button 4-21 Oxygen probe plug
4-11 DO/02 selector
b. Measuring Procedure
 Calibration
Before the measurement, the meter should be processed the following calibration
procedures:
1) Disconnect the " OXYGEN PROBE plug " ( 4-21, Fig. ) from the " Probe input
socket" ( 4-15, Fig. ).

2) Power on the instrument by pushing the " Power Off/On button " ( 4-2, Fig. ).
3) Slide the " 02/DO selector" ( 4-11, Fig. ) to the " 02 " position.
4) Push the " Zero button " ( 4-9, Fig. ) and the display will show zero value.
5) Connect the " Oxygen probe plug " ( 4-21, Fig. ) with the " Probe input socket" (
4-15, Fig. ). Wait for approx. 5 minutes at least until the display reading values
become stable & no fluctuation. Push the " 02 Cal. button " ( 4-12, Fig. ) and
the display will show the values exactly same as 20.9 or 20.8. (As the oxygen in
air is 20.9 % typically, so use the environment air 02 value for quick & precise
calibration).
Calibartion Consideration :
Please process calibration procedures under wide and ventilating environment for
best effect.
c. Dissolved Oxygen ( DO) measurement
1) After the meter be calibrated ( above procedure 5-1 ), the meter is ready for DO
measurement.
2) Slide the " 02/DO selector " ( 4-11, Fig. ) to the " DO position.
3)"% Salt" compensation of the probe :
a. Push the " % Salt button " ( 4-10, Fig. ) first, and the display will show. :
0 %
S
b. Push the " Factor Adj. button " ( 4-8, Fig. 1 ) once will add " 1 % " to the
original salt % value until the adjusting reading reach the desired salt values.
Then push the " % Salt button " ( 4-10, Fig. 1 ) again to finish the adjusting
procedures. At this moment the new % salt values will be executed.
c. If the measured liquid is the pure water or the factor of salt % can be
neglected, then adjust % salt compensation value to 0%.
4) "Height" compensation of the probe : Bear in mind that the DO measurement
is considered to be taken at sea level. However if the measuring environment is
not at sea level ( 0 meter ), then should adjust the " Height " values for the probe
compensation when make the DO measurement.
a. Push the " MT ( Height) button " ( 5-13, Fig. ) first, then the display will show

0
H
b. Push the " Factor Adj. button " ( 4-8, Fig. ) once will add " 100 meters " to the
original height values until the adjusting reading reach the desired height
values ( meters ). Then push the " MT ( Height) button " (4-13, Fig.) again to
finish the adjusting procedures. At this moment the new height values
(display unit is the " meters ") will be executed.
5) a. Immersed the probe to a depth at least 10 cm of the measured liquid in order

for the probe to be influenced by the temperature & automatic temperature
compensation to take place.
b. As for the thermal equilibrium to occur between the probe & the measurement
sample must be allowed to pass, which usually amounts to a few minutes if
the Temp, difference between the two is only several Celsius degrees.
6) a. In order to measure the dissolved oxygen content in any given liquid, it is

sufficient to immerse the tip of the probe in the solution, making sure that
velocity of the liquid coming into contact with the probe is at least 0.2 - 0.3
m/s or to shake the probe.
b. During laboratory measurements, the use of a magnetic agitator to ensure a
certain velocity in the fluid is recommended. In this way, errors due to the
diffusion of the oxygen present in the air in the solution are reduced to a
minimum.
7) Rinsed the probe accurately with normal tap water after each series of
measurement.
d. Oxygen in Air ( 02 ) measurement

1) After the meter be calibrated ( above procedure 5-1 ), now the meter is ready for
02 measurement.
2) Slide the " 02/DO selector" ( 4-11, Fig. ) to the " 02 " position.
3) The display will show the air oxygen in % values.
e. Temperature measurement

During the measurement, the lower LCD Display will show the temperature values of
measuring solution.
* Push the " °C/°F button " ( 4-4, Fig. ) once to select measuring unit in °C or °F.
f. Data Hold
During the measurement, Push the " Data Hold button " ( 4-3, Fig. ) will hold the display
values & LCD will show the " D.H " marker.
* Push the " Data Hold button " again will exit the data hold function.
g. Data Record( Max., Min., Average reading)

* The DATA RECORD function displays the maximum, minimum and average
readings. To start the DATA RECORD function, press the " Memory Record
button " ( 4-6, Fig. 1 ) once. " REC " symbol will appear on the LCD display.
* With the " REC " symbol on the display :
(a) Push the " Memory CALL button " ( 4-7, Fig. 1 ) once, the " Max " symbol along
with the maximum value will appear on the display.
(b) Push the " Memory CALL button " again, the " Min " symbol along with the
minimum value will appear on the display.
(c) Push the " Memory CALL button " again, the " AVG " symbol along with the
average value will appear on the display.
(d)To exit the memory record function, push the " RECORD " button once again. The
display will revert back to the current reading.
h. Quick operation procedures:
Calibration procedures
Power on, slide the " DO/02 selector " to " 02 " position
Disconnect the probe from the meter. Push the " Zero button ", display will show
zero
Connect the probe to the meter. Until the display reading reach the stable values
( approx. 5 minutes ). Push the " 02 Cal. " position, then display will show 20.9.

Dissolved Oxygen ( DO ) measurement procedures
Power on, after calibration procedures be executed.
Slide the " DO/02 selector " to " DO " position
Determine the " % Salt" & " Height" values.

* For the general application, it is not necessary to make the adjustment for the "
% salt" & " Height" values.
Immerse the probe head into the measured liquid.
Other Function :
DATA HOLD MEMORY RECORD RS232 Output

Max., Min., AVG
Power Management
AUTO POWER OFF or MANUAL POWER OFF
Not available in
Memory Record function

Besides the risk of fire and explosion that we have already discussed, two basic dangers
lurk inside empty cargo tanks : 1) gassing – caused by breathing poisonous hydrocarbon
vapors and 2) asphyxiation-caused by lack oxygen.
Gassing.
Petroleum vapors are poisonous. Even low concentrations can kill a human being in
minutes. The gassing victim first feels a slight dizziness, followed by a mild elation. He
quickly loses his sense of smell, begins to feel drunk, slurs his speech, staggers, becomes
increasingly confused, loses consciousness, and—unless removed to fresh air in short
order— dies.

This all happens very quickly. Some gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, can render a person
unconscious after two or three inhalations. Hydrogen sulfide, which is found in Arabian
crude and other so-called "sour" crudes, is characterized by a "rotten egg" odor in small
concentrations. However, in higher concentrations it has virtually no odor, because
Fig. 9-18. Both man and machine are dwarfed by the dimensions of a modern cargo tank.
Salen & Wicander.
hydrogen sulfide, like all hydrocarbon vapors, quickly deadens the sense of smell.

Before entering a tank, always check the vapor content with a combustible gas indicator
(figs. 9-19 and 9-24). The indicator draws a sample of the tank atmosphere by means of a
"sniffer" attached to a long tube.
This sample should be taken close to the bottom of the tank, where petroleum vapors
Fig. 9-19. Combustible gas indicator (Explosimeter). The readout

indicates the amount of hydrocarbon vapor as a percentage of the
lower explosive limit. (Note that this model is not designed for use in
oxygen-deficient atmospheres.) Mine Safety Appliances.
(which are heavier than air) are most likely to accumulate. Concentrations of vapor should
also be suspected near bell-mouths, corners, beam faces, and puddles of oil or sludge.
Combustible gas indicators are designed to detect explosive concentrations of vapor.
However, petroleum vapors are poisonous in concentrations well below the lower
explosive limit (the L.E.L., about 1 to 2 percent for most products).
Therefore, the slightest movement of the needle indicates an unsafe condition.
Important notes on combustible gas indicators follow.
1. They detect vapor at the point of the sample only. Pockets of vapor may be present in
other parts of the tank.
2. Some models do not work properly in oxygen-deficient atmospheres. They may
indicate a safe condition when, in fact, a high concentration of vapor is present along
with a deficiency of oxygen. Therefore, always test with an oxygen indicator before
entering a tank.
Tanks should be retested at frequent intervals, hourly if necessary, while crew members
are working inside. In addition, tanks must be ventilated continuously while crew members
are below.

Muck, sludge, and scale give off vapors which can quickly gas up a tank. Crew members
walking through puddles of oil or sludge may accelerate this process. Leaky fittings such
as pipelines, valves, and heating coils can also introduce vapors. If you suspect a tank is
gassing up, get out immediately. But remember don't, rely on your nose for warning.
After working in the tanks, it is not uncommon for crew members' boots and clothing to be
covered with oil and sludge. It is important that crew members not store this oily clothing in
their quarters or other living spaces.
Vapors given off by such clothing can be a serious health hazard, particularly in a small
room with poor ventilation. Furthermore, the risk of fire-even explosion-is all too real,
especially if crew members smoke. Oily clothing should therefore be laundered promptly
and kept out of living quarters in the meantime.
As a final note on gassing, it is important to understand that a crew member can be
gassed even while wearing a breathing apparatus. This has happened more than once
after someone has gone into a partially full tank to fix a piece of equipment, such as a
broken reach rod. Needless to say, a person who passes out and falls into a tank full of
cargo is in a very bad place indeed. Therefore, the foolish practice of entering tanks with
cargo in them should never be allowed.
Asphyxiation.
Human beings quickly perish without oxygen. A compartment containing less than 21
percent oxygen by volume is unsafe.
Permanent ballast tanks, cofferdams, chain lockers, peak tanks, and other sealed spaces
may become deficient in oxygen as a result of the rusting process, which consumes
oxygen.

Fig. 9-20. Oxygen indicator. Mine Safety

Appliances.
Tanks that have been inerted are especially dangerous. They should be thoroughly
ventilated and tested with an oxygen indicator before entering. Any reading under 21
percent oxygen is unsafe. Always use extreme caution when entering a tank. Pockets of
inert gas and hydrocarbon vapors may still be present.
Precautions.
The following precautions should be observed when entering tanks:
1. Check for petroleum vapors before entering. Don't rely on smell; use an Explosimeter or
similar device. The slightest movement of the needle denotes an unsafe atmosphere.
2. Make sure oxygen content is adequate (21 percent).
3. Operate blowers continuously while crew members are below.
4. Have rescue equipment close by the tank entrance and ready for immediate use.
5. Assign somebody to remain topside and keep an eye on workers below. Should trouble
develop in the tank, his job is to sound the alarm first, before attempting a rescue.
6. If at any time while working in a tank you begin to feel dizzy or giddy, leave the space
immediately. Have other crew members do the same.

RESCUE
The following equipment should be available for tank and pump room rescues: 1) lifeline,
2) harness, 3) large tripod or similar device from which to rig the lifeline, and 4) self-
contained breathing apparatus.
The pump room is the most frequent source of gassing accidents. One set of equipment
should therefore be kept at the top of the pump room at all times. Another set should be
available for tank rescues.
Practice using the rescue equipment before you run into an emergency. When one of your
shipmates passes out in a tank or pump room, seconds count. Don't waste them reading
instructions on the breathing apparatus or trying to figure out how to rig the lifeline. Learn
these things beforehand. Speed is essential. If the victim remains below longer than 4 to 6
minutes, he will suffer brain damage and, in all probability, death. Four minutes is not
much time. Even a well-trained rescue team working with good equipment laid out ahead
of time (not always the practice, unfortunately) may have only a poor chance of success.
The situation is particularly bleak on VLCCs. A person climbing around in a VLCC center
tank is little more conspicuous than a flea and, if unconscious, just as hard to find. Noel
Mostert paints an apt picture in his book, Supership:
... to reach someone lying in the remoter regions of the tank, lost from sight and with only
a rough idea where he might be, was tantamount, surely, to being told atop the dome of a
darkened Gothic cathedral to descend an eight-een-inch-wide stairway pinned to its walls
and buttresses and to find somewhere at the bottom among the naves, bays, chapels,
colonnades, and apses a senseless form that had to be brought aloft, all within four
minutes.
The breathing apparatus is an essential part of any rescue; don't go down without one. To
illustrate: try climbing out of a tank sometime while holding your breath; then imagine what
it would be like with a 200-pound man on your back. It would be virtually impossible. You
would have to breathe and, in all likelihood, would also succumb to the vapors. Don't try to
be a hero. Too many people have died that way.

Along the same lines, don't remove your air mask to give air to the victim unless an
unavoidable delay makes it necessary. The important thing is to get him out quickly.
Fig. 9-21. Proper method of making a pumproom rescue. Speed is

essential in both pumproom and tank rescues: The victim must be
removed to fresh air within 4 to 6 minutes to prevent permanent brain
damage or death. U.S. Coast Guard.

Fig. 9-22. The compressed air type of breathing apparatus has

become increasingly popular on tankers. It is fast and simple to use.
Mine Safety Appliances.
Check the victim's pulse and breathing as soon as you are clear of the tank. If his heart
has stopped or if he has stopped breathing, administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation
immediately. When he begins breathing on his own, have him lie face downward with his
head slightly downhill if possible. This position will prevent him from gagging if he vomits. It
will also keep his lungs clear and minimize the chance of pneumonia

Fig. 9-23. Compressed air breathing apparatus, shown with spare tank. It is important to
learn how to use the breathing apparatus before an emergency occurs. During an
emergency, such as the gassing of a crew member, speed is essential. Mine Safety
Appliances.

Fig. 9-24. The Gascope combustible gas indicator is used in oxygen-deficient atmo-
spheres. The readout indicates total percentage of hydrocarbon vapor present (as
opposed to the Explosimeter, which indicates vapor as a percentage of the lower
explosive limit). This model features an electric pump, which replaces the aspirator bulb
used on the older model (Tankscope). Mine Safety Appliances.
3.2 Proper Use Of Safety Equipment And Protective Devices
Equipment Fire Safety Officer.
(Fire Fighter Outlift)

In carrying out the fire extinguishers are required in addition to the tools as well, and in
accordance with advances in firefighting technology at this time produced a lot of tools,
each of which has specific uses. As well as many countries and many factories that
manufacture these tools, then a variety of purposes in an effort to cope with fires are met,
and in a variety of types, each of which has certain advantages: In essence, the kinds of
supplementary aids firefighters consist of:
Breathing apparatus (Breathing apparatus)
A. Flame resistant clothing and equipment, such as shoes, helmets, goggles, safety
gloves, and so forth.
2. Rope and seat belt
3. Safety nets
4. safety lights
5. Ax, ganco, large insulated scissors and so on
Especially for the amount and kinds of ships that have the tools on board has been
determined based on the requirements of international regulations (contained in the
SOLAS: Safety Of Life At Sea), as well as national laws of the field of transportation /
shipping. Determined according to the number and kinds of small-ship and ship types. For
example, auxiliary equipment in the firefighting tankers different to ship goods or
passengers. Therefore it is very good when each crew knows what it really means to be
prepared in the vessel. Thus they are partly responsible for her safety, ships, goods and

passengers. Besides, a company owned and employ them must comply with the
provisions that should be, and thus safety factor is really guaranteed.
a. Fire Resistant Clothing And equipment
To witstand for heat, firefighters must wear fireproof clothing and equipment:
helmet, protective mask (mask), gloves and boots for the fire extinguisher.
Headgear (helmet) made of materials "reinforcedplastic" which has the properties of
heat resistant, strong and lightweight. At the front there for a protective glass front,
so as to protect the eyes from heat or sparks. Being made of fire resistant clothing
materials "alumix" who have the ability
1)Having the power of preventing heat / fire resistant which is great.
2) to reflect the heat, so that the wearer is protected from radiant heat from the fire.
3) Very light, so as to have a resilient nature / strong
For firefighters who will perform the fire fighting wearing apparel at ¬ kit, the need to pay
attention not to bring / bagging materials that are flammable, such as lighters, because it
can be dangerous for him. Although it had been wearing fireproof gear, the heat is
sometimes still occur, if in a conflagration in which the sting of a very high heat. Therefore,
the fire fighters must consider the factor of safety
b. (Breathing Aparatus)
Fire FightingEquipment
One of the things that are important in a good fire suppression, which in this case in the
most important thing is to reduce the damage caused by fire, if possible for a human, is

to find the scene of the fire. The fire can deplete oxygen in the air, or toxic gas release
or cause disease. Things like this often happens in a fire on board, and therefore the
use of respiratory equipment (breathing apparatus) become important. These
extinguishers are divided into two categories Atmospheric, depending on the
1). atmosphere for air supply
2. Self containde (with himself), bringing his own air supply
Atmospheric type consists of three types, namely:

(1) Antipoys
(2) Smoke helmets and masks (helmet and smoke mask)
(3) mask breathing apparatus for the gas industry. ■
Antipoys, consisting of:
1) the type of respirator masks
2) withdrawal valves and exhalation
3) rectifier tube, the reservoir
4) distance 90 feet
5) filter on the air supply tube should be on air
6) Supply air depends on the movement of the lungs user.
■ Smoke helmets and masks ,
consists of:
1) a reinforced air tube 60 feet long (up to 120 feet)
2) Pied wind (Bellows) or air compressor to supply .
3) Rope rescue (lift line) the heart / center is a 130 foot long wire Antipoys advantage of
using and Smoke helmets and masks are:
4) the use is not limited
5) Cooling
6) Personnel who operate do not require knowledge of the overly
7) Care and maintenance
8) How to test
9) the air is always in a pressure sufficient to mask the origin of the pump speed is kept
Mask and breathing equipment for industrial gas

All usage of this type depends on sufficient oxygen in the air. Only be used in air
containing toxic gases only. Can not be used in smoke-filled air. Instructions for care and
pemeliharaan.
1. Check whether the ring-ring is in place or already aus/rusak.
2. Storage areas, must be clean, dry and terventilasi.
3. When wet after use, keringkan/jemur.
4. Protect the screw-threaded coupling
Type self-contained.
Compress air; all cylindrical, gray with black and white shoulder. Katubnya systems differ
slightly, but its operation is essentially the same. Use of onboard equipment required for
sound warnings on the cylindrical compress the air. Must be considered truly the
instructions given in the booklet provided by the manufacturer.
Siebe Gorman "Airmaster": consists of: The device compresses the air industry types.
The series of air-breathing exhaust that opens to the atmosphere. Single cylinder. Air
contains as much as 42 cubic feet (1240 liters). In the full state of the pressure is 132
atmospheres, or 1980 lbs per square inch
Power-operated valves.
1. The main valve
2. By-pass valve
Automatic valves
1. Regulating valve (reducing), regulate the flow of air pressure 80 psi
2. Demand valve, the air entering the mask only when breathing alone.
3. Withdrawal valve breather.
4. Breathing exhaust valves.
How To Operate
Filled with a demand valve mask. Partial vacuum to suck the breath at times can lead to
liver diaphragn press. Air with a pressure of 80 psi. Will lift the valve so that air can flow to
the user. A small spring valve will close again after each drawing breath.
Breath time: In accordance with the manufacturer.

1. Work is in - 60 minutes
2. Hard work - 26 minutes
Record the time factor this fall, and remember that all fire fighting is hard work.
automatic valve
1. Regulating valve (reducing), regulate the flow of air pressure 80 psi
2. Demand valve, the air entering the mask only when breathing alone.
3. Withdrawal valve breather.
4. Breathing exhaust valves.
How to operate
Filled with a demand valve mask. Partial vacuum to suck the breath at times can lead to
liver diaphragn press. Air with a pressure of 80 psi. Will lift the valve so that air can flow to
the user. A small spring valve will close again after each drawing breath.
Breath time: In accordance with the manufacturer.

A. Work is in - 60 minutes
2. Hard work - 26 minutes
Record the time factor this fall, and remember that all fire fighting is hard work.
How to test
■ Check the by pass valve is closed
■ The book full of main valve - each alert will sound when the needle up through the low-
level indicators are red.
■ Read the gauge.
■ Put the mask on the face, anchovies and blowing a deep breath to check whether the
demand valves, discharge and withdrawal of breath work well.
■ Remove the pressure.
■ Clean the glass mask with anti-condensation material. Procedures for use
You do what is described above, then put on the plane. Adjust the strap so that the plane
was comfortable to wear. Put the mask loop straps to the back of the head. Open the main
valve to the full. Put your mask on first and then tighten the chin strap from the bottom up
and test kekedapan air by closing the main valve and breathing for a moment. If the mask
is airtight terpesan with, then the mask will be attracted prominent.
If everything is done correctly, the work can be carried out until the pressure reading or

flute sounds indicate the time to return to fresh air. Read the gauge in each period of
regular (regular intervals). Careful calculation must be made on the time used to achieve
the objectives and sufficient time back into the fresh air.
If you experience difficulty breathing, or smoke / gas into the mask, or damage to the
equipment, return quickly to fresh air. By-pass valve is only used in emergencies only.
Usually this is always closed, but in case of difficulty in breathing slowly open so that
channeled fresh air for comfortable breathing. Remember that if the by-pass valve is
opened the air flow remains to be a waste of air, therefore the valve is opened only as
needed.
Note I: The tool is designed to protect the respiratory organs of breathing in air that can
not , hot and humid. This tool does not warrant the use of excessive heat. Someone could
have collapsed from heat; same tool wear quickly if he is or not. Therefore we must use all
the theory given in extinguishing the fire.
Exercise should be performed as often as possible so that personnel familiar with the use
of existing types of equipment on board, and also that he felt more confident in yourself if it
should work in an emergency.
Note II: The cylinder-cylinder newer type has a larger capacity (approximately 3000 psi). It
is stamped on the cylinder with black writing. The numbers on the basis of the color yellow
and stamped with fade resistant ink on the neck of the cylinder
Safety Equipment
There are two kinds of protective equipment / safety, that is for machinery and power tools
These tools are provided by the factory to the workers (personal safety equipment) in
order to protect workers from hazards that may happen at any time in the running task.
Means of protective / safety are:
• Tools protective skull
• The tools to face and eye protection
• Tools protective agency
• Tools protective agency
• Protective Equipment limbs (arms and legs)
• Respiratory Protective Equipment
• To Tools hearing protectors
• drowning prevention equipment

Usefulness of safety equipment

Safety Equipment function
1. Safety Helmet Protective shell and the head of tertumbuknya from

falling objects
2. Spray sand cap helmet Sprayed with sand or a job working in a tank by
means of a rope / line helper.
3. Welding hood / Hand-held Protective face and eyes when welding power
4. Kap welding head Face shield, eye and skull with an electric welding
time.
5. faceguard a. Carbide and electric welding

b. Forge, pouring and other hot work.
6. eye protection Sharpening, hack, working with chemical ingredients.
7. Eye weld Gas welding with carbide

8. Eye glass rubber Working with the dust
9. Safety glasses Paint work, hacking of concrete
10. Eye protective mask Honing, hacking (especially for those who wear
glasses).
11. Leather upholstery las chest a. Carbide and electric welding
b. Forge, pouring and other hot work.
12. Chest black rubber coating
13. Chest of a white rubber a. Work on installation of TEL.
coating
b. Cleaning tanks containing gasoline TEL.
14. Gloves for light work Hot work,, swelled the pipes, open the steam valve
closed yarig heat and so on
15. Cloth gloves The dirty work so light brazing, paint spray paint
16 Gloves for light work a.Lightweight construction work •
b.Work light •
17. For heavy work gloves a. Heavy transport workers

b. Working with a bold and also for the stoker
18. Welding gloves Electric and gas welding carbide
19 Rubber gloves a. Working with chemical ingredients.
b. Working with the gross fat
20. White rubber gloves .Work on installation of TEL
b. Cleaning tanks containing gasoline TEL
21. Protective sleeve of skin Electric welding carbide
22. Long rubber boots a. Chemicals (acid salt, soda and sulfuric acid, etc.)
b. Components of crude oil (gasoline, oil and gas)

c. Employment land and other dirty work

24. Safety shoes To protect your feet
25. Long rubber boots and white a. Working in the uninstall TEL
b. Cleaning tanks containing gasoline TEL

26. Length of black rubber boots earthwork
to the thighs
27. leather gaiters Electric welding, carbide,
28. Black gas mask Used with the canister-canister in the outside air at all
times should not be in the tank
Canister SH untuk CO2
" CC " Organik
" A " Ammoniak
" GG " Cloor
" D " CO
29. White Gas MAsk Outside air is used in the installation of TEL with
Canister CC.
30. Bloman Mask Clean tanks that have not been free from gas, to help
work and comes with a lifeline and continues to
provide clean air.
31. Air Mask To help job, blow out, etc
32. Retaining dust mask
33. Retaining dust mask
34. Gas masks for materials
35. Safety belt
37. scraper
38 Ear plugs Used to reduce high-pitched voice or loud.
39 Life jacket Worn by workers on duty at the water sea, where the
use of safety belt may not be used
3.3 Safe Working Practices And Procedures In Accordance With

Legislation And Industry Guidelines And Personal Shipboard
Safety Relevant To Oil And Chemical Tankers

3.3.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

In order to eliminate the risk of fire and explosion on a tanker, it is necessary to avoid a
source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being present in the same place at the
same time. It is not always possible to exclude both these factors and precautions are
therefore directed towards excluding or controlling one of them. In the case of cargo
compartments, pump rooms, and at times the tank deck, flammable gases are to be
expected and the strict elimination of all possible sources of ignition in these locations is
essential. Cabins, galleys and other areas within the accommodation block inevitably
contain ignition sources such as electrical equipment, matches and cigarette lighters.
While it is sound practice to minimize and control such sources of ignition, it is essential to
avoid the entry of flammable gas.
In engine and boiler rooms, ignition sources such as those arising from boiler operations
and electrical equipment cannot be avoided. It is therefore essential to prevent the entry of
flammable gases into such compartments. The contamination of bunker fuel by volatile
cargo through bulkhead leaks, pipeline mixture or any other cause will introduce an
additional danger. The routine checking of bunker spaces for flammability by tanker and
terminal personnel is therefore to be encouraged. It is possible, by good design and
operational practice, for both flammable gases and ignition sources to be safely controlled
in deck workshops, store rooms, forecastle, centre castle, dry cargo holds etc. The means
for such control must, however, be rigorously maintained. In this connection it should be
realized that an additional danger would be introduced into such areas by the
contamination of bunker tanks with volatile cargo.
3.3.2. SMOKING AND NAKED LIGHTS

 Smoking at Sea
While a tanker is at sea, smoking should be permitted only at times and in places specified
by the master. Section 4.8.2 lists criteria which should be taken into account in
determining the location of smoking places. Smoking must be prohibited on the tank deck
or any other place where petroleum gas may be encountered.
 Matches and Cigarette Lighters
The use of matches and cigarette lighters outside accommodation spaces should be
prohibited, except in places where smoking is permitted. Matches and cigarette lighters

should not be taken outside these places by personnel, nor should they be carried on the
tank deck or in any other place where petroleum gas may be encountered.
The risk involved in carrying matches, and more particularly cigarette lighters, should be
impressed on all personnel. Matches used on board should only be of the 'safety' type.
 Naked Lights (Open Flame)
Naked lights must be prohibited on the tank deck and in any other place where there is a
risk that petroleum gas may be present.
 Notices
Portable and permanent notices prohibiting smoking and the use of naked lights should be
conspicuously displayed at the point of access to the vessel and at the exits from the
accommodation area. Within the accommodation area, instructions concerning smoking
should be conspicuously displayed.
3.3.3. GALLEY
It is essential that galley personnel be instructed in the safe operation of galley equipment.
Unauthorised and inexperienced persons should not be allowed to use such facilities.
A frequent cause of fires is the accumulation of unburnt fuel or fatty deposits in galley
ranges, within flue pipes and filter cowls of galley vents. Such areas require frequent
inspection to ensure that they are maintained in a clean condition. Oil and deep fat friers
should be fitted with thermostats to cut off the electrical power and so prevent accidental
fires.
Galley staff should be trained in handling fire emergencies. The appropriate fire
extinguishers and fire blankets should be provided.
3.3.4. PORTABLE LAMPS AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

 General
All portable electrical equipment including lamps should be approved by a competent
authority and must be carefully examined for possible defects before being used. Special
care should be taken to ensure that the insulation is undamaged and that cables are
securely attached and will remain so while the equipment is in use. Special care should
also be taken to prevent mechanical damage to flexible cables (wandering leads).
 Lamps and Other Electrical Equipment on Flexible Cables (Wandering Leads)

The use of portable electrical equipment on wandering leads should be prohibited within
cargo tanks and adjacent spaces, or over the tank deck, unless throughout the period the
equipment is in use:
- The compartment within which or over which the equipment and the lead are to
be used is safe for hot work (see Section 2.8), and
- The adjacent compartments are also safe for hot work, or have been purged of
hydrocarbon to less than 2% by volume and inerted, or are completely filled with
ballast water, or any combination of these, (see Section 2.8) and
- All tank openings to other compartments not safe for hot work or purged as
previous point are closed and remain so; or
- The equipment, including all wandering leads, is intrinsically safe; or
- The equipment, is contained within an approved explosion-proof housing. Any
flexible cables should be of a type approved for extra hard usage, have an earth
conductor, and be permanently attached to the explosion-proof housing in an
approved manner.
In addition there are certain types of equipment which are approved for use over the tank
deck only. The foregoing does not apply to the proper use of flexible cables used with
signal or navigation lights or with approved types of telephones.
 Air Driven Lamps
Air driven lamps of an approved type may be used In non-gas free atmospheres although,
to avoid the accumulation of static electricity at the appliance, the following precautions
should be observed:
- The air supply should be fitted with a water trap; and
- The supply hose should be of a low electrical resistance. Permanently installed
units should be earthed.
 Flashlights (Torches), Lamps and Portable Battery Powered Equipment

Only flashlights that have been approved by a competent authority for use in flammable
atmospheres must be used on board tankers.
UHFA/HF portable transceivers must be of an intrinsically safe type.
Small battery powered personal items such as watches, miniature hearing aids and heart
pacemakers are not significant ignition sources.
Unless approved for use in a flammable atmosphere, portable radios, tape recorders,
electronic calculators, cameras containing batteries, photographic flash units, portable

telephones and radio pagers must not be used on the tank deck or in areas where
flammable gas may be present.
3.3.5. FIXED ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Fixed electrical equipment in dangerous areas, and even in locations where a flammable
atmosphere is to be expected infrequently, must be of an approved type and be properly
maintained so as to ensure that neither the equipment nor the wiring becomes a sources
of ignition.
3.3.6. SYNTHETIC CLOTHING

Experience has shown that clothing made from synthetic material does not give rise to any
significant electrostatic hazard under conditions normally encountered on tankers.
However, the tendency for synthetic material to melt and fuse together when exposed to
high temperatures leads to a concentrated heat source which causes severe damage to
body tissue. Clothing made of such material is therefore not considered suitable for
persons who may in the course of their duties be exposed to flame or hot surfaces.
3.3.7. RADIO TRANSMITTING ANTENNAE

During medium and high frequency radio transmission (300 kHz - 30 MHz), significant
energy is radiated which can, at distances extending to 500 metres from the transmitting
antennae induce an electrical potential in unearthed 'receivers' (derricks, rigging, mast
stays etc.) capable of producing an incendive discharge. Transmissions can also cause
arcing over the surface of antenna insulators when they have a surface coating of salt, dirt
or water. It is therefore recommended that:
 All stays, derricks, and fittings should be earthed. Bearings of booms should be
treated with a graphite grease to maintain electrical continuity.
 Transmissions should not be permitted during periods when there is likely to be a
flammable gas in the region of the transmitting antennae.
Low energy transmissions, such as are used for satellite and VHF communications, do not
produce the same sources of ignition.

3.3.8. HOT WORK

 General
Hot work is any work involving welding or burning, and other work including certain drilling
and grinding operations, electrical work and the use of non-intrinsically safe electrical
equipment, which might produce an incendive spark.
Hot work outside the main machinery spaces (and in the main machinery spaces when
associated with fuel tanks and fuel pipelines) must take into account the possible presence
of hydrocarbon vapours in the atmosphere, and the existence of potential ignition sources.
Hot work should only be carried out outside the main machinery spaces if no other viable
means of repair exists. Alternatives to be considered include cold work, or removal of the
work piece to the main machinery spaces. Hot work outside the main machinery spaces
should only be permitted in accordance with prevailing national or international regulations
and/or port/terminal requirements and should be subject to the restrictions of a shipboard
hot work permit procedure. Hot work for which a hot work permit is required should be
prohibited during cargo, ballast, tank cleaning, gas freeing, purging or inerting operations.
 Assessment of Hot Work
The master should decide whether the hot work is justifiable, and safe, and on the extent
of the precautions necessary. Hot work in areas outside the main machinery spaces and
other areas designated by the operator should not be proceeded with until the master has
informed the operator's shore office of details of the work proposed, and a procedure has
been discussed and agreed.
Before hot work is started a safety meeting under the chairmanship of the master should
be held, at which the planned work and the safety precautions should be carefully
reviewed. The meeting should be attended at least by all those who will have
responsibilities in connection with the work. An agreed plan for the work and the related
safety precautions should be made. The plan must clearly and unambiguously designate
one officer who is responsible for the supervision of the work, and another officer who is
responsible for safety precautions including means of communication between all parties
involved. All personnel involved in the preparations and in the hot work operation, must be
briefed and instructed in their own role. They must clearly understand which officer is
responsible for work supervision and which for safety precautions. A written hot work
permit (see Appendix F) should be issued for each intended task. The permit should
specify the duration of validity, which should not exceed a working day.
 Preparations for Hot Work

All operations utilizing the cargo or ballast system, including tank cleaning, gas freeing,
purging or inserting should be stopped before hot work is undertaken, and throughout the
duration of the hot work. If hot work is interrupted to permit pumping of ballast or other
operations using the cargo, venting or inserting system, hot work should not be re-started
until all precautions have been re-checked, and a new hot work permit has been issued.
No hot work should be carried out on bulkheads of bunker tanks containing bunkers, or
within 0.5 metres from such bulkheads.
 Hot Work in Enclosed Spaces
A compartment in which hot work is to be undertaken should be cleaned and ventilated
until tests of the atmosphere indicate 21 % oxygen content by volume and not more than 1
% LFL. It is important to continue ventilation during hot work. Adjacent cargo tanks,
including diagonally positioned cargo tanks, should either have been cleaned and gas
freed to hot work standard, or cleaned and hydrocarbon vapour content reduced to not
more than 1 % by volume and kept inerted, or completely filled with water. Other cargo
tanks which are not gas free should be purged of hydrocarbon vapour to less than 2% by
volume and kept inerted and secured. On a vessel without an inert gas system, all cargo
tanks except tanks containing slops should be cleaned and gas freed. Slops should be
placed in a tank as far as possible from the hot work area, and the tank kept closed.
ensure they are gas free and safe for hot work. If found to be contaminated by
hydrocarbon liquid or vapours, the cause of the contamination should be determined and
the tank(s) cleaned and gas freed. All interconnecting pipelines to other compartments
should be flushed through with water, drained, vented and isolated from the compartment
where hot work will take place. Cargo lines may be subsequently inerted or completely
filled with water if considered necessary. Vapour lines and inert gas lines to the
compartment should also be ventilated and isolated. Heating coils should be flushed. All
sludge, cargo-impregnated scale, sediment or other material likely to give off vapour which
is flammable, should be removed from an area of at least 10 metres around the area of hot
work. Special attention must be given to the reverse sides of frames and bulkheads. Other
areas that may be affected by the hot work, such as the area immediately below should
also be cleaned. This flowchart assumes the work is considered essential for safety or the
immediate operational capability of the ship, and that it cannot be deferred until the next
planned visit to a repair yard


An adjacent fuel oil bunker tank may be considered safe if tests using a combustible gas
indicator give a reading of not more than 1 % LFL in the ullage space of the bunker tank,
and no heat transfer through the bulkhead of the bunker tank will be caused by the hot
work.
 Hot Work on the Open Deck
If hot work is to be undertaken on the open deck, cargo and slop tanks within a radius of at
least 30 metres around the working area must be cleaned and hydrocarbon vapour
content reduced to less than 1 % by volume and inerted. All other cargo tanks in the cargo
area must be inerted with openings closed.
ensure they are gas-free and safe for hot work. If found to be contaminated by
hydrocarbon liquid or vapours they should be cleaned and gas freed.
On a vessel without an inert gas system all cargo tanks except those containing slops,
must be cleaned and freed of hydrocarbon vapour to less than 1 % LFL. Tanks containing
slops should be kept closed and be beyond 30 metres from the work area.
 Hot Work on Pipelines
Hot work on pipelines and valves should only be permitted when the appropriate item has
been detached from the system by cold work, and the remaining system blanked off. The
item to be worked on should be cleaned and gas freed to a "safe for hot work" standard,
regardless of whether or not it is removed from the hazardous cargo area. Heating coils
should be flushed and opened to ensure that they are clean and free of hydrocarbons.
 Checks by Officer Responsible for Safety
Immediately before hot work is started the officer responsible for safety precautions should
examine the area where hot work is to be undertaken, and ensure that the oxygen content
is 21 % by volume and that tests with a combustible gas indicator show not more than 1%
LFL Adequate fire-fighting equipment must be laid out and be ready for immediate use.
Fire watch procedures must be established for the area of hot work, and in adjacent, non-
inerted spaces where the transfer of heat, or accidental damage, may create a hazard eg
damage to hydraulic lines, electrical cables, thermal oil lines etc. Monitoring should be
continued for sufficient time after completion of hot work. Effective means of containing
and extinguishing welding sparks and molten slag must be established.
The work area must be adequately and continuously ventilated. The frequency of
atmosphere monitoring must be established. Atmospheres should be re-tested after each
break in work periods, and at regular intervals. Checks should be made to ensure there is

no ingress of flammable vapours or liquids, toxic gases or inert gas from adjacent or
connected spaces.
Welding and other equipment employed should be carefully inspected before each
occasion of use to ensure it is in good condition. Where required it must be correctly
earthed. Special attention must be paid when using electric-arc equipment ensuring:
- That electrical supply connections are made in a gas free space;
- That existing supply wiring is adequate to carry the electrical current demanded
without overloading, causing heating;
- The insulation of flexible electric cables laid across the deck is in good condition;
- The cable route to the worksite is the safest possible, only passing over gas free or
Any changes in the conditions which formed the basis for issuing the original hotwork
permit should invalidate it. Hot work should cease, and not be restarted until all safety
precautions have been re-checked and a new hot work permit has been issued.
3.3.9. USE OF TOOLS

 Grit Blasting and Mechanically Powered Tools
It should be noted that grit blasting and use of mechanically powered tools are not
normally considered as coming within the definition of hot work. However, both these
operations should only be permitted under the following conditions:
- The work area should not be subject to vapour release, or a concentration of
combustible vapours, and should be free of combustible material.
- The area should be gas-free, and tests with a combustible gas indicator should qive
a reading of not more than 1 % LFL.
- The ship must not be alongside at a terminal.
- There must be no cargo, bunkering, ballasting, tank cleaning, gas-freeing, purqinq
or inerting operations in progress.
Adequate fire-fighting equipment must be laid out, and ready for immediate use.
The hopper and hose nozzle of a grit blasting machine should be electrically bonded and
earthed to the deck or fitting being worked on.
There is a risk of perforation of pipelines when gritblasting or chipping, and great care
must be taken when planning such work. Before work on cargo lines on deck commences
they should be flushed, drop line valves closed, bottom lines filled with water, and the
atmosphere inside the part to be worked on confirmed as either inerted to less than 8%
oxyqen bv volume or gas-free to not more than 1% LFL. Similar precautions should be
adopted as appropriate for inert gas and crude oil washing lines.
 Hand Tools
The use of hand tools such as chipping hammers and scrapers for steel preparation and
maintenance may be permitted without a hot work permit. Their use must be restricted to
the actual deck areas and fittings not connected to the cargo system.
The work area should be gas-free and clear of combustible materials. The ship must not
be engaged in any cargo, bunker, ballasting, tank cleaning, gas-freeing, purging or inertinq
operations.
Non-ferrous, so called non-sparking, tools are only marginally less likely to qive rise to an
incendive spark, and, because of their comparative softness, are not as efficient as their
ferrous equivalents. Particles of concrete, sand or other rock-like substances are likely to
become embedded in the working face or edge of such tools, and can then cause
incendive sparks on impact with ferrous or other hard metals. The use of non-ferrous tools
is therefore not recommended.
3.3.10. ALUMINIUM
Aluminium equipment should not be dragged or rubbed across steel since it may leave a
smear which, if it is on rusty steel and is subsequently struck, can cause an incendive
spark.
It is therefore recommended that the undersides of aluminium gangways and other heavy
portable aluminium structures be protected with a hard plastic or wooden strip.
3.3.11. CATHODIC PROTECTION ANODES IN CARGO TANKS

Magnesium anodes are very likely to produce incendive sparks on impact with rusty steel.
Such anodes must not be fitted in tanks where flammable gases can be present.
Aluminium anodes give rise to incendive sparking on violent impact and should therefore
be installed only at approved locations within cargo tanks, and should never be moved to
another location without proper supervision. Moreover, as aluminium anodes could easily
be mistaken for zinc anodes and installed in potentially dangerous locations, it is advisable
to restrict their use to permanent ballast tanks.
Zinc anodes do not generate an incendive spark on impact with rusty steel and therefore
are not subject to the above restrictions.
The location, securing and type of anode are subject to approval by the appropriate
authorities. Their recommendations should be observed and inspections made as

frequently as possible to check the security of the anodes and mountings. With the advent
of high capacity tank washing machines, anodes are more liable to physical damage.
3.3.12. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION

Some materials when damp or soaked with oil, especially oil of vegetable origin, are liable
to ignite without the external application of heat as the result of gradual heating within the
material produced by oxidation. The risk of spontaneous combustion is smaller with
petroleum oils than with vegetable oils, but it can still occur, particularly if the material is
kept warm, for example by proximity to a hot pipe.
Cotton waste, rags, canvas, bedding, jute sacking or any similar absorbent material should
therefore not be stowed near oil, paint, etc. and should not be left lying on the jetty, on
decks, on equipment, on or around pipelines etc. If such materials become damp, they
should be dried before being stowed away. If soaked with oil they should be cleaned or
destroyed.
Certain chemicals used for boiler treatment are also oxidising agents and although carried
in diluted form, are capable of spontaneous combustion if permitted to evaporate.
3.3.13. AUTO-IGNITION
Petroleum liquids when heated sufficiently will ignite without the application of a naked
flame. This process of auto-ignition is most common where fuel or lubricating oil under
pressure sprays onto a hot surface. It also occurs when oil spills onto lagging, vaporises
and bursts into flame. Both instances have been responsible for serious engine room fires.
Oil feeder lines require particular attention to avoid oil being sprayed from leaks. Oil
saturated lagging should be removed and personnel protected from any re-ignition of
vapours during the process.
3.3.14. ENGINE AND BOILER ROOMS

 Combustion Equipment
As a precaution against funnel fires and sparks, burners, tubes, uptakes, exhaust
manifolds
 Blowing Boiler Tubes
Boiler tubes should be soot blown prior to arrival and after departure from a port. The
officer on bridqe watch should be consulted prior to the operation commencing and the

vessel s course altered if necessary. Boiler tubes should not be soot blown when the
vessel is in port.
 Cleaning Liquids
It is preferable that cleaning liquids be non-toxic and non-flammable. If flammable liquids
are used they should have a high flashpoint. Highly volatile liquids such as gasoline or
naphtha should never be used.
Cleaning liquids which are flammable should be kept in closed, unbreakable, correctly
labelled containers and stored in a suitable compartment when not in use.
Cleaning liquids should only be used in places where ventilation is adequate taking into
consideration the volatility of the liquids being used. All such liquids should be stowed and
used in compliance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Direct skin contact with, or the contamination of clothing by, cleaning liquids should be
avoided.
 Oil Spillage and Leakage
Oil spillage and leakage in the engine and boiler rooms is not only a fire hazard, but can
also cause slips and falls. Spills and leaks should therefore be avoided. Floor plates
should be kept clean and bilges should be kept free of oil and waste.
 Personal Hygiene
In View of the danger to health which may arise from prolonged contact with oil, personal
hygiene is most important. Direct skin contact with oil or with oily clothing should be
avoided.
 Bunker Safety
Although residual fuel oil normally has a flashpoint above 60 C. it should be remembered
that it is often stored and managed at temperatures close to. or even above, its flashpoint.
High flashpoint fuels sometimes contain residual quantities of light components which
slowly miqrate into vapour spaces after loading, so raising the flammability. It must
therefore never be assumed that the vapour spaces in, and emissions from, bunker tanks
will always be sate simply on account of a high specified flashpoint. For this reason,
ullaging dipping and sampling procedures must follow the recommendations.
3.3.15. COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS

During cold weather the functioning of pressure/vacuum relief valves and high velocity
vents should be checked. It is also possible that humid air vented from a cargo tank may
condense and freeze on gauze screens thus inhibiting ventilation.

On vessels fitted with inert gas systems, care must be taken to maintain the water supply
to the deck water seal, to prevent freezing of static water and to control the heating of such
water to prevent boiling. In addition the pressure/vacuum breaker, if filled with water, must
be protected from freezing by adding glycol.
Precautions should be taken to ensure that the fire main system is kept operational. Steam
operated winches and windlasses should be rotated slowly to avoid damage.
3.3.16. ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES

Because of the possibility of oxygen deficiency, as well as the presence of hydrocarbon or
toxic gas in a cargo tank, cofferdam, double bottom tank or any enclosed space, it is the
master's responsibility to identify such spaces and to establish procedures for safe entry.
Personnel should consult the responsible officer to determine whether entry into such
enclosed spaces Is permitted. It is the duty of the responsible officer to check the
atmosphere in the compartment, ventilate the space, ensure the appropriate procedures
are followed, ensure the safety of the personnel concerned, and issue an entry permit.
3.3.17. PUMPROOMS
 General Precautions
Cargo pumprooms, by virtue of their location, design and operation which require the
space to be routinely entered by personnel, constitute a particular hazard and therefore
necessitate special precautions. A pumproom contains the largest concentration of cargo
pipelines of any space within the ship and leakage of a volatile product from any part of
this system could lead to the rapid generation of a flammable or toxic atmosphere. The
pumproom may also contain a number of potential ignition sources unless formal,
structured maintenance, inspection and monitoring procedures are strictly adhered to.
 Routine Maintenance and Housekeeping Issues
Pumproom bilges should be kept clean and dry. Particular care should be taken to prevent
the escape of hydrocarbon liquids or vapour into the pumproom.
It is important that the integrity of pipelines and pumps is maintained and any leaks are
detected and rectified in a timely fashion. Pipelines should be visually examined and
subjected to routine pressure tests to verify their condition. Other means of non-
destructive testing or examination, such as ultra-sonic wall thickness measurement, may
be considered appropriate, but should always be supplemented by visual examination.

Procedures should be established to verify that mud boxes and filters are properly sealed
after they have been opened up for routine cleaning or examination.
Valve glands and drain cocks should be regularly inspected to ensure that they do not
leak. Bulkhead penetrations should be routinely checked to ensure their effectiveness.
The security of critical bolts on the cargo pumps and associated fittings, such as pedestal
fixing bolts, pump casing bolts and bolts securing shaft guards, should be ensured. In
addition, requirements for their examination should be included in routine maintenance
procedures.
 Ventilation
Because of the potential for the presence of hydrocarbon gas in the pumproom, SOLAS
(Chapter II-2, Regulation 59.3) requires the use of mechanical ventilation to maintain the
atmosphere in a safe condition. The pumproom should be continuously ventilated during
all cargo operations. Before anyone enters a pumproom it should be thoroughly ventilated,
the oxygen content of the atmosphere should be verified and the atmosphere checked for
the presence of oxygen.
 Pumproom Entry
It is strongly recommended that operators develop procedures to control pumproom entry,
regardless of whether or not a fixed gas detection system is in use. Clear procedures
should be established with regard to undertaking pre-entry checks, gas testing, and
subsequent regular atmosphere monitoring. In addition to detailing pre-entry checks,
procedures should include the use of personal gas monitors for those entering the space.
A communications system should provide links between the pumproom, navigation bridge,
engine room and cargo control room. In addition, audible and visual repeaters for essentia!
alarm systems, such as the general alarm, should be provided within the pumproom.
Arrangements should be established to enable effective communication to be maintained
at all times between personnel within the pumproom and those outside. Regular
communication checks should be made at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond
should be cause to raise the alarm.
The frequency of pumproom entry for routine inspection purposes during cargo operations
should be reviewed with a view to minimising personnel exposure. Notices should be
displayed at the pumproom entrance prohibiting entry without permission.
 Maintenance of Electrical Equipment

The integrity of the protection afforded by the design of explosion proof or intrinsically safe
electrical equipment may be compromised by incorrect maintenance procedures. Even the
simplest of repair and maintenance operations must be carried out in strict compliance
with the manufacturers instructions in order to ensure that such equipment remains in a
safe condition. This is particularly relevant in the case of explosion proof lights where
incorrect closing after simply changing a light bulb could compromise the integrity of the
light.
In order to assist with routine servicing and repair, ships should be provided with detailed
maintenance manuals for the specific systems and arrangements, as fitted on board.
 Inspection and Maintenance of Ventilation Fans
Pumproom ventilation fans are required to operate by drawing air out of the space. As a
consequence, should gas be present in the pumproom the vapours will be drawn through
the blades of the fan impeller and could be ignited if the blades contacted the casing or if
the fan's bearings or seals over-heated.
Pumproom extractor fans, including impellers, shafts and gas seals, should be inspected
on a regular basis. At the same time, the condition of the fan trunking should be inspected
and the proper operation of change-over flaps and fire dampers confirmed. Routine
vibration monitoring and analysis should be considered as a means for providing early
detection of component wear.
 Cargo Draining Procedures
On some existing tankers, no provision is made for effective line draining and In order to
meet the demands of certain product trades, final line contents are drained to the
pumproom bilge. This is an unsafe practice and it is recommended that cargo procedures
are reviewed with the aim of preventing a volatile product being drained to the bilge.
It is recommended that consideration be given to the provision of a comprehensive
strippinq arrangement to enable all lines and pumps to be effectively drained to a cargo
tank slop tank or dedicated reception tank for subsequent discharge ashore
 Miscellaneous
There are a number of ways to enhance the safety of pumprooms which operators may
wish to consider, including:
- A fixed gas detection system capable of continuously monitoring for the presence of
hydrocarbon gas. Where such equipment is fitted, procedures should be developed
in respect of its regular testing and calibration and with regard to the action to be

taken in the event of an alarm occurring, especially relating to vacating the space
and stopping cargo pumps.
- A fixed sampling arrangement to enable the oxygen content within the pumproom to
be monitored from the deck by portable meter prior to pumproom entry. Any such
arrangement utilised should ensure the effective monitoring of the remoter parts of
the pumproom.
- Temperature monitoring devices fitted to main cargo pumps in order to provide
remote indication of the temperature of pump casings, bearings and bulkhead
seals. Where such equipment is fitted, procedures should be developed with regard
to the action to be taken in the event of an alarm occurring.
- A high level alarm in pumproom bilges which activates audible and visual alarms in
the cargo control room, engine room and the navigating bridge.
- Manually activated trips for the main cargo pumps provided at the lower pumproom
level.
- Spray arrestors around the glands of all rotary cargo pumps in order to reduce the
formation of mists in the event of minor leakage from the gland.
- Examining the feasibility of retro-fitting a double seal arrangement to contain any
leakage from the primary seal and to activate a remote alarm to indicate that
leakage has occurred. However, the impact of any proposed retro-fit on the integrity
of the pump will need to be clearly assessed in conjunction with the pump
manufacturers.
- Particular attention to be given to the adequacy of fire protection in the immediate
vicinity of the cargo pumps.
- Because of the problems associated with flashback re-ignition after the use of the
primary fire fighting medium, consideration to be given to the need to provide a
back-up system, such as high expansion foam or water drenching, to supplement
the existing system. On ships fitted with an inert gas system, the provision of an
emergency facility for inertlng the pumproom could be an option, although careful
attention must be paid to the safety and integrity of the arrangement.
- The provision of an escape breathing apparatus set located within the pumproom
and readily accessible.
3.4. First Aid With Reference To A Material Safety Data Sheet (Msds)
3.4.1. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION

Potential Acute Health Effects:

Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of
inhalation. Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator). Severe over-exposure
can result in death.
Potential Chronic Health Effects:

- Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (sensitizer).
- CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
- MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
- TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
- DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available.
- The substance is toxic to the nervous system.
- The substance may be toxic to blood, kidneys, liver, central nervous system
- (CNS).
- Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs
damage.
- Repeated exposure to a highly toxic material may produce general deterioration of
health by an accumulation in one or many human organs.
3.4.2. FIRST AID MEASURES

Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with
an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse.
Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Serious Skin Contact:
Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial
cream. Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not
breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
WARNING: It maybe hazardous to the person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic, infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate
medical attention.
Ingestion:
If swallowed, do NOT induce vomiting. If swallowed, do not induce vomiting unless
directed to do so by medical personnel.
Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention immediately.
Serious Ingestion: Not available.
3.4.3. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Eye contact.
Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 2835 mg/kg [Rabbit].
Chronic Effects on Humans:
- MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
- Causes damage to the following organs: the nervous system.
- May cause damage to the following organs: blood, kidneys, liver, central
nervous system (CNS).
Other Toxic Effects on Humans:
Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation (lung irritant).
Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator).
Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: May affect genetic material
(mutagenic)
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans:
Acute Potential Health Effects:
Skin : Causes moderate to severe skin irritation. It can cause defatting
dermatitis.
Eyes : May cause eye irritation.
Inhalation : May cause respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation and a
burning sensation in the chest. Because of its relatively low volatility, overexposure
by inhalation is uncommon, but it can occur in poorly ventilated areas or by

Inhalation of mists or aerosols. Symptoms of inhalation overexposure include
central nevous system (CNS) depression (transient euphora, headache, irritability,
excitement, ringing in the ears, weakness, incoordination, confusion, disorientation,
drowsiness, tremor, somnolence, hallucinations, seizures, coma, death).
May affect the heart (cardiac arrythmias), liver, kidneys, and respiration( asphyxia,
apnea, acute pulmonary edema, dyspnea, fibrosis, or cyanosis)
Ingestion : Causes gastrointestinal tract irritation with burning sensation in mouth,
esophagus, and stomach, abdominalpain, nausea, vomiting, hypermotility, diarrhea,
headache, malaise.
May affect respiration/trachea/bronchi through accidental pulmonary aspiration
which can cause hypoxia, chemical pneumonitis, and noncardiogenic pulmonary
edema, pulmonary hemmorrhage, coughing, breathing difficulty, acute or chronic
pulmonary edema, emphysema, respiratory stimulation. It may also affect the heart
(dysrrhythmias, myocardial depression, tachycardia), liver, endocrine system
(pancreas - hypoglycemia), behavior/central nervous system (symptoms similar to
that of inhalation).
Chronic Potential Health Effects: Inhalation: Repeated or prolonged inhalation may
cause respiratory tract irritation and affect behavior/central nervous system with
symptoms similar to that of acute inhalation. It may also affect the blood (changes in
white blood cell count, changes in serum compositon, pigmented or nucleated red
blood cells, leukopenia, normocytic anemia) , cardiovascular system, respiratory
system (trachea, bronchi), and may cause kidney damage.
Ingestion: Repeated or prolonged ingestion may affect the liver, endocrine system
(adrenal gland, pancreas, spleen), and metabolism (weight loss), and blood.
Skin: Repeated or prolonged skin contact may cause defatting dermatitis, erythema,
and eczema-like skin lesions, drying and cracking of the skin, and possible burns.

4. FIRE FIGHTING OPERATION

4.1. Tanker Fire Response Organization And Action To Be Taken
FIGHTING THE FIRE

Early detection and prompt, resolute action are essential to fire fighting. After a fire has
been detected, the following general procedure should be followed:
Fig. Portable CO2 extinguisher. General Fire Extinguisher.
1. Sound the alarm. A continuous sounding of general alarm and whistle will warn
shipboard and shore side personnel of danger and, equally important, will summon
help.
2. Evaluate the fire. Above all, don't panic. Pause to think. How should this fire be fought?
How can it be kept from spreading? How can sources of heat, fuel, and oxygen be
eliminated? What is the greatest danger from this particular fire? How can this be
blocked? A few seconds of clear, logical thought will prepare you to act decisively.
3. Get the fire under control. Isolate the fire by cooling surrounding bulkheads. Remove
combustible material from adjacent compartments and, if possible, fill nearby cargo
tanks with inert gas or steam. Cut off air to the fire by shutting down ventilation and by
closing doors, portholes, hatches, and other openings.
4. Extinguish the fire. Take final steps to eradicate the fire completely: by cooling,
smothering, breaking up the chain reaction, or a combination of these methods.
5. Guard against reignition. Make sure the affected area has cooled completely before
securing fire-fighting gear. This may take several hours.

Each fire must, of course, be attacked individually. The following pages outline a general course of action for specific
types of fires.
Fig. All-purpose dry chemical extinguishers can be used on Class A, B, and C fires. General Fire
Extinguisher.
Fire in pump room.
The pump room presents the greatest risk of cargo fires. Most pump room fires start near
the bottom of the pump room, where they are difficult to reach. Usually, if a small fire is
caught immediately it can be put out with portable foam or CO2 extinguishers; if not, it
must be fought indirectly. One method is to hang hoses from the top of the pump-room.
With all-purpose nozzles in the fog position, the fire is extinguished by a combination of
cooling and smothering as water vaporizes and produces steam. Pump room on some
vessels are fitted with fixed water fog systems that make lowering of hoses unnecessary.
Other ships are equipped with fixed CO2 or foam systems. As a rule, these systems
should be operated only after other methods have been tried. Should it become necessary
to activate the fixed system, be sure the pump room is sealed and all ventilation turned off.
On some ships, the vent fans shut down automatically when controls to the fixed
extinguishing system are operated.
Cool surrounding decks with water fog. If the pump room adjoins the engine room, the
bulkhead between them should also be sprayed with water. If the fixed system is not
functioning or has been depleted, it may be possible to put out the fire by sealing the pump
room as thoroughly as possible. Provided that adjacent compartments are cooled or
inerted, the fire will eventually burn itself out. After the fire has been extinguished, allow
adequate cooling time before reopening. If possible, wait several hours. This precaution

will avert possible reignition or explosion. Ventilate the compartment thoroughly before
allowing crew members to enter.
Fire on deck.
This type of fire is usually precipitated by a spill, as from a broken hose or overflow.
Therefore, the first step is to cut off the fuel supply by shutting down transfer operations.
Close ullage covers to prevent the fire from spreading to the tanks.
Foam is usually the most effective agent against fires on deck. Dry chemical, if available in
sufficient quantities, is also effective against spill fires. It should be applied from upwind
whenever possible.
Fire in cargo tank.

A quantity of oil that has been on fire a short time is hot on the surface but relatively cool
underneath. For example, fuel oil that has burned 10 to 12 minutes heats to its ignition
temperature to a depth of only one inch. If extinguished quickly, it requires relatively little
time to cool to a safe temperature.
A fire in an unruptured cargo tank should be fought in the following sequence.
1. Shut off the air supply by closing tank tops, ullage covers, tank cleaning openings,
tape wells, and PV valves.
2. Activate the steam-smothering system, if fitted. After opening the master valve,
close valves to unaffected tanks. Make sure, however, that tanks adjacent to the
fire are protected.
3. Cool nearby decks, bulkheads, and equipment with high velocity water fog.
If the air supply cannot be cut off, direct foam through the tank top and allow it to spread
over the fire. Unfortunately, this method is only effective in a full or nearly full tank. In an
empty tank, it is necessary for the foam to coat every exposed surface where oil has been
deposited: deck, keel, beams, frames, bulkheads, etc. This is virtually impossible. In such
a case, high velocity water fog should be used.

Fig. 10-18. Foam monitor on deck. Exxon.

When a tank has been ruptured—as by explosion or collision—foam or water fog should
be used. Water should be applied with caution. Be particularly careful not to agitate the
surface of burning oil. If foam and water are used simultaneously, be careful not to break
up, dilute, or wash away the foam blanket with the water.
Fire in engine room.

Most engine room fires can be extinguished with portable or semi portable extinguishers
(fig. 10-19). Larger fires should be fought with fixed or portable foam systems, plus water
fog from the fire main. Fire fighters entering the burning area must wear a lifeline plus
breathing apparatus for protection against asphyxiation and smoke inhalation.
Use the fixed CO2 system as a last resort only. These systems often provide only one
application; it must not be wasted. Before activating the fixed system, clear the area of
personnel; close doors, hatches, and vents; secure boiler fires and vent fans. Controls for
the CO2 system and engine room ventilation are located outside the engine room. Learn
the location of these controls before you need them; don't be caught unprepared in an
emergency. While the CO2 is being released, spray water fog on outside decks and
bulkheads. Remove combustible material, which could ignite through heat conduction,
from neighboring areas. After the fire has been extinguished, allow adequate time for the
compartment to cool before reopening. Remember: If the fire flares up again, there may be
inadequate CO2 to put it out a second time.

Fig. 10-19. This semi portable CO2 system employs a hose reel and two fixed cylinders. The hose is reeled
out, then charged with CO2 by opening the cylinder valves. The gas is directed at the fire by operating the
control lever on the discharge horn. Ansul.
Fig. 10-20. Close-up of cylinder valves and attachments used with the semi portable CO2 system. Ansul

Fire on water adjacent to ship.

This type of fire often occurs after a collision. Foam is the most effective weapon. If no
foam is available, solid streams of water may be sprayed between ship and fire. When
conditions permit, this tactic will induce a surface current and move the fire clear of the
ship.
Fire in live electrical equipment.

If possible, de-energize the equipment. Should you have the slightest doubt, however,
assume the equipment is "hot" and act accordingly. Never spray water on live electrical
equipment. Salt water is an excellent conductor; fire fighters using it run the risk of being
electrocuted. Foam is equally dangerous.
Carbon dioxide is the preferred agent against electrical fires. Dry chemical extinguishers
can also be used, but they deposit a fine powder that may foul electrical contacts.
Fire in living spaces.

This generally involves a Class A fire, making water the preferred extinguishing agent.
Keep all doors to the compartment closed until equipment is assembled and ready for use.
Cool outside bulkheads and doors with water. When ready to enter, fire fighters should
use low velocity fog as a forward shield against heat and smoke. All crew members
entering the compartment must wear lifelines and breathing apparatus (fig. 10-21).
Fire on dock.
When a fire occurs on the dock or adjacent area, your first concern as officer in charge
should be the safety of your ship. Take immediate steps to move her. Shut down the
cargo, disconnect hoses and loading arms, single up lines, and have the engineers put
steam on the engines. Call tugs if necessary. If a strong tide is running and no obstruc -
tions lie downstream, simply throw off mooring lines and allow the vessel to drift to safety.
When well clear, drop the anchor.

4.2. Fire hazard associated with cargo handling and transportation of hazardous
and
noxius liquids in bulk
The world fire strikes fear in the hearts of seamen, especially those who have seen a ship
burn. These individuals have felt the panic and desperation that only a fire at sea can
cause. But a shipboard fire need not end in tragedy. Calm, resolute, and intelligent action
can defeat the most terrible conflagrations. An amazing example of this was provided by
the crew of the 8,000-ton British tanker San Demetrio during World War II. While steaming
in an Atlantic convoy the San Demetrio was shelled and Badly damaged by the German
pocket battleship Admiral Scheer. Fire engulfed the tanker, which was carrying a full cargo
of gasoline. It is not surprising that the crew quickly decided to abandon ship. They drifted
in the Atlantic for 20 hours. No help arrived; they had been given up for lost. Then the
badly scarred hull of the San Demetrio, still ablaze, drifted back into view
Faced with a lack of other alternatives, the crew decided to reboard the burning vessel in
the hope of saving her. They climbed aboard with tremendous difficulty and, after two
harrowing days, succeeded in extinguishing the fire. Eventually the San Demetrio limped
into port and delivered most of her cargo.

More than one tanker crew has chosen to abandon ship before making, a serious attempt
to fight a fire. Abandoning ship is a perilous undertaking in itself, especially in rough
weather. The safer alternative is often to stand fast and fight the fire. As the crew of the
San Demetrio demonstrated, even a serious fire can, with calmness and courage, be
fought successfully.
Modern tankers are supplied with fire-fighting equipment which is at once sophisticated
and reliable. But even the most expensive equipments useless if crew members are
ignorant of its operation, each officer should learn the location and function of every piece
of fire-fighting equipment.
This knowledge is crucial on any ship, and especially so on a tanker
WHAT IS FIRE?
Fire cooks our food, warms our homes, and powers our machines. Without it, civilization
could not exist as know it. But fire can be a danger as well as an asset, as the caveman
who discovered it undoubtedly learned.
Fig. 10-1. Crew members practice with portable foam equipment during fire drill. British Petroleum.
Fire burns people, too. It burns their homes, their farms, their cities. It is dangerous in
other ways as well. It uses oxygen and causes asphyxiation; creates carbon monoxide,
thick smoke, and toxic gases, all of which can quickly kill.

Fire, a chemical reaction.

When vapors given off by a flammable substance combine rapidly with oxygen, we
witness the phenomenon we call "fire." For example, the wax in a candle—the fuel—must
first melt and then vaporize before it can be drawn into the flame and burned. Fire is, in
effect, a chemical reaction. Molecules of hydrocarbon gas join violently with molecules of
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water vapor, and most importantly, heat.
THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE

Every fire owes its existence to four indispensable elements:
Fig. 10-2. This tanker, the Salem Maritime, was gutted by fire in 1956. U.S. Salvage
1. Fuel.
This is the vapor from petroleum or other combustibles that com¬bines with the oxygen
to produce fire.
2. Heat.
Hydrocarbon molecules must be heated substantially before they will combine with
oxygen. For example, a piece of wood left lying in a cold fireplace will not ignite, but
apply a sufficient amount of heat (as with burning newspapers) and it bursts into flame.
Heat need not be applied with an open flame, however. Heat can trans¬fer through a
steel bulkhead and ignite a tank of fuel oil without the aid of an open flame. This
process is known as conduction. Heat also spreads by convection—the tendency of
hot air to expand and move from one location to another—and by direct radiation
(much as the sun heats a sandy beach on a hot summer day). Once ignited, a fire

produces its own heat and continues getting hotter, often reaching temperatures above
2,000°F. (1,100°C.).
3. Oxygen.
People and fires both need oxygen to survive. The earth's atmosphere contains
approximately 21 percent oxygen by volume. Lower this figure far enough (to 10 to 15
percent) and you literally "suffocate" the most tenacious fire.
Fig. 10-3. Kings Point midshipmen attack a blaze at fire-fighting school. National Maritime Union of America.
4. Chain reaction.
Molecules must pass through several steps in the oxidation process, one after another,
in a regular progression. This is a little like building a tower out of toy blocks. Remove
one of the blocks, and the whole structure collapses. Similarly, remove one step from
the molecular chain reaction, and a fire ceases to burn.
To extinguish a fire, therefore, at least one of four elements—fuel, heat, oxygen, chain
reaction—must be removed. Modern fire-fighting equipment and methods have been
developed with this in mind.

IMPORTANT TERMS
To aid in preventing fires and, when necessary, in extinguishing them, it is important to
understand the following terms:
Flash point.
The temperature at which petroleum vapors form a flammable mixture with air is called its
flash point. For many petroleum products (such as gasoline), the flash point is below the
average temperature found in cargo tanks. In other words, you can assume explosive
vapors are present when such products are carried.
Explosive range, or flammable limits.

Hydrocarbon vapors will not burn in an atmosphere containing less than 10 percent
oxygen. In addition, the vapors must fall within a given volumetric percentage or no reac-
tion can take place. As shown in figure 10-5, a mixture containing too much or too little
vapor will not burn (see also table 10-1).
Table 10-1
FLAMMABLE LIMITS
(Percent by Volume in Air)
Product Lower Upper
Limit Limit
Crude oils (average) 1.0 10.0
Gasoline 1.3 7.6
Karosene 0.7 6.0
Propane 2.1 9.5
Methane 5.0 15.0
Benzene 1.4 8.0
JP4 (military jet fuel) 1.4 7.6
Ethylene oxide 2.0 100.0

Fig. 10-4. Applying dry chemical to a Class B fire. Seafarers International Union.
When vapors are present in amounts above the upper flammable limit, the mixture is said
to be too rich to burn. If below the lower limit, it is too lean. Oddly enough, an empty tanker
is more likely to fall within these dangerous limits than a full one. In fact, most tank
explosions occur in empty or ballasted vessels. On vessels with full tanks, the mixture is
generally well above the upper flammable limit: too rich to ignite.
This was apparently the case when, in October of 1970, the Pacific Glory collided with the
Allegro off the Isle of Wight. The Pacific Glory, a 77,000-ton tanker fully laden with
Nigerian crude, suffered severe engine room explosions. Fire engulfed and destroyed her
superstructure and spread to the surrounding water. Nevertheless, her cargo remained un-
touched; it was eventually delivered to its destination in Europe.
Ignition temperature.
Any flammable substance will ignite when heated sufficiently. The point at which this
happens is called the ignition temperature. For petroleum products this temperature is
anywhere from 490° to 765°F. (255° to 405°C.) When heated to its ignition temperature, a

product will ignite without the aid of a spark or other external source of ignition. Once
ignited, a fire produces its own heat and continues to get hotter, reaching temperatures
hundreds of degrees above the ignition temperature. This fact underlines the paramount
importance of speed in fighting fires. An incipient, relatively cool fire is much easier to
extinguish than a white-hot blaze several hours in the making.
THEORY OF FIRE FIGHTING

Every fire must be attacked by removing one of the four elements previously described:
fuel, heat, oxygen, or chain reaction. The extinguishing method chosen depends on the
size and location of the fire, and the combustible material involved.
Table 10-2 lists the various classes of fire and the preferred extinguishing methods
Table 10-2
CLASSES OF FIRE
Material Extinguishing Method I Agent
A Ordinary combustibles such Cooling with water or water fog. Foam, CO2, and all-
as wood, paper, and canvas purpose dry chemical are less effective but can be
used.
B Flammable liquids such as Smothering with foam, CO2, inert gas, or steam. Dry
fuel oil, kerosene, and gasoline chemical is also effective.
C Live electrical equipment Extinguishing agent must be non conducting : CO2,
dry chemical.
Water and foam must not be used.
Removing fuel.
In theory, removal of fuel is an excellent method of fighting fires, but on tankers carrying
thousands of tons of petroleum it is usually impractical. Nevertheless, certain situations
demand that this method be used.
For example, a fire on deck is fed by an overflowing tank. This situation obviously calls for
an immediate cessation of loading. Other, less obvious circumstances sometimes arise
when the removal of fuel is indicated. Therefore, never dismiss this method as a possible
means of fighting a fire.
Removing heat.
Water is one of the most effective cooling agents known. When sprayed on a fire, it quickly
turns to steam, thereby absorbing and carrying away heat. Water is most useful on Class
A fires since it can penetrate to the hot core of burning material. Aqueous film forming
foam (AFFF) also has considerable cooling properties. Other types of foam, however,
provide only minimal cooling.
Removing oxygen.
Fires, like people, perish without oxygen. It follows that a fire can be extinguished by: 1)
diluting the oxygen content until it falls below the amount necessary for combustion (10 to
15 percent) and 2) smothering the surface of the flame so oxygen cannot enter. Generally
speaking, the first method employs carbon dioxide, steam, or inert gas; the second,
mechanical foam.
.
Fig. 10-6. Spraying foam on an oil fire. Seafarers International Union.
Interrupting the chain reaction.

Fire remains something of a mystery to scientists. They have theorized that combustion
involves a rapid chain of chemical reactions without which no fire could burn. This theory
seems to explain the success of dry chemical and halogenated extinguishing agents in

fighting fires. These agents somehow interrupt the vital chain reaction in a fire, thus
bringing on its quick demise.
FIRE PREVENTION
Fires are easy to start but extremely difficult to extinguish; therefore, the obvious solution
is to prevent them from starting. The first step in fire prevention is to remain fire conscious
at all times while on board a tanker.
Smoking.
This is the number one cause of fires at sea. Many of these fires occur in the living spaces
where they are extinguished before much damage is done. Some are serious, however,
and one example is a tanker's captain who went to bed one night with a bottle of whisky
and a lighted. Cigarette a bad combination. Sometime later, crew members noted a large
quantity of smoke billowing out of the bridge voice tube leading to the master's cabin. They
rushed below, but were too late. The "old man" was dead from asphyxiation and smoke
inhalation.
Never allow yourself or the people working with you to become lax about smoking rules.
Encourage crew members to leave their cigarettes in their rooms or other safe areas. This
precaution prevents an individual from lighting up a cigarette in an unsafe area. Only
safety matches should be used; cigarette lighters should not be allowed on board.
Areas considered safe for smoking while at sea may be extremely hazardous in port. An
example is the fantail. Vapors from the dock make smoking in such places a definite
hazard—something crew members may not realize. The risk is particularly great after a
long voyage during which the crew has become accustomed to smoking in these areas.
Be alert for crew members who may "light up" without thinking.

Fig. 10-7. The CO2 room. The gas is released by remote control, then carried by pipes to the protected
areas. The device in the upper right-hand corner is a time release mechanism, which gives crew members
time to evacuate spaces before CO2 is released. Ansul.
The pump room.

If a single place on tankers can be labelled the most dangerous, it is the pump room.
Pump rooms are frequent sources of fire and explosion. In addition, many tanker men
have died after being overcome by toxic pump room vapors. Therefore, never allow
yourself to become complacent about entering or working in the pump room. Here is an
example of a man who could have used this advice:
A new pump man was packing a leaky valve in a tanker's pump room. At the time, the ship
was carrying a full cargo of casing head gasoline, one of the most volatile products carried
on tankers. The pump man decided to take a break and moved to a corner well away from

the leaky valve. He sniffed the air, detected no gassy smell, and lit a cigarette. A moment
later he was engulfed in flames as the pump room exploded. He was lucky, however;
although badly burned, he lived to tell the tale.
There are two lessons to be learned from this episode:
1. Never trust your nose to detect petroleum vapors.
2. Always assume an explosive atmosphere exists in the pump room.
Pump room bilges are rarely dry, especially on older ships. It is a com mon practice to
drain pumps and lines into the bilges; leaky fittings contribute their share as well. On very
old ships the pump room can become a tropical rain forest of dripping oil and leaky steam
lines.
Gasoline and other volatile products evaporate quickly, especially when spread across the
pump room bilge plating. The resultant vapor is both toxic and explosive. It is therefore
imperative to use great care when descending into the pump room, and to make sure the
ventilation system is operating while crew members are below.
Cleaning with gasoline.

Never use gasoline as a cleaning solvent The temptation is sometimes great, particularly
with thousands of gallons readily available.
On one tanker, a crew member succumbed to this temptation and caused a catastrophe.
He poured a bucket of gasoline into a washing machine (which was located inside the
after house) and proceeded to do his laundry Several men were smoking nearby. Soon
the machine's turbulent action generated a large amount of vapor, which spread through
the accommodation area. The subsequent explosion and fire killed four men and injured
six.
Vapor accumulations on deck.

When loading in calm weather petroleum vapor leaving the vent lines may settle around
the main deck Being heavier than air, it tends to lie close to the deck in a stagnant,
invisible pool until dissipated by the wind. This vapor may eventually find its way mto living
spaces, contact a source of ignition, and flash back to the tanks The result would be
explosion, fire, or both. The hazard is greatest when handling gassy products. One ship,
for example, was loading butane blend when she suffered a massive explosion. Vapor had
drifted into the crew quarters, contacted a burning cigarette, and flashed back through an
open ullage hole to one of the tanks. The explosion and fire that followed killed thirteen

crew members and completely destroyed the ship. Several precautions help to avert this
kind of tragedy:
1. Make sure your ship's inert gas system is used properly (see chapter 13).
2. Keep all doors, portholes, and other accommodation area openings fronting the cargo
deck closed during cargo or ballasting operations.
3. Stop loading operations whenever heavy concentrations of vapor accumulate m the
cargo-handling area. This is most likely to happen on hot humid days with no wind.
On older, smaller tankers without inert gas systems, ullage covers are often opened for
gauging and sampling. On such ships, keep ullage covers closed whenever possible.
When they must be left open for any length of time, use a flame screen (a piece of fine
wire gauze that fits over the ullage hole). A flame screen permits the passage of vapor, but
not of name.
Sources of ignition.
Watch for situations that could bring a spark or open flame in contact with flammable
vapors. Keep a careful eye on visitors; people unfamiliar with tankers are liable to "light up"
in nonsmoking areas. Make sure no unauthorized electrical equipment or other spark-
producing devices are used around cargo tanks, in the pump room, or in other gassy
areas. Carefully watch all activities on the dock. An automobile or burning cigarette on the
dock could ignite low-lying vapors. In turn, these could flash back to the ship's tanks and
cause an explosion. The close approach of a tug or other vessel during cargo operations
is equally hazardous. Hot, smoldering soot from the stack exhaust could trigger an
explosion (it has happened).
In port, a serious fire hazard is sometimes presented by the crew themselves.
Unfortunately, it is not unheard of for crew members to return to the ship intoxicated. To
prevent such individuals from unwittingly lighting a cigarette in prohibited areas, and to
prevent them from breaking their necks, they should be escorted to their quarters
immediately upon their return to the ship.
Electrical storms.
One of the first ships I worked on after getting my third mate's license was a small,
multiproduct tanker. She was a delightful little ship and a lot of fun to work on.
Unfortunately, about a year after I left her, she was struck by lightning while her tanks
were being cleaned at sea. The ensuing explosion killed several men and injured several

others. Lightning generates ample heat to ignite a flammable mixture. It is foolhardy (and
illegal) to load, discharge, clean tanks, or transfer cargo during electrical storms.
Spontaneous combustion.
Certain substances such as oily rags, oily sawdust, wet laundry, and oil-soaked rubbish
are vulnerable to a process called spontaneous combustion. Slow, oxidation generates
heat, and over a period of days or weeks, or even months, a substance may eventually
reach its ignition temperature. It then ignites spontaneously.
Such fires have been a problem at sea since the Phoenicians first sailed the
Mediterranean thousands of years ago. More than one ship has gone to the bottom gutted
by flames that started spontaneously. Joseph Conrad dramatized this danger in his story,
Youth, in which the bark Judea, carrying a cargo of coal to the Orient, catches fire and
sinks in the Indian Ocean:
You see it was to be expected, for though the coal was of a safe kind, that cargo had been
so handled, so broken up with handling, that it looked more like smithy coal than anything
else. Then it had been wetted—more than once. It rained all the time we were taking it
back from the hulk, and now with this long passage it got heated, and there was another
case of spontaneous combustion.
Cleanliness is the best weapon against spontaneous combustion. Paint lockers, laundry
rooms, and other enclosed spaces must be kept as clean as possible. The chief culprits
are piles of rags, rubbish, or clothing that have been impregnated with paint, grease, or
vegetable oil. Such items should be laundered or disposed of promptly.

Fig. 10-8. Main deck fire station. Chevron
4.3. Fire fighting agents used to extinguish oil and chemical fires
Flame Inhibitors
1) Sands.
The main function is to restrict fire spreads, but for a small fire can be used to covered the
surface of source of fire, so that can be separated the air from the flammable process that
happened. So that the fire could be extincted.
2) Chemical Powder.
Based on class of fire that can be extincted, so the chemical powder can be devided as
follows :
a) Regular dry chemical powder, to extincted the fire comes from liquid, gas, electrical
instruments.
Materials that used :
 Sodium bicarbonate/baking soda (Na HCO2)
 Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) known as purple “K” that can prevent
hidoscopis nature (absorbed water) dan round up. To give better active power,
can be added stearate metal and other additive.
 Potassium carbonat that famous as “Monnex”.
 Potassium Cloride (KC1) that famous as Super “K”.
b) Multipurpose chemical Powder, known as chemical powder ABC. It’s effectively to
extinguished fire class A,B,C, Such as oil, wooden, gas, and electrical instruments. The
raw materials as follows :
1. Mono Amonium Phospate (NAP) or NH2) H2PO2.
2. Kalium Sulfate (K2SO2).
c). Dry Chemical Powder / Special, is used for extinguished the metal. The source of of
dry chemical :

 Mixed kalium chloride, Barium Chloride, Magnasium Chloride, Natrium Chloride

and Calsium Chloride.
 Graik Powder with other mixtures as an organic phosphate. In commerce it
known as : Lith-X powder, Metal-X, Guard Powder, Pyrene G-L Powder.
 Mixing Sodium chloride tri calcium phosphate, metal stearate and termo plastic.
In commerce sold as a Mat-L-X powder.
 Mixing sodium choride, Amonium phosphate. In commerce known as Pyromet
Powder.
The way of chemical powder to extinguished the fire :
 Physically : separated or blanketing fuel, so that couldn’t mixing oxygen with fuel
vapour. All powder have an instruction physically like this.
 Chemically : To cut the chain of fire reaction where all particles of chemical powder
can be absorbed hydoktion radical from fire.
Chemical powder that works chemically with raw materials KHCO3 (Potasium Bicarbonat)
and (NH2 H2PO – Mono Amonium Phospate).
d). Liquid extinguishing agents.
1) Water
Water is the most common cooling agent. This is largely because water possesses
very good heat absorbing qualities and is available in ample quantities at terminals
and on ships.
 A water jet, although excellent for fighting fires involving combustible

materials, should not be used on burning oil, or on burning cooking oil or fat in
galleys, because of the danger of spreading the fire.
 Water spray and water fog may be used effectively against oil fires and for
making a screen between the fire-fighter and the fire. Owing to the danger of
electrical equipment.
A wetting agent may be added to water whwn it is to be used on tightly packed

combustible materials.this has the effect of lowering its surface tension and thus
increasing its effective penetration.
2) Foam

Foam has a limited heat absorbing effect and should not normally be used for
cooling.
Based on its happening foam can be devided as follows :
a) Chemical Foam, it can be happened because any other chemical processes, with
ingredients of :
 Single powder, if its mixed with water it can be change into a foam.
 Dual powder, consist of alumunium sulfat powder and natrium carbonat

powder.
Both of them dissolved with water based on comparison od certain volume, so it

can be changed into foam. With chemical reaction : A12 (SO)2 + 6 Na HC3 →
2Al (OH)3 + 3Na2 SO2 + 6 CO2
b) Mecanical Foam, It happened because of mechanical process by the mixture

from the materials of a foam that can be a foam liquid and air. Process making of
a foam with using an instruments
udar
aaa
aaa
a
Picture 5: on water mixed foam liquid so that could be changed into a foam. Because of
stiring process or air vaporing into the foam mixture so it formed mechanical foam.
The processes of making a foam, with using materials :
1. Protein
2. Fluora protein (FP 70)
3. Fluorocarbon surfactant (AF2, light water)

4. Detergent or hydrocarbon surfactant or louryialcohol, it called as high expansion

foam liquid. Fluorocarbon surfactant and hydrocarbon surfactant called as a
synthetic foam liquid.
3) Gas fire extinguisher
It can be extinguished the fire fisically through cooling and blanketing (delution). All
sorts of gas can be used for extinguishing fire, but mostly used is a charcoal acid gas
(CO2) and limp essence gas (N2). N2 is used to pushed chemical powder to the fixed
fire extinguisher or solution in BCF, whereas directly used for fire extinguisher is an
acid gas (CO2). In consumption that directly gas CO2 is saved on a bottle with pressure
1000 – 1200 psi (+/- 80 atm). An advantage on using CO2 : clean, cheap, easy reached
on market, it can put down a live electricity, spraying with its own vapouring. The loss is
a heavy container and its difficult moving for its user.
4) Fire extinguisher of a liquid flammable
This media works with cutting chain reaction of fire and pushed air or separated acid
essence. Coomon name of this media is HALON or HALOGENATE HYDROCARBON,
is a bond of methan and halogen (Jodium, Flour, Chlor, and Vrom). Just than an air,
halon is more heavy., like a halon 1301 five time air content.
No Halon Abbreviation Chemical Formula Continuation of abbreviation

Halon 1011 CBM CH2 Br C1 Chior Bromo Methan
Halon 1301 BTM C Br F3 Bromo Trifluoro Methan
Halon 2402 - C F2 Br C F2 Br Dibromo Tetraflour Methan
Halon 1202 - C Br2 F2 Dibromo Difloro Methan
Bromo Chioro Difluoro
Halon 211 BCF C Br C1 F2
Methan
Halon 104 CIF C C12 Carbon Tetrachlorida
Halon 1001 CTF CH2 Br Methybromide
Kind of fire extinguisher on Halon for this time is cannot used again because of
chemical reaction of its can be offend ozon layer.
4.4. Fixed fire fighting foam system operations

Foam
Foam is an aggregation of small bubbles, of lower specific gravity than oil or water,
which flows across the surface of a burning liquid and forms a coherent smothering
blanket, it will also reduce the surface temperature of the liquid by the absorption of some

heat. There are a number of different types of foam concentrates available. These include
standard protein foam, fluoro-protein foams and synthetic concentrates. The synthetics are
divided Into aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) and hydrocarbon surfactant type foam
concentrates. Normally the protein, fluoro-protein and AFFF concentrates are used at 3%
to 6% by volume concentration in water. Hydrocarbon surfactant concentrates are
available for use at 1% to 6% by volume concentration. High expansion foam has an
expansion ratio from about 150:1 to 1500:1. It is made from hydrocarbon surfactant
concentrates and is used to extinguish a fire in an enclosed space by filling the
compartment rapidly with foam, thus preventing the movement of free air. The foam
generator, which may be fixed or mobile, sprays the foam solution on to a fine mesh net
through which air is driven by a fan. High expansion foam is unsuitable for use in outside
locations as it cannot readily be directed on to a hot fire and is quickly dispersed in light
winds. Medium expansion foam has an expansion ratio from about 15:1 up to 150:1. it is
made from the same concentrates as high expansion foam, but its aeration does not
require a fan. Portable applicators can be used to deliver considerable quantities of foam
on to spill fires, but their throw is limited and the foam is liable to be dispersed in moderate
winds. Low expansion foam has an expansion ratio from about 3:1 up to about 15:1. it is
made from protein based or synthetic concentrates and can be applied to spill or tank fires
from fixed monitors or portable applicators. Good throw is possible and the foam is
resistant to wind. Foam applicators should be directed away from liquid petroleum fires
until any water in the system has been flushed clear. Foam should not come into contact
with any electrical equipment. The various foam concentrates are basically incompatible
with each other and should not be mixed in storage. However, some foams separately
generated with these concentrates are compatible when applied to a fire in sequence or
simultaneously. The majority of foam concentrates can be used in conventional foam
making devices suitable for producing protein foams. The systems should be thoroughly
flushed out and cleaned before changing agents, as the synthetic concentrates may
dislodge sediment and block the proportioning equipment.
Some of the foams produced from the various concentrates are compatible with dry
chemical powder and are suitable for combined use. The degree of compatibility between
the various foams and between the foams and dry chemical agents varies and should be
established by suitable tests. The compatibility of foam compounds is a factor to be borne
in mind when considering joint operations with other services.
Foam Mains
Where pipelines for foam solution or concentrate are provided the lines should have a
number of accessible take off (hydrant) points which should be spaced not more than two
or three standard hose lengths apart. The take off (hydrant) points generally consist of a
header fitted with two outlets individually valved and fitted with a fire hose connection
suitable for the particular type of fire hose coupling in use locally. Isolating valves should
be fitted so as to maintain the integrity of the line in the event of fracture. Suitable pipeline
drain valves and wash out facilities should be provided. A foam solution pipeline of this
type should cater for a design minimum of 115 cubic metres/hour of solution. Fire-fighting
craft, especially those at terminal with buoy mooring berths, should have a connection for
an International Shore Fire Connection (see appendix E) for use in boosting pressure in,
or supplies to, a tanker’s fire water mains, or a suitable adaptor for this purpose. The craft
should also have a connection to enable them to supply water to, or boost pressure in, a
terminal fire main.
Gambar : Operation foam instalasi "Pre-ix" Foam Pressure Type
H. Sollution storage tank P. CO2 supply from cylinder

J. Drain valve Q. Distribusi valve
K. Level clock R. Sollution supply to branchipipe in machinery
L. Safety valve S. Sollution supply to from makers in machinerry space
M. Pressure gauge T. CO2 cylinder
N. Stop valve


4.5. Portable fire fighting foam operations

Pemadam kebakaran jinjing (portable)
a) Busa kimia (Chemical Foam)
b) Busa Mekanik (Mechanical Foam)
Keterangan :
1. Tutup pengaman
2. Pemecah seal timah
3. Seal timah
4. Saringan gambar
5. Cairan A
6. Cairan B
7. Selang
Keterangan :
1. Kerangan
2. Tutup
3. Klep karet
4. Selang g a m b a r
5. Pemancar
6. Cairan A
7. Cairan B
4.6. Fixed dry chemical system operations

Dry chemical system
Powder is elected as extinguishing remedy on the tank deck of gas carriers and
chemical tankers. A number of minor stationary powder aggregates can be placed
on deck or a powder central unit with tubes forward to a number of powder central
units on deck. One or several powder containers are placed with a capacity
calculated for the specific vessel with accompanying pressure bottles in the powder
central unit. The plant can be released from each powder post by opening the valve
of the releasing bottle. The gas is lead into tubes to the releasing mechanism of the
pressure bottles in the powder central unit. It opens the valve of the powder tube that

proceeds to the powder post being released. Several posts can be utilised at the
same time, but each post must be triggered in the same way.
Stationary dry powder systems are normally delivered with powder (NaHCO 3 -
natrium hydrogen carbonate or KHCO 3 - calcium hydrogen carbonate) for
extinguishing fire in class B or E. That is all types of liquid like: petrol, alcohol,
acetone, oil, painting etc., and different types of gases like methanol, methane,
butane, propane etc.
Dry powder systems utilise N2 (Nitrogen) or CO2 (carbon dioxide) as propellant gas.
The gas is kept in pressure cylinders. A gas pressure regulator reduces N2 -gas or
CO2 - gas (200kg/cm2) to 20 kg/cm2 before it goes via the riser in to the powder
aggregate. The riser's gas taps are very important, as the powder together with the
propellant gas must be able to "float" as a liquid through the pipe system and the
powder jet.
The stationary powder post (monitor) should have a capacity of at least
10kg/second. Manual equipment, "hand hoses", should have a capacity of at least
3,5kg/second, but not too large for one man to operate. The length of a hand hose
should not exceed 33 m. It is very important that the hose is pulled out to its full
length before setting the pressure. The extension should be at a minimum of 10
metres for both stationary and hand based equipment. The plant's powder capacity

should be of the size that utilises all posts. The delivery of powder should progress at
a minimum of 45 seconds.
Below is an example of this with the following data: 4 stationary and 4 hand stations:
Stationary: (4 pcs. x min.10kg./s x min. in 45s) = 1800 kg. Hand based: (4 pcs. x
min.3,5kg./s x min. in 45s) = 630 kg. Minimum powder capacity: = 2430 kg.
Technical description
The powder type NaHCO3 and KHCO3 has an extinguishing effect based on a
reaction inhibitor along with some cooling of the fuel surface and the gas face.
Powder is not electrically conductive in dry conditions. To avoid humidity in the
powder, a water-repellent material is added usually silicon.
Dry chemical systems consist of a mechanical part that includes a powder aggregate
with valves, release mechanism, pipe system and jets. Everyone must memorise
maintenance routines and test routines, based on the plant on the specific vessel.
(This is part of the fire drill onboard).
Water - spray system
Dry chemical (foam compatible) extinguishers are available in a range of capacities.

The length of the application hose may have to be limited, in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendation, to maintain nozzle velocity throughout total
discharge.
4.7. Spill containment in relation to fire fighting operations
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is
mostly used to describe marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or

coastal waters. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore
platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such
as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as
bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Another significant route by
which oil enters the marine environment is through natural oil seeps.
Oil spills can be controlled by chemical dispersion, combustion, mechanical

containment, and/or adsorption. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to
clean up.
When the vessel alongside, all of the fire fighting equipment and oil spill prevention
must be standby near of manifold that used. It caused by :
 Mechanical damage
 Human error
On 1926 oil pollution at sea accepted by an international admission in Washington
DC.
The suggestions that give on conferention are:
 Obligatory OWS (Oily Water Separator) installation on vessels that used fuel
oil and load cargo as a contents.
 Determine maritime zone where cannot discharge an oil overboard as :
Dutch, Belgia,Swedish,England, USA. Accepted clauses 50 miles from
nearest land is a prohibited zona of discharge overboard.
Oil spilled on the sea undergoes a series of processes collectively known as
“weathering” which will change its characteristics and behavior. The main factors
affecting the behavior of oil are :
- Physical characteristics of the oil, in particular, specific gravity, viscosity and
boiling range.
- Composition and chemical characteristics of the oil.
- Meteorological conditions (sea state, sunlight and air temperatures) : and
- Characteristics of the seawater (specific gravity, currents, temperature,
presence of bacteria, nutrients and dissolved oxygen and suspended solids).

Oil Slick in the Timor Sea September-2009
So that ship’s personnel must be prepared all of an oil pollution prevention at

manifold’s side, such as:
- Fire fighting monitor
- Fire extinguisher
- Oil Spill Dispersant
- Saw dust
- Broom
- Drum
- Wilden pump
- Scupper plug
- Oil absorbent
For an oil spill response to be effective, an overall strategy needs to be
established and then adjusted in light of the changing pollution situation, the
sensitivity of areas likely to become affected, and the possible measures that
might be available to prevent or mitigate damage.
5. RESPON TO EMERGENCY
Emergency Procedures
This Chapter deals with the preparation of plans both by the terminal and by the
tanker to meet an emergency that may in any way concern the cargo or cargo
handling, as well as the immediate action to be taken in such an emergency.

Particular attention is paid to the procedures to be followed . and the action to be

taken in the event of a fire, because this is potentially the most extreme type of
emergency likely to be encountered, but much of . the guidance is applicable in other
circumstances, and it should be read , with this in mind.
5.1 GENERAL
All tankers and terminals should have procedures ready for immediate
implementation in the event of an emergency. The procedures must anticipate and
cover all types of emergency which might be encountered in the particular activities
of the tanker or terminal. Although the main aim of the procedures will be to respond
to a fire, all other possible emergencies such as hose or pipeline bursts, cargo
overflow, pumproom flooding, men overcome by gas within tanks, breakouts of
vessels, weather or blackouts, must be covered. Similarly, while the deployment of
fire-fighting equipment will be prominent in any emergency procedures, equipment
such as breathing apparatus, resuscitation apparatus and stretchers must also be
covered, together with details of means of escape or exit.
The procedures should be familiar to the personnel involved, who should be

adequately trained and clearly understand the action they would be required to take
when responding to the emergency. This can best be achieved by regularly
exercising the plan. Exercises will also serve to highlight the need for any revisions
to be made to the plan, associated emergency procedures and further training
requirements.
Care should be taken when formulating an emergency plan to ensure that

procedures to alert people or to arrange equipment do not depend too heavily on
one man doing a number of tasks simultaneously.
5.2. TERMINAL EMERGENCY PLAN

5.2.1. Preparation
A terminal emergency plan which covers all aspects of the action to be taken in the
event of an emergency should be developed by all terminals. This plan should be

drawn up in consultation with the port authority, fire brigade, police etc. and be
compatible with any port.
Emergency plan. The plan should include:
• The specific initial action to be taken by those at the location of the emergency
to report, contain and overcome the incident.
• Procedures to be followed in mobilizing the resources of the terminal as
required by the incident.
• Alerting responsibility and procedures.
• Reporting location for personnel involved.
• Emergency organization giving specific duties of each person.
• Communication systems.
• Control centres.
• An inventory, including location details, of emergency equipment.
Each terminal should have an emergency team whose duties involve planning,
implementing and revising emergency procedures as well as executing them. An
emergency plan, when formulated, must be properly documented in an emergency
procedures manual which should be available to all personnel whose work is
connected with the terminal. The main points of the initial response to an emergency,
such as reporting and action to contain and control it, together with the location of all
emergency equipment, should be conspicuously displayed on notices at all strategic
locations within the terminal.
Ships alongside the terminal berths must be advised of the terminal's emergency
plan, particularly:
• Alarm signals.
• Emergency escape routes.
• How to summon assistance in the event of an emergency on board.
5.2.2. Control
It is essential that the terminal emergency plan makes absolutely clear the person, or
persons in order of priority, with overall responsibility for dealing with the emergency.
The responsibility, under that person, for the actions of those parts of the terminal
organisation which may be called upon to participate in the effort to contain and

control the incident must also be clearly laid down. Failure to define lines of
responsibility can easily lead to confusion and to the loss of valuable time.
It is particularly Important that the role of any civil fire-fighting brigade commander is
clearly stated. In some countries it is mandatory that he takes overall charge of all
fire-fighting activities and the terminal's plan must reflect the true relationship
between Civil and terminal fire-fighting controllers before and after the arrival of the
civil fire brigade on the scene.
At major terminals, an office should be designated as a control centre, ready for use
in the event of emergencies. This control centre should be located at a convenient
central point not adjacent to likely hazards, possibly in the main terminal office.
During an emergency the control centre should be manned by a leading
representative from the terminal, port authority, fire brigade, tug company, police or
other appropriate civil authority.
When possible, it may also be desirable that a responsible officer from the casualty
vessel be in attendance at the control centre to give advice. A public relations officer
should be designated to relay information to the public. It Is essential that the
persons who are to man the control centre are aware of its location and of their duty
to proceed there without delay immediately they are alerted. All other alerted
personnel should also report to the main control centre unless another location is
specified in the emergency plan.
A secondary unit, the forward control, may be needed, particularly in the case of
major fires, to take charge of operations at the site of the incident, under the overall
command of the control centre. The forward control should be manned by an
emergency team trained in emergency techniques and completely familiar with their
duties.
To fulfill its purposes the control centre must have good means of communication
(see Sections 14.2.3, 14.2.4 and 14.2.5). It should also be equipped with;
• The terminal emergency plan.
• A prepared list of human and material resources and their location.
• Tape recorder (radio and telephone calls should be recorded).

• Technical information on the installations, etc.
5.2.3 Communications
The control centre should be capable of directing, coordinating and controlling, either
directly or through the forward control, all fire-fighting and other emergency activities,
including advice to shipping. For these purposes it must have a communications
system linking it with:
Within the terminal:
- Fire service (shore and afloat).
- Personnel.
- Medical service.
Outside the terminal:
- Fire service.
- Medical service.
- Harbour authorities.
- Tugs and launches.
- Pilots.
- Police.
- Other appropriate civil authorities.
It may not in practice be possible for small terminals to implement all the
recommendations regarding communications which follow, but they should
endeavour to deploy a communications system adequate for their requirements,
including a fire alarm.
Reliable communications are essential in dealing successfully with emergency
situations. Because of their Importance, consideration should be given to setting up
a secondary system to take over if the main system is put out of action.
5.2.4 Communications System

The purpose of the system should be to handle:
• The sounding of the terminal fire alarm.
• The summoning of assistance.

• The co-ordination and control of all fire-fighting and emergency activities, including
movement of vessels.
The communications system must have the flexibility to cover operations:

• On a tanker.
• On a jetty.
• On adjacent water.
• Elsewhere in the terminal.
Most of the equipment should therefore be portable or mobile, particularly that for
use by t| forward control. Moreover, it should be of a type approved for any location
in which it is like to be used. The most satisfactory system to meet all these
requirements is a UHF/VH transceiver system. Tugs, water-borne fire-fighting
equipment and designated reselllaunches, if available, should be permanently fitted
with UHF/VHF transceiver equipment capable of operation on the channel
designated for emergency use. This channel or channel should .be made known to
relevant personnel involved in the emergency.
As fire-fighting tugs may be used for either the movement of ships or fire-fighting,
they should have at least two separate UHFA/HF channels. When fire-fighting, tugs
must be in direct communication with and under the control of the senior fire-fighting
officer in charge. For communication links from the control centre, the following are
typical methods:
Internal fire service Special fire alarm and normal communication

system
Forward control UHFA/HF transceiver; normal
communication system in reserve.
Personnel and internal medical services Normal communication system
Fire-fighting craft and rescue launches UHFA/HF transceiver; via harbour or port
authorities as reserve
Ships at berths Normal UHF/VHF transceiver link used in f
cargo handling operations. There may be
occasions when it would be helpful to station

a terminal man with a portable radio on a

tanker at a berth
Civil authorities including fire services, police Direct telephone link with failure alarm,
and medical services UHF/VHF transceiver or public telephone
system.
Harbour authorities, pilots, tugs and other
harbor craft
In order to avoid the public telephone system being swamped by incoming telephone
callsf an unlisted outgoing only public telephone should be installed in the control
room.
5.2.5 Communications Discipline

All personnel should understand and appreciate the necessity for strictly observing
rules laid down for using communication links in an emergency. They should receive
frequency instruction on such requirements, which should include the following:
* All section to be allocated a call sign wich should always be used to identify
the section concerned.
* Calls, announcement and conversations to be as brief as possible consistent
with intelligibillity.
* Calls from the control centre to take priority over all other calls.
* Only persons authorised to do so under the terminal emergency plan to use
the
communication system
A log of the incident, communications and primary events should be kept at the
control centre
5.2.6 Fire-Fighting Equipment Plan

A fire-fighting equipment plan showing clearly the location and particulars of all fire-
fighting equipment on or immediately adjacent to the berth should be permanently
displayed on the berth.

5.2.7 Access to Equipment

Fixed and portable fire-fighting equipment , resuscitation equipment etc. should be
kept free of obstructions at all times.
5.2.8 Vehicle Movement and Control

Jetty approaches and jetty heads should be kept free of obstruction to the movement
of vehicles at all times. Packaged cargo or stores for a ship should therefore not be
stacked on the jetty in the path of what will be the direct access in the event of an
emergency. Vehicles permitted onto a jetty or a jetty approach should not be
immobilized and ignition keys should not be removed unless in a designated car park
not forming part of an emergency turning or passing area. Escape routes should be
clearly identified.Where possible a one-way traffic system should be considered.
During an emergency, traffic into a terminal or on to berths must be strictly limited to

vehicles required to deal with the emergency or to render assistance. When
available, and if it is practicable , local police should be requested to exercise control
well outside the terminal so that the roads which converge on the terminal are kept
free for essential traffic movement.
5.2.9 Use of Municipal and Port Services

A terminal emergency plan should make the best possible use of the servie which
can be relied upon to be available. In such circumstances, success in dealing with an
emergency could depend upon the degree of co-operation achieved and upon prior
combined training carcarried out with these services. Frequent opportunities should
be taken to have combined exercises simulating terminal emergencies.
If a terminal is located in an area where a concentration of industry exists, it may be
practicable to sponsor a mutual assistance plan.
5.2.10 Harbour Authorities, Police and Fire Services

All emergencies should be reported to the harbour authority.

Any emergency that requires, or might requiere, assistance beyond the resources of
the terminal should immediately be reported to the local fire services or the local
police.
5.2.11 Pilots
If in an emergency, the partial or total evacuation of jetties is decided upon, the local
pilotage organisations may be called upon at short nitice to provide a number of
pilots to advise on the handling of ships not involved.
5.2.12 Tugs
If tugs are used to berth or unberth tankers at a terminal, all or some of them may
be fitted with fire-fighting equipment specially designed to fight fires on tankers at the
terminal berths or on the terminal itself, and they may also be equipped to pump fire-
fighting water into the| terminal's fire main system.
Where the fire-fighting capability of tugs is part of a terminal's planned response to
fires on-tankers or on the terminal itself, they must be made available as soon as
they are required their contribution is to be effective. Arrangements must be made
with the pilots so that, should these tugs be assisting a ship berthing or unberthing at
the terminal or in some other part of the harbour when a fire emergency occurs, they
can be released in the shortest. possible time to assist in fire-fighting. When these
tugs are idle between routine tasks, they must be moored with easily slipped
moorings, within easy reach and, where possible, within sight of the terminal, and
must keep a continuous radio and visual watch on the terminal. Where the
attendance of these fire-fighting tugs at a fire cannot be assured within a reasonable
time scale, their contribution to the fire-fighting plans of the terminal should be
downgraded accordingly.
The decision to use tugs to assist in fighting a fire on a tanker or on the terminal, or
to use them to sail other vessels in danger of becoming involved, should be made by
the person in overall charge of the fire-fighting and in conjunction with the harbour
authority. Fire-fighting tugs should be equipped with UHFA/HF radio with separate
channels for towing and fire-fighting and, when fire-fighting, they must be in direct
contact with and under the control of the person in overall charge of the fire-fighting.

Tugs should not fight fires independently of the person in charge of fire-fighting as
this could impede his fire-fighting strategy.
Tugs with fire-fighting equipment should be inspected regularly to ensure that their
equipment and foam compound stocks are in good condition. Tests of the fire pump
and monitors should be carried out weekly. The foam filling points on the tugs must
be kept clear so as to be immediately ready for use.
A decision should be made as part of the terminal emergency plan as to whether
trained fire fighters should board the tug or whether the crew will be used for fire-
fighting duties. The decision should be supported with appropriate training for the
chosen fire fighters (see Section 5.2.17).
5.2.13 Rescue Launches

A launch or launches, if available, should be detailed in an emergency to provide for:
 The recovery of personnel who may be in the water.
 The evacuation of personnel trapped on a tanker or on a berth.
Launches detailed for these duties should have the following equipment:
 A communication link capable of being integrated into the control centre
communication system.
 Fixed or portable searchlights for operations during darkness or periods of
reduced
visibility.
 Blankets, as personnel recovered from the water are likely to be suffering
from cold and shock.
 Portable boarding ladders to facilitate entry into the launch; personnel in the
water may have little or no reserve energy and may be unable to help
themselves.
 Self contained breathing apparatus.
 Resuscitation equipment.
5.2.14 Medical Facilities

Terminal and outside medical facilities should be alerted at once depending upon the
nature of the emergency. As soon as possible they should be told:

• The nature and location of the emergency.

• The likelihood or number of casualties.
• Whether medical staff are required at the location of the emergency.
As soon as details of casualties are known, they should be passed to the appropriate
medical authorities, together with their names if available.
5.2.15 Harbour Authorities and Vessel Traffic Control Centres

The local harbour authority and vessel traffic control centre, if there is one, should be
informed of any emergency involving the terminal, or ships berthed or moored at the
terminal, with details of:
• The nature and extent of the emergency.
• The nature of the ship or ships involved, with locations and cargo details.
• The nature of assistance required.
This information will be required to enable the harbour authority and vessel traffic
control centre to decide whether to restrict navigation within the port area or to close
the port.
5.2.16 Emergency Removal of a Tanker From a Berth

If a fire on a tanker or on a berth cannot be controlled it may be necessary to
consider whether or not the tanker should be removed from the berth. Planning for
such an eventuality may require consultation between a port authority representative
or harbour master, the responsible terminal official, the master of the tanker and the
senior local authority fire officer. The plan should stress the need to avoid precipitate
action which might increase, rather than lessen, the danger to the personnel, the
tanker, the terminal, other ships berthed nearby and other adjacent installations.
If it is necessary to remove from a berth a tanker which may be on fire, the

circumstances may be such that the ship's crew is unable to assist. The terminal
emergency plan should therefore make provision for manpower for closing valves,
disconnecting hoses or arms, unmooring the tanker and for operating fire-fighting
equipment without assistance from the tanker's personnel, (see Section 3.7).
The plan should cover :

• Designation of the person, or persons in order of priority, with the authority to

decide whether or not to remove a tanker which is on fire from its berth.
• Action to be taken with respect to ships at other berths.
• Designation of safe locations to which a tanker on fire can be moved under
controlled` conditions, if it is"dekided to move the ship.
The decision whether to remove a`tanker under controlled conditions or to retain it at

the berth should, in the first instance, be based on the preservation of life, but can
also involve`consideration of:
• The capability of fire-fighting equipment at the terminal and readily available from
nearby sources.
• The availability of tugs to assist in semoving the tanker from the berth.
• The ability of the tanker to move under its own power.
• The availability of safe locations to which a tanker on fire can proceed or be
towed and possibly beached.
• The ivailability!of adequate fire-fighting equipment and personnel to fight a fire if
a tanker is vowed to a safe, and probably remote, location.
• The proximity of other ships at the terminal.
• The shipping and other facilities in the area and the possibility of closure of the
port for a period.
• The availability of equipment for controlling any pollution.
• The relative investment and earning and capacity of the tanker and of the
terminal facilities that could become inoperative or be destroyed by the fire.
5.2.17 Training and Drill

The drill of training given to terminal personnel in fire prevention and fire-fighting may
depend upon whether thmre is a permanent fire-fighting unit attached to the terminal
or to a personnel nearby, or whether arrangements have been made for speedy
assistance from an outside source.
Selected terminal personnel whould receive instruction in the use of the fire-fighting
and emergency equipment available at the terminal. All personnel working at
terminals should receive instruction in fire prevention and in basic fire-

fighting(techniques Periodic refresher training should be provided, supplemented by

fire drills).
Crews of tugs which can be used for fire-fighting should receive instruction and
training in fighting oil fires in co-operation with land-based fire-fighting services. In
order to utilise fully the tugs' fire-fighting equipment and capability during an
emergency, it may be necessary to supplement the crew with trained shore
personnel. Opportunities should be provided at frequent intervals for combined
practices involving the tugs and shore fire-fighting services.
Opportunities may arise whereby a combined fire practice or conference can be
arranged between shore personnel and crew members of a tanker at a berth without
imposing an operational delay on either the terminal or the tanker. This would help to
make the tanker personnel familiar with the fire-fighting equipment ashore. Shore
personnel would also have the opportunity of becoming familiar with the types and
locations of fire-fighting equipment on board and of being instructed in any design
features on tankers which may require special attention in case of fire.
5.3 TANKER EMERGENCY PLAN

5.3.1 Preparation
Planning and preparation are essential if personnel are to deal successfully with
emergencies on board tankers. The master and other officers should consider what
they would do in the event of various types of emergency, such as fire in cargo
tanks, fire in the engine room, fire in the accommodation, the collapse of a person in
a tank, the ship breaking adrift from her berth, the emergency release of a tanker
from her berth etc.
They will not be able to foresee in detail what might occur in all such emergencies
but good advance planning will result in quicker and better decisions and a well
organized reaction to the situation
The following information should be readily available:
• Type of cargo, amount and disposition.
• Whereabouts of other hazardous substances.
• General arrangement plan.
• Stability information.
• Fire-fighting equipment

5.3.2 Emergency Organization

An emergency organization should be set up which will come into operation in the
event of an emergency. The purpose of this organization will be in each situation to :
• Raise the alarm.
• Locate and assess the incident and possible dangers.
• Organize manpower and equipment.
The following suggestions are for guidance in planning an emergency organization,
which should cover the following four elements:
Command Centre
There should be one group in control of the response to the emergency with the
master or the senior officer on board in charge. The command centre should have
means of internal and external communication.
Emergency Party
This group should be under the command of a senior officer and should assess the
emergency and report to the command centre on the situation, advising what action
should be taken and what assistance should be provided, either from on board or, if
the ship is in port, from ashore.
Back up Emergency Party

The back up emergency party under the command of an officer should stand by to
assist the emergency party as instructed by the command centre and to provide
back up services, e.g. equipment, stores, medical services Including cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation etc.
Engineering Group
This group should be under the command of the chief engineer or the senior
engineering officer on board and should provide emergency assistance as instructed
by the command centre. The prime responsibility for dealing with any emergency in
the main machinery spaces will probably rest with this group. It may be called on to
provide additional manpower elsewhere.
The plan should ensure that all arrangements apply equally well in port and at sea.

Preliminary Action
The person who discovers the emergency must raise the alarm and pass on
information about the situation to the officer on duty who, in turn, must alert the
emergency organization. While this is being done, those on the scene should
attempt immediate measures to control the emergency until the emergency
organization takes effect.
Each group in the emergency organization should have a designated assembly
point, as should those persons not directly involved as members of any group.
Personnel not directly involved should stand by to act as required.
5.3.4 Ship's Fire Alarm Signal

At a terminal the sounding of the ship's fire alarm system should be supplemented by
a series of long blasts on the ship's whistle, each blast being not less than 10
seconds in duration, or by some other locally required signal.
5.3.5 Fire-Fighting Equipment Plans

Fire-fighting equipment plans must be permanently displayed in prominent positions
showing clearly, for each deck, the location and particulars of all fire-fighting
equipment, I dampers, controls, etc. These plans should also be displayed, or be
readily available, at the access points to the ship when it is in port.
5.3.6 Inspection and Maintenance

Fire-fighting equipment should always be ready for immediate use and should be
checked frequently. The dates and details of such checks should be recorded and
indicated on the appliance as appropriate. The inspection of all fire-fighting and other
emergency equipment should be carried out by a responsible officer, and any
necessary maintenance work completed without delay. As soon as possible after an
incident there should be a thorough check of all the equipment used. All breathing
apparatus used should be checked and the bottles recharged. Foam systems should
be flushed through etc.
5.3.7 Training and Drills

Ship's personnel should be familiar with the theory of fire-fighting outlined in Chapter
22 and should receive instruction in the use of fire-fighting and emergency
equipment. Practices and drills should be arranged at intervals to ensure that
personnel retain their familiarity with the equipment.
If an opportunity arises for a combined fire practice or conference with shore
personnel at a terminal (see Section 5.2.17) the master should make an officer
available to show the shore personnel the location of portable and fixed fire-fighting
equipment on board and also to instruct them on any design features of the ship
which may require special attention in case of fire.
5.4 FIRE ON A TANKER AT SEA OR AT ANCHOR

Ship's personnel who discover an outbreak of fire must immediately raise the alarm,
indicating the location of the fire. The ship's fire alarm must be operated as soon as
possible.
Personnel in the vicinity of the fire should apply the nearest suitable extinguishing
agent to attempt to limit the spread of the fire, to extinguish it, and thereafter to
prevent re-ignition. If they are unsuccessful, their actions should very quickly be
superseded by the operation of the tanker's emergency plan.
Any cargo, ballast, tank cleaning or bunkering operations should be stopped

immediately and all valves closed. Any craft alongside should be removed.
After all personnel have been evacuated from the vicinity, all doors, openings and
tank apertures should be closed as quickly as possible and mechanical ventilation
should be stopped. Decks, bulkheads and other structures in the vicinity of the fire,
and adjacent tanks which contain petroleum liquids or are not gas free, should be
cooled with water.
should be maneuvered so as to resist the spread of the fire and allow it to be
attacked from windward.
5.5 FIRE ON A TANKER AT A TERMINAL

5.5.1 Action by Ship's Personnel

If a fire breaks out on a tanker while at a terminal, the tanker must raise the alarm by
sounding the recognized alarm signal consisting of a series of long blasts on the
ship's whistle, each blast being not less than 10 seconds in duration, unless the
terminal has notified the ship of some other locally recognized alarm signal. All
cargo, bunkering, or ballasting operations must be stopped and the main engines
and steering gear brought to a stand by condition.
Once the alarm has been raised, responsibility for fighting the fire on board the ship
will rest with the master or other responsible officer assisted by the ship's crew. The
same emergency organization should be used as when the ship is at sea (see
Section 5.3.2) with an additional group under the command of an officer or senior
rating to make preparations, where possible, for disconnecting metal arms or hoses
from the manifold.
On mobilization of the terminal and, where applicable, the civil fire-fighting forces and
equipment, the master or other responsible officer, in conjunction with the
professional fire fighters, must make a united effort to bring the fire under control.
5.5.2 Action by Terminal Personnel

On hearing a tanker sounding its fire alarm, the person in charge of a berth must
immediately advise the control room. The control room personnel will sound the
terminal fire alarm, inform the port authority and commence shutting down any
loading, discharging, bunkering or deballasting operations which may be taking
place.
The terminal's fire emergency plan will be activated and this may involve shutting
down cargo, bunkering, and ballast handling operations on ships on adjacent or
neighbouring berths. All other ships at the terminal should be informed of the
emergency and, where considered necessary, make preparations to disconnect
metal arms or hoses and bring their engines and steering gear to a state of
readiness.
Where there are fire-fighting tugs, the terminal control room will summon them to
assist in fighting the fire until a decision is made by the person in overall control

whether or not to use them to assist in the evacuation of unaffected ships (see
Section 5.2.16 for the emergency removal of a tanker on fire from a berth).
The terminal control room will be responsible for summoning any outside assistance
such as the civil fire brigade, rescue launches, medical aid and ambulances, police,
harbour authority and p
5.6 FIRE OR EXPLOSION ON A BERTH
5.6.1 Action by Vessels

Should a fire or explosion occur on a berth, the ship or ships at the berth must
immediately report the incident to the terminal control room by the quickest possible
method (VHF/UHF/ telephone contact, sounding ship's siren etc.); shut down all
cargo, bunkering, deballasting and tank cleaning operations; and drain all arms or
hoses ready for disconnecting. The ships' fire mains should be pressurised and
water fog applied in strategic places. The ships' engines, steering gear and
unmooring equipment must be brought to a state of immediate readiness. A pilot
ladder should be put over on the offshore side.
5.6.2 Action by Vessels at Other Berths

On hearing the terminal alarm being sounded or on being otherwise advised of a fire
at the terminal, a ship whose berth is not involved in the fire should shut down all
cargo, bunkering and ballasting operations; bring her fire-fighting capability to a state
of readiness; and make engines, steering gear and mooring equipment ready for
immediate use.
5.7 JETTISON OF CARGO

The jettison of cargo is an extreme measure justified only as a means of saving life
at sea or for the safety of the vessel. A decision to jettison cargo should therefore not
be taken until all the alternative options have been considered in the light of available
information on stability and reserve buoyancy.
If it is necessary to jettison cargo the following precautions should be taken:
• Engine room personnel should be alerted. Depending on the circumstances
prevailing at the time, consideration should be given to changing over engine
room intakes from high to low level.

• Discharge should take place through the sea valve and where possible on the
side opposite to the engine room intakes.
• All non-essential inlets should be closed.
• If discharge must be from the deck level, flexible hoses should be rigged to
extend below the water surface.
• All safety precautions relating to normal operations which involve the

presence of flammable gas in the vicinity of the deck must be observed.
• A radio warning should be broadcast.
6. Take Precaution To Prevent Pollution of the Environment

From The Release of Oil or Chemical
6.1. The Effects of oil and chemical pollution on human and marine
life
6.1.1 Introduction
Research in the 1970's and 1980s led to a dramatic increase in the awareness and
understanding of the effects of oil on the marine environment. Ongoing research
continued to add to this, and more recently has been supported in the 1990's by
comprehensive studies following major oil pollution cases. The following discussion
therefore reflects some thirty years of research and study, from which an extensive
range of knowledge has been established, confirmed by experience in the field.
The effects of a particular spill situation will depend on many factors. These include
the volume of the oil spilled, its physical, chemical and toxicological characteristics
(particularly those that determine the oil's ability to persist in the environment) and
condition (as a floating slick or dispersed in the water column); local conditions at the
time of the spill (e.g., temperature, wind); time of year; the presence of structures or
resources in the path of the spill; and location of the spill in relation to the nature and
mixing of sediments, sea bottom topography and geomorphology of the coast. The
variability of these and other factors and their interaction can lead to a wide range of
ecological, economic and physical effects.

The topic discussions that follow are not intended to suggest any particular order of
priority with regard to effects. The ultimate value placed on various impacts will
depend upon the circumstances surrounding the particular spill event.
A distinction should be made at the outset between the effects of spilled oil itself and
the effects of cleanup measures. Major categories of remedial (control and recovery)
measures include manual, mechanical and chemical means. In some instances, the
remedial measures themselves may have adverse consequences, which are more
fully discussed in subsequent chapters.
6.1.2 Ecological effects

Depending upon the factors noted in the introduction to this chapter, there can be a
variety of ecological effects resulting from a spill. These may include physical and
chemical changes in habitats; changes in growth, physiology and behaviour of
individual organisms and species; toxicity and increased mortality in individual
organisms and species and destruction or modification of entire communities of
organisms through the combined effects of toxicity and smothering.
6.1.3 Physical contamination of biota and habitat

Floating oil may contaminate mammals, birds, and sea turtles that swim or dive
through the surface of the water. If fishing activities take place in the immediate
vicinity of a spill, fishing gear and catch are likely to be contaminated as a result of
contact with oil floating on the surface, dispersed or suspended in the water, and on
rare occasions, with oil that has settled on the seabed. Any sunken oil may cover
valuable habitats (for example, spawning grounds for herring).
The magnitude and persistence of oil contamination in the intertidal zone depend
greatly on the geomorphology and the sediment characteristics of the coast. Steep,
exposed rocky coasts tend to deflect the wave energy and hold floating oil away from
shore. Long-term effects are likely to be minimal on the ecosystems of such areas,
where oil does not persist and rapid recolonization by plants and animals may occur.
On fine sandy beaches the oil is likely to remain on the surface where it can be
removed. However, in some instances, oil on sandy beaches may be covered by the
sand and emerge again later due to the action of wind and tides. On beaches of

cobble, gravel or even coarse sand, the oil may penetrate with the tidal water table
down to hard substrata.
In sheltered tidal flats, mangroves and salt marshes, oil can penetrate into the anoxic
muds, facilitated by animal burrows, decaying root masses and interstitial water
movement, where it may cause local biological effects for long periods. In such
areas, biota are susceptible to physical smothering in the early stages of a spill and
may exhibit chemical contamination of their tissues for extended periods.
6.1.4 Ecotoxicology
In addition to the direct physical effects of smothering or fouling, much of the
mortality that occurs during the early stages of an oil spill results from toxicity of the
more water-soluble, lighter aromatic components of oil. These more toxic
components (e.g., alkyl-sub-stituted benzenes and naphthalenes) generally
disappear relatively quickly. The toxicity of a spill to marine organisms therefore
varies according to the presence and amount of these components in the oil and
whether they have dissipated before exposure to the organisms in question. The
more toxic oils, such as gas oil and kerosene, contain higher proportions of a variety
of more toxic components, but they also tend to dissipate quickly and leave little
residue. Crude oils and medium fuel oil contain less toxic components but are more
persistent and can still exhibit toxicity to marine organisms. Heavier crude oils
contain lower amounts of toxic components but heavy fuel oils may contain light
products blended in, which are more toxic to marine organisms than the heavy fuel
designation might otherwise suggest.
Bioassays have been used extensively to estimate the toxicity of different oil types to
different species and life stages of organisms. Most tests have measured the
mortality of test organisms during an acute exposure period (usually 96 hours). The
96-hour LC-50 (concentration of oil producing mortality of 50% of the test organisms
over the specified period) for most organisms tested falls in the range of 0.5 mg/£ to
10 mg/£ (parts per million). Standard toxicity test conditions, however, may have
limited relevance to actual field exposures in open-water habitats, which usually are
more dynamic and transient. Also, since laboratory tests cannot readily estimate
reproductive potential or survival of organisms under field conditions, these bioassay

results represent very incomplete information about the potential long-term effects of
an oil spill in the natural environment. Nonetheless, they do provide a measure of the
potential for toxicity of a spill during its early stages when concentrations of oil in the
water column are highest. The highest concentrations of oil measured in the water
column during most spills have generally been in the range of 0.2 mg to 0.5 mg/£.
Much higher concentrations of 0.5 mg/£ to 1.0 mg/£ have been measured under
surface oil slicks within 20 km of a subsurface blow-out. Near the wellhead,
measured concentrations exceeded 10 mg/£ in surface waters. However,
concentrations in this range are very short-lived, and exposure of water column
organisms to these levels is likely to be short-term.
The effects of acute toxicity during the early stages of an oil spill may be local or
transient or may persist for several years after the spill depending on the size,
location and season of the spill and the impacted species. If the spill occurs during a
peak period of reproduction, the entire current-year class of organisms in the
immediate area of the spill could be lost, along with the adults and juveniles. Effects
of such magnitude, however, have rarely been observed on a population scale. The
ultimate impact on the population depends on the life span, adult mobility and
reproductive strategy of the species (i.e. planktonic versus sessile larvae). Species
with short life cycles, high adult mobility and/or planktonic larvae typically exhibit only
short-term effects. Long-term effects may be evident in localized or confined areas
where oil is highly persistent.
6.1.5 Bio-accumulation and tainting

Organisms that survive the initial effects of a spill take up petroleum compounds,
both from the surrounding water and sediments, and from contaminated food, and
may deposit them in their tissues. In these instances, it is often difficult to assess the
specific, long-term toxic effects of petroleum compounds on organisms, as these
components commonly act together with other toxic substances already present in
the marine environment. However, it can be generally stated that vertebrates
metabolize and eliminate aromatic compounds very rapidly and efficiently, whereas
invertebrates metabolize aromatic compounds slowly and inefficiently. In rare cases,
accumulated concentrations may reach levels high enough to affect behaviour (e.g.,

ability to escape predators), growth or reproduction and may lead to disease or early
death.
Seafood may become tainted if directly exposed to oil

Fish, crustaceans and molluscs that are exposed either to high concentrations of oil,
or to moderate concentrations for long periods, may acquire an objectionable, oily
odour or flavour, and, as a result, the flesh may be unmarketable. This is a
temporary problem since the components causing the taint are lost when normal
conditions are restored or when the organisms are maintained in clean water.
Depending on the type of oil and prevailing hydrographic and meteorological
conditions, tainting may persist for periods ranging from a few days to several
months. External contamination does not necessarily lead to tainting of the flesh, and
will vary as the lipid content and metabolic rates of the organism change with
season. Because of the serious economic consequences arising from a loss of
sales, considerable care is necessary to prevent contaminated fish and shellfish from
reaching the market. Ideally this should involve organized tasting and chemical
analysis by qualified personnel at the time of the spill. This issue is described in
more detail in the IMO/ FAO publication Guidance on managing seafood safety
during and after oil spills.
6.1.6 Rates of recovery

Ecological recovery of a spill-impacted area is not dependent solely on the amounts
and composition of contaminants that persist after a spill. Repopulation usually
occurs through several phases, involving different species at different times.
Recovery rates depend on the population dynamics (reproduction, growth and
maturation) and ecological interactions (predation, competition, etc.) of replacement
species well after toxicity has decreased below significant levels.
In general, recovery of populations is very rapid in the water column. Significant
effects on plankton populations have not been observed in open water, and those
seen in near-shore systems have been local and transitory, with full recovery in a
few weeks. Toxicity and malformations have been observed in the floating eggs and
larvae of some fish species. However, effects on subsequent year-class strength or
overall productivity are unknown because of high natural variability. Short-term,

sublethal effects on local finfish populations have been observed in heavily oiled
areas after some oil spills, but effects on region-wide productivity were small or not
detectable.
After initial destruction of intertidal or benthic organisms, resistant or opportunistic
species may undergo dramatic population increases and fluctuations in the affected
area. Repopulation by the original species may sometimes be slow. Some near-
shore benthic communities oiled by a major crude oil spill began to show significant
recruitment only in the second year and recovery was still not complete after three to
four years in the most heavily impacted areas. Damage to marshy areas or
mangroves can be transitory, but in other cases may persist for decades if the loss of
vegetation leads to extensive erosion and changes in soil characteristics or
elevation. Damage may also continue if oil persists in the sediment or in surface tar
mats.
6.1.7 Recreational beaches and sea areas

Interference with recreational use and enjoyment of coastal areas is a common
feature of many oil spills. Bathing, diving, fishing, boating, and other water sports
may all be disrupted, particularly when the oil is washed ashore. Tourists can leave
the affected resorts or may entirely avoid the area if there is a general perception of
it having been polluted. As a result, hotel and restaurant owners and others who gain
a livelihood from the tourist trade can be affected. The economic damage is greatest
if the spill occurs just prior to or during a major tourist season. Impacts are typically
short-term and recreational activities normally resume shortly after cleanup has been
completed, although small island states whose economies rely largely on tourism
may experience relatively greater and longer impacts as a result of the spill.
Amenity activities can be disrupted by oil pollution
The need to restore a high degree of cleanliness rapidly at important amenity sites
may call for highly effective cleaning techniques, but these may also be harmful to
local marine life. Certain activities may damage natural sea defences, leading to
potential erosion problems. Sea walls, harbours, and other man-made structures can
also be affected by severe cleaning measures. Care must be taken to ensure that
effects of such remedial measures are minimized, and that restoration of recreation
and amenity areas is balanced against potential adverse ecological impacts.

6.1.8 Ports and marinas

A major oil spill occurring within, or in close proximity to, ports, harbours and marinas
could have far-reaching effects on a variety of activities and resources. These might
include commercial vessel and cargo handling operations, ship building and repair,
passenger ferry services, watersport activities and waterfront tourist attractions, as
well as any environmentally sensitive sites present within the area. In major ports,
the potential for serious economic consequences is high, due to indirect costs
associated with measures that might need to be taken during the response and
cleanup itself.
The principal concern at the outset of an oil spill is one of public and vessel safety.
Spills that occur in areas where the oil remains confined increase the initial risk of
fire or explosion. Public and vessel safety must be addressed immediately and the
necessary actions that are taken to mitigate potential safety hazards could be
economically costly. Areas may need to be closed or access temporarily restricted
for vessels, vehicles, and personnel. Operations such as welding, cutting, or other
spark-generating activities may need to be restricted or prohibited until the risk of fire
hazard no longer exists. Such restrictions and interferences may affect normal
operations in the port, harbour, or marina, to the extent that the indirect costs could
exceed the direct costs associated with any physical damage from collision,
explosion or fire, loss of cargo and cleanup.
Actions taken to minimize or prevent the spread of floating oil, such as the
deployment of booms, or the closure of dock or lock gates, may affect vessel transits
through the affected area. Depending on the nature and extent of a spill, these
restrictions could be broad in scope and may need to be continually adjusted to
reflect the changing situation.
Direct contamination of vessel hulls, mooring ropes, fenders, and work access points
such as steps, ladders, and slip-ways is a common occurrence. An oily film may
adhere to surfaces extending between the high-water and low-water marks of all
structures and objects subject to tidal influence. Inclement weather can impede
cleanup efforts and can serve to spread the oil more quickly to unaffected areas.
Restrictions on normal activities may be needed or imposed until such time as safe

working conditions have been restored and cleanup has advanced sufficiently to
allow normal operations to resume.
Interrupting, restricting, or prohibiting normal shipping and com¬mercial port and
harbour activities, commercial and sport fishing, recreational boating, or other
waterborne activities at port and harbour facilities and/or marinas could affect many
segments of the local economy and extend to those of other communities. In
addition, unsightly oil-covered docks, boat hulls and other structures,an nilv smell,
mav discourage recreational and commercial use of waterfront facilities, and
adversely affect tourism in the area. Some ports and harbours may also contain
environmentally important areas, whose features and sensitivity to oil pollution are
described elsewhere in this chapter.
Various port operations may be affected
6.1.9 Industrial installations

Industries that rely on seawater for their normal operations can be impaired or
damaged by oil. Power stations, in particular, are often located close to the coast in
order to have a ready supply of large quantities of seawater for cooling. If a
substantial quantity of floating or sub-surface oil is drawn into the intakes, it may
pass through the protective screens normally present to remove debris and other
material from the water. If oil then reaches the heat exchangers there is a concern
that their efficiency may be lowered, or, in the case of very viscous or weathered oils,
that the condenser tubes may become blocked, necessitating a shutdown while they
are cleaned. In addition to the deployment of booms or nets across water intakes
when oil is confirmed to be close to the facilities, some installations may operate at
reduced power or even temporarily suspend their operations. In practice, recorded
instances of damage being caused to heat exchangers are very rare.
Desalination plants may also be affected if oil is drawn into the water intakes. The
two processes widely in use for the production of drinking water from seawater are
multistage flash distillation and reverse osmosis. The distillation process would be
affected in a similar way to the condenser tubes in power stations and the membrane
filters in reverse osmosis installations could be damaged if oil were to reach them.
Installations usually have filters and pretreatment processes that prevent the
condensers and membranes from being contaminated during normal operations. In

addition to any measures being taken during an oil spill to protect the intakes, an
added precaution may sometimes be taken to interrupt or slow down operations to
avoid any possible damage, but potentially causing temporary water supply
problems for consumers.
6.1.10 Fish
Direct oil spill effects
Direct kills of adult fish have been observed at only a few oil spills. At other major
spills, some fish were found to have ingested oil and oil contamination of muscle
tissue was found in several instances, giving rise to tainting. Reproductive effects
have been noted after some incidents. Some laboratory experiments have indicated
that fish eggs are very sensitive to extremely low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons
and reduced hatching of fish eggs has been attributed to oil exposure at some spills.
Sub-lethal effects
The effects of sub-lethal exposures of fish to petroleum have been extensively
examined in laboratory experiments. In some cases, exposures to realistic
concentrations (i.e. similar to those observed under field conditions) have produced
effects on reproductive processes including behaviour, fecundity, and success of
fertilization and hatching; have induced aberrations (e.g., of development, behaviour,
biochemical processes, and subcellular structure) that could lead to premature death
through increased susceptibility to predation or disease; and also induced
carcinogenesis and mutagen¬esis. Some of these laboratory observations have
been supported by field observations, either under spill circumstances or in
chronically contaminated marine environments. Detectable effects have usually been
confined to the immediate vicinity of the spill, or the effects of the oil have been
obscured by the presence of other contaminants at the site.
The formation of tumours has been detected in field populations of fish and molluscs,
and the incidence of tumours has been related to exposure to polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons or petroleum products arising from sources other than oil spills.

Existing data indicates biomagnification of hydrocarbons does not occur in marine

food webs, and the concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in human
foods of marine origin are not usually high compared with other dietary sources.
Consumption of fish and shellfish from coastal areas that receive repeated oil spills
along with chronic discharges of oily wastes from ships or from land-based sources
would, however, increase the intake of hydrocarbons by human consumers.
Long-term effects on fish stocks

Fish stocks probably have not been affected significantly by individual oil spills,
isolated in time and space from others. While it is clear that large spills can impact
local populations or year-classes of fish for periods of up to two years, these effects
have not been detectable in regional catch data. The lack of demonstrated effects is
due to many factors, including confinement of serious effects to localized areas,
ability of adult fish to avoid the spill, ability of adult and juvenile fish to repopulate an
impacted area after the spill has dissipated, the dispersion and transport of fish eggs
and larvae from adjoining areas, the high degree of natural variability in fisheries
populations and in the levels and effects of overfishing. As a result of the mobility of
the fish and the other sources of variability in the catch data, it is unlikely that
changes in future catches can be attributable to spill effects, except in extremely
localized or confined areas or in areas subjected to repeated spills and discharges.
Fish and shellfish farming and seaweed cultivation

Fish and shellfish that are confined in floating cages or in near-shore enclosures or
pens cannot escape from the path of an oil spill, and may suffer mortality or tainting
unless they can be removed prior to arrival of the oil. Organisms that may be
suspended in the water column beneath floating racks or buoys (e.g., oysters,
seaweed, kelp) are less subject to direct mortalities from oil spills. Contamination of
these organisms may still occur through bio-accumulation of dispersed or dissolved
oil, or through physical contact with floating oil, as they are harvested. If bio-
accumulation and tainting are minimal, recovery of the harvest may be satisfactory
following a period of depuration, either on site after the spill has dissipated or by
relocation.

Intertidal areas of shellfish culture are particularly susceptible to spill effects. The
shoreline effectively traps any oil that may be transported there and holds it while
successive tides deposit and redeposit it in the intertidal zone. Wave action may
disperse the oil throughout the shallow water column and mix it into sediment layers.
Together, these processes can cause direct physical contammination of the shellfish;
bio-accumulation and tainting of the edible tissues and persistent chemical
contamination of the sediment, rendering the environment potentially unsuitable for
shellfish production for several years. In areas remote from the spill, shellfish may be
saved by immediate harvest before the spill arrives. Shellfish in moderately
contaminated areas may be relocated to clean areas for depuration or cleansing of
the tissues. Shellfish in more heavily contaminated areas might have to be
destroyed. Where sediments have been contaminated, restoration may be
accelerated in a number of ways during shoreline cleanup.
Economically important algae and other plants in the intertidal zone may be broken
away from their rocky substrata by the weight of oil clinging to the fronds. Small
decreases in population density may occur for a year after the spill. Cultured
seaweeds grown on floating nets are particularly prone to contamination by floating
or dispersed oil. Submerged plants, such as kelps, are less vulnerable to spills
because of the depths at which they occur.
Commercial considerations (fisheries)

Apart from the effects of oil on fish stocks, an oil spill can have an immediate
physical and economic impact on fishing activities. Fishing ports may be unusable,
either because they are contaminated by oil or because they have been closed to
avoid contamination. Fishing vessels and gear may be fouled by oil. Fishing
grounds, regardless of whether or not stocks have been damaged by oil, might be
inaccessible either because of oil or because of counter-pollution activities in the
area. The oil contamination might present fire or health hazards to fishermen.
Fishing vessels in port
Clearly all these factors are likely to have an effect on the amount of fish available to
be sold but, in addition, adverse publicity arising from the incident might lead to
public concern about the quality of

fish on the market. This can result in loss of sales over a wider area than that
actually affected by the spill.
6.1.11 Marine mammals

Many types of marine mammals (including seals, otters, whales, porpoises, dolphins,
walruses and dugongs etc.) can be observed in areas affected by oil spills, either
swimming in oil-covered waters or in some cases coming ashore, for example to
breed. These observations suggest that these mammals do not actively avoid oil, at
least under some circumstances. Most reports of spill effects on marine mammals
involve oil fouling of the pelage or fur of seals and otters. Although mortalities have
no doubt been associated with oil exposure in some cases, the actual cause of death
for an oiled marine mammal found dead on a beach is difficult to establish with
certainty.
Kinds of effects
Exposure to oil may occur through physical contact with floating, dispersed or
stranded oil, by ingestion of oil or contaminated food or by inhalation. ''
Animals that depend on fur or hair for thermal insulation (such as otters and fur
seals) suffer loss of body temperature when their fur is fouled with oil. Most other sea
mammals rely on blubber and vascular constriction for controlling their body
temperatures and thus are more resistant to the thermal effects of oiling.
Marine mammals confined close to the source of a spill, or surfacing repeatedly in
fresh oil slicks, will inhale vapours of petroleum. While prolonged inhalation of high
vapour levels could cause death or nervous system damage, short-term inhalation is
likely to produce only mild inflammation of mucous tissues. Because the volatile
components of oil disappear within hours of a spill, animals away from the immediate
area of a spill are not likely to suffer serious consequences of inhalation.
Mammals other than otters are unlikely to consume significant quantities of oil except
through ingestion of contaminated food. During feeding, baleen whales may
encounter oil dispersed in the water column, but they are more likely to consume oil
that was ingested first by their zoo planktonic prey.
Seals and otters

During pupping season, seals are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Seal pups may
be smothered by thick deposits of oil. New-born seals possess little fat and depend
on their fur for temperature regulation, and therefore are susceptible to hypothermia
as a result of oil fouling. Oiled fur seal pups suffer from high rates of mortality.
Because seals are sensitive to all types of disturbances when pups are present,
wildlife management officials should be consulted in carrying out cleanup activities
near breeding or pupping areas.
Unless otters are quickly and properly cleaned, fouling of their fur is likely to cause
death, either through hypothermia or as a result of oil ingestion or aspiration of oil
into the lungs during grooming. Although ingestion of oil for short periods usually
does not result in serious effects, prolonged consumption may lead to organ damage
and hormonal imbalances.
Other marine mammals

Documented effects of oil spills are rare or non-existent for most other marine
mammals, including walruses, whales, porpoises and mana¬tees. Due to their
herbivorous habits, it is possible that ingestion of oil, for example by manatees, could
disrupt the normal digestive functions of microbes in the gut, but this has not been
documented.
6.1.12 Sea turtles

Sea turtles can be exposed to spilled oil while feeding, surfacing to breathe or
nesting on beaches contaminated by stranded oil. Observed effects include toxic
responses to vapour inhalation and oil ingestion, interference with salt gland
function, skin irritation and lesions, and blockage of throat passages by ingested oil
and tar balls. Fresh oil is also highly toxic to turtle eggs, especially during the later
stages of development.
6.1.13 Marine birds

Aquatic birds are the most visibly vulnerable to oil spills. Many species depend on
the sea and coastal areas for food and nesting habitat. Some species reside
permanently in one area, while others migrate seasonally over long distances. Those
species that spend most of their time on the water, stay in groups, and have a low

reproductive rate are particularly vulnerable to oil spill effects. In addition, some
species (auks and sea ducks) cannot fly during their moulting period, and others
(penguins) do not fly at all. Sea-birds may come into contact with floating oil at sea
by swimming into the slick, diving through it or surfacing into it from below.
Shorebirds may also be impacted while feeding or nesting on oiled beaches.
Direct physical effects

High mortality is likely when sea-birds encounter oil at sea because it clogs the
interstitial spaces of the feathers which provide thermal insulation and water
repellency for the bird. Loss of insulation leads to increased metabolic activity and
depletion of energy reserves, leading to hypothermia. The loss of repellency allows
water to soak the plumage, decreasing buoyancy and increasing the energy required
for the bird to remain afloat. During extended periods of stormy weather, birds may
be more vulnerable due to limited feeding and diminished energy reserves, and
starving results. While drown-ing and hypothermia are considered the principal
causes of death for oiled birds, sea-birds that ingest oil may also starve to death due
to the formation of bleeding ulcers on the mucous membranes of the birds' stomach
and guts. Even a small patch of oil on the birds' plumage may lead to death through
the causes noted above and most sea-birds usually die within days after fouling by
oil.
Long-term effects
Birds are known to ingest oil, both through preening of their oiled plumage and
through consumption of contaminated food. In laboratory experiments with birds, oil
ingestion has led to a variety of pathological effects, along with depression of egg
production, decreased hatching success, and reduced growth in young birds. Direct
application of fresh oil to the surface of incubating eggs (as may occur if a brooding
adult were to become oiled) can also cause abnormal development or death of the
embryo. During one actual spill, shorebirds avoided the oiled beaches along the
coast and moved to less preferred feeding habitats. Oiled shorebirds also spent less
time feeding than did unoiled birds. The significance of these effects has not been
demonstrated under major spill conditions in the field, but it is likely to be small
relative to the direct mortalities due to oiling.

Effects on populations
With only a few possible exceptions, oil spills appear not to have had major effects
on the overall populations of the species involved. The annual mortality may be
naturally high for many species of sea-birds, especially during winter storm events,
relative to mortality caused by spills. Species that are dispersed over large ranges,
therefore, are unlikely to suffer notable population decreases except on small and
local scales. By contrast, species that are very restricted in their ranges, or that
congregate at some time of year in a restricted location, are much more vulnerable
to impacts from a major spill. Most vulnerable, perhaps, are those species with
limited ranges that are subjected to repeated spills and low-level oil pollution from
nearby shipping routes or oil terminals. Once impacted by a spill, local populations
may recover quickly if the mortality is minimal.
6.1.14 Coral communities and ecosystems

Coral reefs are highly productive ecosystems in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world supporting a diverse range of organisms, including many commercial fish
species. Coral reefs may be important in providing income to local communities
through tourism and they also act as a barrier, reducing coastal erosion. Their
location in near-shore waters means they can potentially be affected by oil spills. In
more recent years, field studies have been made of the effects of oil spills, and
research is ongoing. Further information is available in the IMO publication Field
guide for oil spill response in tropical waters.
Effects on corals
The likelihood of oil affecting corals depends on factors such as the size of the spill
and type of oil, the type of coral reef and its depth, the local wave energy and the
current state of stress of the corals (arising from other external influences, such as
sediment loading).
The greatest damage is likely to occur through physical smothering if an oil slick is
stranded on the upper parts of the reef (the reef flat) at low tide. Submerged reefs
may be exposed to oil droplets in the water, especially if the oil is either dispersed
through high wave energy or by the application of chemical dispersants. If oil slicks
float over submerged reefs, without significant dispersion, adverse effects are likely

to be minimal and recovery very rapid. Deep corals are unlikely to come into contact
with oil unless it adheres to sediment particles that are being deposited on the coral.
Oil spills have occurred in the vicinities of coral reefs and near shorelines with
fringing intertidal reef communities. These spills have caused substantial mortality
among the fish and invertebrates (including lobsters, crabs, gastropods, bivalves,
octopus, sea urchins, sea stars, and sea cucumbers) in intertidal areas, on the
surfaces and margins of coastal fringing reef platforms and in adjacent shallow
subtidal areas. Natural algal species and sea grasses were also destroyed in many
of these areas. In general, however, the subtidal reef corals tend to survive these
individual events.
Many corals generate large quantities of mucus when exposed to oil and this may
protect them from more serious damage. Exposure of corals to dispersed oil causes
a variety of responses that may influence the long-term effects of pollution. Oiling
impairs the reproductive process, reducing both the numbers of breeding colonies
and the number of larvae produced per coral head and decreasing the rate of larval
settlement on artificial substrates. Some coral larvae are ordinarily released only at
night and exposure causes premature release of the larvae and decreases chances
of their survival. Impaired feeding responses have also been noted in corals exposed
to oil. These reproductive and feeding effects may account for decreases in coral
and fish diversities observed in areas near oil terminals where there is considerable
tanker traffic and where more regular, small operational spills may occur.
Dense growths of green algae frequently appear in impacted reef zones after the
initial mortalities associated with a spill. These blooms probably result from an
abundance of available nutrients and the absence of large populations of grazing
organisms. After the initial toxicity has dissipated, recruitment of planktonic larvae
and adult organisms can begin from nearby unaffected areas. Recovery of impacted
reef communities occurs in most cases within a few years.
6.1.15 Wetland communities and ecosystems

The plant communities of coastal areas are important for their contribution of organic
production to coastal marine ecosystems, provision of habitat to large numbers of
marine invertebrates and vertebrates, and stabilization of shorelines against the

erosion effects of sea and wind. These plant communities (mangrove forests in
tropical areas and salt marshes at higher latitudes) and their associated fauna are
highly vulnerable to impact from oil spills in coastal waters.
Factors affecting impacts of oil

Saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems possess several physical features in common
which contribute to their sensitivity to oil spills. These include a network of channels
that help to transport oil deep into the vegetated coastal margin; low wave energy
(so that natural dissipation is minimal) and a preponderance of fine, highly organic,
anaerobic sediments that entrap the oil and hold it for long periods. Mangroves are
particularly sensitive because a coating of oil may impede the uptake of oxygen
through the pores on their aerial root systems.
Effects, persistence and recovery

The immediate effects of an oil spill in temperate saltmarsh systems are destruction
of invertebrates and those portions of the marsh plants above ground. Unless the
marsh area is subjected to very rapid erosion, or to physical disruption of surface
sediments (i.e. during cleanup operations), the extensive underground root system of
the plants is likely to survive the oiling. If the sediment surfaces are not greatly
disturbed, recovery of the plant community usually begins within one year, although
the plants may exhibit reductions in growth and reproductive capacity and
abnormalities in seed forma¬tion. Vegetative recovery is likely within three to ten
years, even though oil components will probably persist in the soft, fine-grained
sediments for up to ten years or more. Disruption or removal of sediment surfaces
and the underground root system, by contrast, may result in very long-term changes
in nutrient content of the sediments and prolong the process of recovery.
Oiling of mangroves decreases the rate of successful rooting in seedlings. Mature
trees are generally less sensitive than young trees. Minor oiling of plant aerial roots
can usually be survived. Severe oiling leads to partial or complete loss of leaves, and
trees that lose all their leaves generally do not recover. Partially defoliated trees,
however, may begin recovery within four months, although recovery varies according
to the severity of the initial impact. Functional recovery of an impacted area may take
five to ten years, including recovery of the leaf canopy and the detritus cover on the

root mats. A totally devastated mangrove forest may take several decades to return
to a fully mature state. Restoration of both mangrove and saltmarsh communities
may be enhanced by artificial reseeding or by transplanting young plants from other
unaffected areas.
6.1.16 Nature reserves and marine parks

Effects of oil on nature reserves and marine parks will vary, depending upon the
ecological characteristics of the area and the particular species they support. Effects
may be especially significant with regard to nature reserves and marine parks that
have been accorded special status in recognition of their unique characteristics or
because they support rare, endangered or threatened species. Oil spilled in such
areas may result in irretrievable loss. For this reason, special protection is advised
for those areas. See the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II - Contingency Planning.
Nature reserves and marine parks that are established primarily for recreational
purposes will suffer consequences similar to other recreational areas. Such
consequences are often temporary.
6.2. Shipboard procedures to prevent pollution

6.2.1 Operational Spills
6.2.1.1 Operational Spill Prevention
Crew members shall maintain a close watch for the escape of oil during bunker
operations.
Prior to bunker transfer the competent crew members should mobilize the oil spill
equipment, as far as available on board, and place it close to the planned operation,
e.g. along the railing on the side at which bunker operation takes place.
Before bunker handling commences, all deck scuppers and open drains must be
effectively plugged. Accumulations of water should be drained periodically and
scupper plugs replaced Immediately after the water has run off. Any free floating oil
or oil droplets should be removed prior to draining.
Bunker tanks which have been topped up should be checked frequently during the
remaining bunker operations to avoid an overflow.

Unless there are permanent means for retention of any slight leakage at ship/ shore
connections for bunker transfer, it is essential that a drip tray is in place to catch any
leaking oil.
The removed bunker oil and the used clean-up material should be retained on board
in proper containment units until it can be discharged to a reception facility.
6.2.1.2 Pipeline Leakage

If a leakage occurs from a pipeline, valve, hose or metal arm, operations through that
connection should be stopped immediately until the cause has been ascertained and
the defect remedied.
Defective pipe sections should be isolated. Affected sections should be drained
down to an available empty or slack tank.
If a leakage occurs from a hydraulic pipeline, operations should be stopped
immediately. Initiate clean-up procedures.
Inform In line with Section 2 all parties interested about Pipeline Leakage and the
actions taken so far
6.2.1.3 Tank Overflow
If there is a tank overflow all bunker operations should be stopped immediately and
should not be restarted until the fault has been rectified and all hazards from the
released oil have been eliminated.
If there is any possibility of the released oil or oil vapours entering an engine room
intake appropriate preventive steps must be taken quickly.
Promptly shift bunker oil from the tank overflowed to an available empty or slack tank
or prepare pump(s) or transfer the excess ashore.
Initiate clean-up procedures.
Inform in line with Section 2 all parties Interested about Tank Overflow and actions
taken so far.
6.2.1.4 Hull Leakage

Identify leaking tank; consider diver if necessary and possible. Reduce level in tank
in question well below sea level.
If it is not possible to identify the leaking tank, reduce level in all tanks in vicinity. In
this case give careful consideration to hull stress and stability.
If there Is a spillage due to suspected hull leakage reduce the head of bunker and
promptly transfer the bunker oil to an available empty or slack tank or, if berthed,
discharge ashore in suitable barges/ tanks.
Inform in line with SECTION 2 all parties interested about Hull Leakage and the
actions taken so far.
6.2.1.5 Spills caused by Equipment in Machinery Spaces

If operational oil spills are caused by a failure of equipment in machinery spaces any
further operations of this equipment should be stopped immediately or measures are
to be taken to avoid an oil spill.
Such equipment may be;
• Oily-water separating equipment or oil filtering equipment to deoil bilge water
from the engine room bilges
• Valves in pipes connecting ballast/ bilge systems
• Cooling pipes in oil cooler systems
• Gearing of bow thrusters
• Stern tubes
6.2.2 Spills Resulting From Casualties

In the event of a casualty the Master's first priority is to ensure the safety of the
ship's personnel, and to initiate actions which may prevent escalation of the incident
and marine pollution..
6.2.2.1 Ship grounded / stranded

The Masters priority should be to ensure that he as soon as possible receives
detailed information about the damage that the ship has been sustained, in order to

determine remedial action to be taken for ensuring the safety of the ship and its
crew.
Furthermore, the Master should also consider
• Danger to the ship's complement if the ship should slide off grounding site
• Danger of ship being shattered by heavy seas or swell
• Health hazards to the ship's crew and surrounding population due to release
of oil or other hazardous substances in dangerous concentrations
• That fires may start due to released flammable substances and uncontrolled
ignition sources
• Should the damage which the ship has sustained be of such an extent that
the stability cannot be computed on board, the Master should seek assistance
according to subparagraph 3.6
Also, the ship's Master shall take into account the following considerations:
• Is the vessel constantly being struck in the seaway?
• Is the vessel exposed to torsion?
• Is there a large difference in the tidal rangers at the grounding site?
• Are there strong tidal currents in the grounding area?
• May the vessel drift further up on the shore, due to high tides, wind and
waves?
6.2.2.1.1 Prevention of Fire and Explosion

If the ship Is aground and therefore cannot manoeuvre, all possible sources of
Ignition should be eliminated and action taken to prevent flammable vapours from
entering the machinery spaces or the accommodation.
6.2.2.1.2 Extension of Hull Damage / Containment System Failure

First, a visual inspection should be carried out.
Check for visible oil along hull or in wake of the ship during day time. At night a stick
with white cloth (or sheet of sorbent) around it may be lowered into the water
alongside the ship to check for oil leakages.
All ballast/bunker tanks to be sounded (ullage), all other compartments which may
have contact with the sea should be sounded to ensure that they are intact.

Soundings of ballast tanks/ bunkers tanks are to be compared with last soundings to
check for possible leaks.
Sounding to be taken around the ship establish the ship's position on the grounding
area.
When the ship is aground, due regards should be given to the indiscriminate opening
of ullage plugs, sighting ports etc. as loss of buoyancy could be the result of such
actions.
Any list of the ship shall be noted and included In the report for assistance.
6.2.2.1.3 Procedures to Reduce or Stop Outflow of Oil

The Master should assess the possibility of damage to the environment and
whatever action can be taken to reduce further damage from an oil release, such as:
• Transfer of bunkers internally provided shipboard piping system Is In an
operational condition
• If the damage is fairly limited and restricted, i.e. to one or two tanks,
consideration should be given to transfer of bunkers internally from the
damaged tank(s) to intact tanks, taking into account the impact on the ship's
overall stress and stability
• Isolate damaged/ penetrated bunker tank(s) hermetically to ensure that
hydrostatic pressure In tanks remains intact during tidal changes
• Evaluate possibility of pumping water into a damaged tank in order to form a
water bottom stopping the out flow of oil
• Evaluate the necessity of transferring bunkers to barges or other ships and
request such assistance accordingly
• Evaluate the possibility of additional release of oil.
In case of large differences between the tide levels, the Master should try to isolate
the damaged tank(s) to reduce additional loss of bunker oil.
6.2.2.1.4 Refloating by own Means

The Master should also evaluate the question of refloating the vessel by own means.
Before such an attempt is made, it must be determined:

• whether the ship is damaged in such a way that It may sink, break up or
capsize after getting off
• whether the ship after getting off may have maneuvering problems upon
leaving the dangerous area by own means
• whether machinery, rudder or propeller are damaged due to grounding or may
be damaged by trying to get off ground by own means
• whether the ship may be trimmed or lightened sufficiently to avoid damage to
other tanks in order to reduce additional pollution from oil/ bunker spillage
• weather evaluation: whether there is time/ reason to await improvements in
weather or tide.
6.2.2.1.5 Securing the Ship

If the risk of further damage to the ship is greather in an attempt to refloat the ship.by
own means, than in remaining aground until professional assistance has been
obtained, the ship's Master should try to secure the ship as much as possible by:
• Trying to prevent the ship from moving from 1st present position
• By dropping anchors (adequate water depth and anchor ground provided)
• By taking ballast into empty tanks, if possible
• Trying to reduce longitudinal strain on hull by transferring ballast or bunkers
internally
• Reducing fire risk by removing all sources of ignition.
Inform in line with Section 2 all parties Interested about the Grounding and the
actions taken so far
6.2.3. Fire/ Explosion

Should an explosion and a fire occur on board, sound the GENERAL ALARM
immediately. Further actions should be initiated in accordance with the ship's Muster
List. In case of fire and explosion the following priorities exist:
• Rescuing lives
• Limiting the damage/danger to the ship and cargo
• Preventing environmental pollution

Steps to control the discharge of oil will depend largely on the damage to ship and
cargo.
Special information thereto is contained in subparagraphs 3.2.4, 3.2.5 and 3.2.6.
Inform in line with Section 2 all parties interested about the Fire/ Explosion and the
actions taken so far.
6.2.4. Collision
Should the ship be involved in a collision with another ship, the Master should as
soon as possible identify the extent of damage to his own vessel.
When a collision occurs, the GENERAL ALARM should be sounded immediately for
the personnel to muster at their designated Muster Stations.
The following check list should assist the Master in assessing the situation:
• Are any tanks penetrated above or below the waterline?
• If ships are dead in the water and interlocked, what is most prudent, to stay
interlocked or separate?
• Is there any oil spill at present - small or large? Will a separation of the
interlocked ships create a larger oil spill than if the ships stay interlocked?
• If there is an oil spill, will the separation of the ships cause sparks that can
Ignite the spilled oil or other flammable substances leaked out from the ships?
• Are the ships creating a greater danger to other traffic in the area if the are
interlocked than If separated?
• Is there a danger to either ship of sinking after being separated
• If the ships are separated, how is the maneuverability of the own ship?
6.3. Measures To Be Taken In The Event Of Spillage
Spills Resulting From Casualties
In the event of a casualty the Master's first priority is to ensure the safety of the
ship's personnel, and to initiate actions which may prevent escalation of the
incident and marine pollution..
A. Ship grounded / stranded

The Masters priority should be to ensure that he as soon as possible

receives detailed information about the damage that the ship has been
sustained, in order to determine remedial action to be taken for ensuring the
safety of the ship and its crew.
Furthermore, the Master should also consider
• Danger to the ship's complement if the ship should slide off grounding
site
• Danger of ship being shattered by heavy seas or swell
• Health hazards to the ship's crew and surrounding population due to
release of oil or other hazardous substances in dangerous
concentrations
• That fires may start due to released flammable substances and
uncontrolled ignition sources
• Should the damage which the ship has sustained be of such an extent
that the stability cannot be computed on board, the Master should seek
assistance according to subparagraph 3.6
Also, the ship's Master shall take into account the following considerations:
• Is the vessel constantly being struck in the seaway?
• Is the vessel exposed to torsion?
• Is there a large difference in the tidal rangers at the grounding site?
• Are there strong tidal currents in the grounding area?
• May the vessel drift further up on the shore, due to high tides, wind and
waves?
1) Prevention of Fire and Explosion

If the ship Is aground and therefore cannot manoeuvre, all possible
sources of Ignition should be eliminated and action taken to prevent
flammable vapours from entering the machinery spaces or the
accommodation.
2) Extension of Hull Damage / Containment System Failure
First, a visual inspection should be carried out.

Check for visible oil along hull or in wake of the ship during day time. At
night a stick with white cloth (or sheet of sorbent) around it may be
lowered into the water alongside the ship to check for oil leakages.
All ballast/bunker tanks to be sounded (ullage), all other compartments
which may have contact with the sea should be sounded to ensure that
they are intact.
Soundings of ballast tanks/ bunkers tanks are to be compared with last
soundings to check for possible leaks.
Sounding to be taken around the ship establish the ship's position on the
grounding area.
When the ship is aground, due regards should be given to the
indiscriminate opening of ullage plugs, sighting ports etc. as loss of
buoyancy could be the result of such actions.
Any list of the ship shall be noted and included In the report for
assistance.
3) Procedures to Reduce or Stop Outflow of Oil
The Master should assess the possibility of damage to the environment
and whatever action can be taken to reduce further damage from an oil
release, such as:
• Transfer of bunkers internally provided shipboard piping system Is
In an operational condition
• If the damage is fairly limited and restricted, i.e. to one or two tanks,
consideration should be given to transfer of bunkers internally from
the damaged tank(s) to intact tanks, taking into account the impact
on the ship's overall stress and stability
• Isolate damaged/ penetrated bunker tank(s) hermetically to ensure
that hydrostatic pressure In tanks remains intact during tidal
changes
• Evaluate possibility of pumping water into a damaged tank in order
to form a water bottom stopping the out flow of oil
• Evaluate the necessity of transferring bunkers to barges or other
ships and request such assistance accordingly
• Evaluate the possibility of additional release of oil.

In case of large differences between the tide levels, the Master

should try to isolate the damaged tank(s) to reduce additional loss
of bunker oil.
4) Refloating by own Means
The Master should also evaluate the question of refloating the vessel by
own means. Before such an attempt is made, it must be determined:
• whether the ship is damaged in such a way that It may sink, break
up or capsize after getting off
• whether the ship after getting off may have maneuvering problems
upon leaving the dangerous area by own means
• whether machinery, rudder or propeller are damaged due to
grounding or may be damaged by trying to get off ground by own
means
• whether the ship may be trimmed or lightened sufficiently to avoid
damage to other tanks in order to reduce additional pollution from
oil/ bunker spillage
• weather evaluation: whether there is time/ reason to await
improvements in weather or tide.
5) Securing the Ship

If the risk of further damage to the ship is greather in an attempt to refloat
the ship.by own means, than in remaining aground until professional
assistance has been obtained, the ship's Master should try to secure the
ship as much as possible by:
• Trying to prevent the ship from moving from 1st present position
• By dropping anchors (adequate water depth and anchor ground
provided)
• By taking ballast into empty tanks, if possible
• Trying to reduce longitudinal strain on hull by transferring ballast or
bunkers internally
• Reducing fire risk by removing all sources of ignition.

Inform in line with Section 2 all parties Interested about the Grounding and
the actions taken so far
B. Fire/ Explosion
Should an explosion and a fire occur on board, sound the GENERAL
ALARM immediately. Further actions should be initiated in accordance with
the ship's Muster List. In case of fire and explosion the following priorities
exist:
• Rescuing lives
• Limiting the damage/danger to the ship and cargo
• Preventing environmental pollution
Steps to control the discharge of oil will depend largely on the damage to
ship and cargo.
Special information thereto is contained in subparagraphs 3.2.4, 3.2.5 and
3.2.6.
Inform in line with Section 2 all parties interested about the Fire/ Explosion
and the actions taken so far.
C. Collision
Should the ship be involved in a collision with another ship, the Master
should as soon as possible identify the extent of damage to his own vessel.
When a collision occurs, the GENERAL ALARM should be sounded
immediately for the personnel to muster at their designated Muster Stations.
The following check list should assist the Master in assessing the situation:
• Are any tanks penetrated above or below the waterline?
• If ships are dead in the water and interlocked, what is most prudent, to
stay interlocked or separate?
• Is there any oil spill at present - small or large? Will a separation of the
interlocked ships create a larger oil spill than if the ships stay
interlocked?
• If there is an oil spill, will the separation of the ships cause sparks that
can Ignite the spilled oil or other flammable substances leaked out from
the ships?

• Are the ships creating a greater danger to other traffic in the area if the
are interlocked than If separated?
• Is there a danger to either ship of sinking after being separated
• If the ships are separated, how is the maneuverability of the own ship?
References
■ Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911). "Petroleum"
(http://en.wikisource.org
/w/mdex.php?title=User:Tmi_Starling/ScanSet_TIFF_demo&vol=21
&page=EDlA336) . In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
21 (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.

316-322. OCLC 70608430 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70608430).
http://en.wikisource.Org/w/mdex.php7tM
page=EDlA336. Retrieved 2008-02-22.
■ Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911).
"Ship" (http://en.wikisource.org
/w/mdex.php?title=User:Tim_Stari^
Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 24 (Eleventh ed.).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 881-889. OCLC
70608430 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70608430) .
http://en.wikisource.org/w/mdex.php?tM^ page=ED4A915. Retrieved
2008-02-22.
■ Hayler, William B.; Keever, John M. (2003). American Merchant
Seaman's Manual. Centerville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN
0870335499.

■ Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook 2008

(https://www.cia.gov/Ubrary/pubhcations
/the-world-factbook/index.html) . New York: Skyhorse Publishing.
ISBN 1602390800. https://www.cia.gov/Ubrary/pubUcations/the-
world-factbook/index.html. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
■ Turpin, Edward A.; McEwen, WilUam A. (1980). Merchant Marine
Officers' Handbook (Fourth ed.). CentrevUle, MD: CorneU Maritime
Press. ISBN 37812421.
■ (MARPOL Annex I Reg 20.3.1/2/3)
External links
Categories: Ship measurements / Nautical terms / Commercial

item transport and distribution / Ship types / Tankers

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BASIC OIL TANKER & CHEMICAL TANKER CARGO OPERATION

I. SAFE CARGO OPERATION OF OIL AND CHEMICAL

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1.1.2 Tanker capacity

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Very Large Crude Carrier Size Range

220,000 DWT and 279,000 DWT.[2]

1.1.3 Fleets of the world

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or over 70% were built in South Korea, Japan or China

1.1.4 Hull designs

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specified in subparagraph 1 or 2 of this paragraph.

(MARPOL Annex I Reg 20.3.1/2/3)

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1.2 Cargo Operations

1.2.1 Pipeline systems

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Ring main system

Direct line system

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Free flow system

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Symbols V Tank valve A Direct

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Lining u p pipelines and cargo operations

Loading one grade

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Pump room arrangement

Figure 5.9 Pump room pipeline system of a product

Figure 5.10 Stepping down oil cargo tanks

Loading more than one grade

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1.3 The Physical Properties of Oil and Chemical

1.3.1. Physical Data

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2) Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

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4) Coefficient of Cubical Expansion

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I.3.2. Chemical Data

b) Reaction as a result of mixing one chemical with another, neutralization of an acid

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Corrosive liquids in general have three characteristics, which require special

I.3.3. Fire and Explosion Data

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I.3.4. Health Data

1.3.5 Emergency Procedure

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1.4 Tanker Safety Culture and Safety Management

Toxicity is the ability of a chemical compound to produce injury once it reaches a

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