Engineering Physics

Laboratory Manual
(List of Experiments as prescribed by Dr APJ AKTU, Lucknow w.e.f. 2022)

(Session: 2022-23)
(BAS-151 /251)

Department of Basic Sciences – Physics

PSIT, Kanpur-209305

(Institute Code-164)
List of Experiments

S.N. Experiment(s) Page No.

Experiment No. 1
To determine wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s ring
1. 1-3
Experiment.

Experiment No. 2
2. To determine wavelength of sodium light using Fresnel’s biprism. 4-7

Experiment No. 3
To determine specific rotation of cane sugar solution using Laurentz
3. Half Shade Polarimeter. 8-10

Experiment No. 4
To determine wavelength of spectral lines using Plane transmission
4. grating. 11-13

Experiment No. 5
To determine the specific resistance of the material of given wire using
5. Carey-Foster’s bridge. 14-17

Experiment No. 6
To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of
6. a circular coil carrying current and then to estimate radius of the coil. 18-20

Experiment No. 7
7. To verify Stefan’s law by electrical method. 21-24

Experiment No. 8
8. Calibration of Voltmeter and Ammeter using Potentiometer. 25-28

Experiment No. 9
9. To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor material. 29-32

Experiment No. 10
10. To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) 33-35
using compound pendulum.
Experiments beyond the syllabus
Experiment No. 1
11. To determine refractive index of water using Newton’s ring 36-39
Experiment.
Experiment No. 2
12. To determine dispersive power of material of prism using spectrometer. 40-42
 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED IN THELABORATORY

1. Be familiar with and follow these General Physics Laboratory Safety Guidelines.
2. Prepare before you come to lab. Read your laboratory manual or other assigned readings and
instructions carefully before lab. Pay close attention to any safety concerns.
3. Listen carefully to instructions given before, during and after the lab.
4. Come to the laboratory prepared to perform laboratory experiments or activities.
5. Come to the laboratory dressed appropriately for all possible safety hazards. Closed-toed
shoes must be worn in all science laboratories. Open-toed shoes, shoes with holes or openings
on the foot, sandals, flip flops, ballet slippers, flats which expose the top of the foot, high
heels, and platform shoes shall not be worn to the science laboratory. Laboratory activities
may expose you to heated or heavy items that may injure the feet if spilled or dropped.
6. Use appropriate personal protective equipment, such as goggles, when working with
projectiles, sources of heat, or as directed by your instructor.
7. Do not eat, drink and chew gumin any laboratory room. Do not taste or put anything into the
mouth in the laboratory.
8. PSIT prohibits student use of cell phones, pagers, or similar communication devices in
classrooms and laboratory areas. Exceptions to this policy, due to special circumstances, shall
be at the discretion of the Laboratory Coordinator or Instructor in the individual area.
9. Students are not permitted in the laboratory without the supervision of an instructor at any
time. Please wait outside the room until your instructor arrives. Only students officially
enrolled in the course may be present in the laboratory except for brief tours/visits with the
Laboratory Coordinator or instructor present.
10. Students are not permitted in the laboratory storage areas at any time.
11. IMMEDIATELY notify your lab-coordinator for assistance if you are injured, or if any type
of accident occurs.
12. Familiarize yourself in advance of the location and proper use of safety equipment such as fire
alarm, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket.
13. Maintain a neat laboratory workspace with work area and aisles free of personal items.
14. Conduct only those experiments authorized by the syllabus or the instructor.
15. Never handle equipment, supplies until you have been given specific information on their use
and safety considerations.
16. Follow the guidelines for the use of equipment and supplies including the following:
i. Observe and respect all safety signs on equipment.
ii. Use all equipment and supplies only in accordance with their intended purpose.
iii. Be aware of mechanical, electrical and laser safety guidelines listed below.
17. Most of the experiments are computer-controlled. Students are not allowed to download,
install, remove or modify any software on the lab computers.
18. Do not distract or startle other people when they conduct their experiments. Any student who
endangers another's safety or his/her own safety will be forbidden use of the laboratory.
19. Damage, destruction, or theft of property is prohibited and will be subject to punishment
prescribed in accordance with the appropriate policies.
20. Check the work space before leaving the laboratory for personal items. Do not leave personal
items in the laboratory.
21. It is the goal to provide a safe and effective environment for students to learn and to work.
22. After completing each experiment, student should submit their practical record book to the
respective faculty for evaluation.
23. Attendance is mandatory for all the lab periods, failing which students may lose their
sessional marks.
24. The students must show minimum three readings while performing the experiments to the lab
-coordinator and then only do the calculation.
PRANVEER SINGH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KANPUR
Department of Physics
B.Tech. I year Semester - I / II
Institute Vision
“To achieve excellence in professional education and create an ecosystem for
the holisticdevelopment of all stakeholders.”

Institute Mission
“To provide an environment of effective learning and innovation to transform students into
dynamic, responsible and productive professionals in their respective fields, who are
capable to adapting to thechanging needs of the industry and society.”

Program Outcomes (POs)

The students of any discipline will be able:

1. Engineering knowledge:
Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis:
Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions:
Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes that
meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems:
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage:
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6. The engineer and society:
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability:
Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental
contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and needfor sustainable development.
8. Ethics:
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication:
Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning:
Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long
learning in the broadest context of technological change
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 1
Engineering Physics Laboratory
(BAS-151/BAS-251)
Course Objective:-The students will be able to conduct various experimental procedures on
electric, magnetic and optical systems, analyze the problems and calculate different quantities by
using equipment.

Course Outcomes: - The students will be able,

1. To interpret (Level 2- Understand) the nature and fundamental properties of

electricity, magnetism and optics (Interference, Diffraction and Polarization).
2. To apply (Level 3- Apply) the fundamental principles of electricity, magnetism and optical
phenomenon like Interference, Diffraction and Polarization.
Course
Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 2 2 2
CO2 3 1 2 2 2 2

Course outcomes with Pos Justification

Students will be able to identify, formulate
and use natural science & engineering
science to understand the nature and
fundamental properties of electricity,
magnetism and optics (interference,
CO1with PO2, PO8,PO9, PO10 and PO12 diffraction & polarization) (PO2). Students
working with professional ethics (PO8)
execute these experiments as a team (PO9).
This will also help students to communicate
(PO10) and interpret these properties as and
when required lifelong (PO12).

Students will be able to apply the

knowledge (PO1) of fundamental
principles of electricity, magnetism and
optical phenomenon like Interference,
Diffraction and Polarization in order to
solve & analyze the complex engineering
problems. Students can also apply acquired
knowledge to assess social responsibilities
CO2with PO1, PO6,PO8, PO9, PO10 and PO12 as professional engineer (PO6). Students
will be following professional ethics
(PO8) while performing experiments in lab
as an individual or a team (PO9) which
will help students to communicate
effectively (PO10) and apply them in
future (PO12) as most of the devices are
based on application of electricity and
magnetism.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 2

Experiment No.1

Newton’s Ring

Objective: -To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s Ring.

Apparatus: - A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical arrangement for

Newton’s rings, plane glassplate, sodium lamp and traveling microscope.

Theory: The optical arrangement for Newton’s Ring is shown in Fig (1). A wedge shape air film
in formed between Plano-convex lens and glass plate. Interference takes place between light
reflected from concave surface of lens and upper surface the plate as shown in Fig (2). In this
experiment the fringes are of equal thickness. The path difference between reflected rays from
lens and plate is 2t. Fringes as shown in Fig (3) are circular as locus of points having the same
thickness of the film formsa circle. The central fringe is dark as it is the point of contact where air
film thickness is zero.

Figure 1: Ray diagram for Newton’s ring Experimental set up.

Formula used: The wavelength of Sodium light is given by,

D2  D2
 n p n

4PR

Where,
n p D = Diameter of (n  p)th ring.
n D = Diameter of nth ring.
p = An integer numbers of the ring.
R = Radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano convex lens.
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 3

Procedure:
1. If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise using an extended
source, the convex lens is not required.
2. Before starting the experiment, the glass plates G1, G2& the Plano convex should
be thoroughly cleaned.
3. The center of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G 1 at 45
deg.
4. Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by means
of rack & pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct clamp the microscope in the
vertical scale.
5. According to the theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but sometimes
the center appears white, this is due to the presence of dust particles between glass plate G 2
and Plano convex lens L2. In this case lens should be again cleaned.
6. Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up the cross wire
tangent to the ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is moved in the horizontal
plane and the crosswire is fixed tangentially to the successive bright fringes noting the Vernier
reading till the other side is reached.
Observations:
Value of one division on main scale (θ) =
Number of division on Vernier scale (N) =
Least count of the travelling microscope (θ/N) = 0.01mm
p  Dn ]
2 2
Table for determination of [ Dn
No Diameter
D2  D2 Mean
of D  (a-b) D2  (a  b)2 n p n (D2  D2 )(mm)2 p
Microscope reading n p n
rings mm
Left end Right
(a) mm end
(b) mm
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 4

Microscope reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading x Least count

Calculations: The wavelength of sodium light is given by-

 
2
 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2
𝜆=
 4𝑝𝑅

Dividing the slope of the graph (D 2 versus

n n) by 4R.

Result:
1. The mean wavelength of sodium light = ------------------- Å (by formula)
2. The mean wavelength of sodium light = ------------------- Å (by graph)
3. Standard value of wavelength of sodium light = 5893 Å

Percentage error: % Error = Standard value – Measured value x 100

Standard value
Square of diameter of ring (Dn )
2

2 2
Slope = (Dn+p - Dn )
p

0 5 10 15 20
Number of rings (n)

Precautions:
1. Use large radius Plano-convex lens to obtain large diameter interference ring pattern.
2. Use an extended source to see the entire film simultaneously.
3. Clean the Plano-convex lens and the glass plate thoroughly in order to get perfect dark zero
order minima.
4. Arrange the cross wire tangentially to the respective ring whose diameter is to be measured.
5. Move the micrometer only in single direction to avoid back lash error.
6. Do not disturb the instrument setting while taking the readings.
7. Start counting the order of dark rings from the central dark spot as zero.
8. Bright fringes can also be used to find the wavelength of monochromatic source. The first
bright fringe after the central minima is of order 1.
Viva-voce:
1. What is interference?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. State ways to obtain coherent sources for interference with examples
4. What monochromatic light source is used for the above experiment? What will happen to the
interference pattern if the monochromatic source is replaced with white light source?
5. Why the fringes obtained in Newton’s rings experiment are circular?
6. What is the standard wavelength of the yellow light source used in the experiment?
7. Why the central fringe is dark in the Newton’s ring fringe pattern?
8. State applications of the Newton’s ring experiment?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 5

Experiment No. 2

Fresnel’s Biprism

Objective: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Fresnel’s Biprism.

Apparatus: Optical bench with uprights, Sodium lamp, Fresnel’s bi-prism, Variable slit, a convex
lens, Micrometer eyepiece.

Formula Used: In the case of Biprism experiment the mean wavelength is given by

2d
 
D
Where,
 =fringe width
2d=distance between the two virtual sources
D = distance between the slit and the eyepiece
Distanced between the vertical sources is given by
2d= √ (d1.d2)
Where,
d1=distance between the two image formed by the convex lens in the first position.
d2= distance between the two image formed by the convex lens in the second position

S1

2d
Telescope

S2

Fig1:Determination of fringe width

Fig 2: Determination of 2d
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 6

PROCEDURE:
I. Adjustment
1. The height of the slit biprism and eyepiece is adjusted at the same level.
2. The biprism upright is placed near the slit. The slit is made narrow and vertical. It is
illuminated with sodium light. Looking through the biprism two images of the source will be
seen. The eye is moved sideways when one of the images will appear to cross the edge
of the biprism from one side to the other. If the refracting edge of the biprism is parallel to
the slit, the images as a whole will appear to cross the edge. Otherwise when adjustment is
faulty, either the top or the bottom of the image will cross the edge first. The biprism is
adjusted by rotating it in its own plane to effect the sudden transition of the full image.
3. The eyepiece is placed near biprism and the biprism upright is moved perpendicular to
the biprism till fringes or a patch of light is visible. If the fringes are not seen the biprism is
rotated in its cross plane.
4. If fringes are not clear reduce the slit width slightly.
5. The vertical cross wire is adjusted on one of the bright fringe at the center of the fringe
system and the eyepiece is moved away from the biprism. In doing, if fringes give a
lateral shift, it must be removed in the following way. From any position, the eyepiece is
moved away from the biprism and at the same time a lateral shift is given to the biprism
with its base screw so that the vertical cross-wire remains on the same fringe on which it was
adjusted. The eyepiece is now moved towards the biprism and this procedure is repeated few
times till the lateral shift is removed.

II. Measurement of: (Fringe width)

1. The eye piece is fixed about 100cm away from the slit.
2. The vertical crosswire is set on one of the bright fringes and the reading on the eyepiece scale
is noted.
3. The crosswire is moved on the next bright fringe and the reading is noted. In this way
observations are taken for about 20 fringes.

III. Measurement of D: (distance between source and screen)

The distance between the slit and eyepiece gives D.

IV. Measurement of 2d: (distance between the two sources on screen)

1. For this part the distance between the eyepiece and slit should be kept slightly more than
four times the focal length of lens. If necessary the position of the slit and the biprism
should not be altered.
2. The convex lens is introduced the biprism and eyepiece and is placed near to the eyepiece.
The lens is moved towards the biprism till two sharp images of the slit are seen. The
distance d1 is measured by the micrometer eyepiece.
3. The lens is moved towards the biprism till two images are again seen the distance between
these two images give d2.
4. At least two sets of observation for d1 and d2 are taken.

Observations:
Least count of Main Scale ( =
Number of divisions on Vernier Scale (n) =
Least count of Vernier Scale ( /n) =
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 7

Measurement of D:
Position of the slit (a) = ------ cm
Position of eyepiece (b) = -cm
Value of D (b-a) = ----- cm

Measurement of2d:

Micrometer Reading
Observation for d1 Observation for d2 2d Mean 2d
Position of I Image Position of II Position of I Image Position of II image =√d1d2
Image
MS VS Total MS VS Total MS VS Total MS VS Total

Measurement of :

Micrometer Micrometer Fringe

reading(a) reading(b) Width
Mean (mm)
No of No of
Total Total Difference for
fringe MS VS fringe MS VS ω = [Mean/10]
(mm) (mm) for10 fringes 10
fringe
1 11

2 12

3 13

4 14

5 15

6 16

7 17

8 18

9 19

10 20
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 8

Calculation:
2d
  A0
D

Result:
The wavelength of sodium light (monochromatic) is .............. Å0

Standard value = 5893 Å0 (mean wavelength of sodium light)

Percentage Error = Standard value – Measured value x 100

Standard value

Precautions:
1. Micrometer screw should be moved in one direction to avoid backlash error.
2. The distance between the slit and the eyepiece (D) should be large (more than four times
of the focal length of the lens).
3. The cross wire should be adjusted on the bright fringe instead of dark fringe.
4. The distance 2d between two coherent sources should be very small.

Viva voce:

1. What is a biprism?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. Can two independent sources be coherent?
4. The Fresnel’s biprism experiment is based on which type of interference
5. What do you mean by monochromatic source of light?
6. What is nature of light?
7. What is an electromagnetic wave?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 9

Experiment No. – 3
Polarimeter
Objective: To determine specific rotation of sugar solution using Laurent’s half shade Polarimeter.
Apparatus required: A half shade Polarimeter, 1 Polarimeter tube filled with water, Sodium lamp, 3
Polarimeter tubes filled with 5%, 10% and 15% sugar solution

Formula Used:
The specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be determined by the
following formula

10
S
LC

Where,
θ = rotation produced in degrees.
L= length of the tube in centimeter.
C = concentration of sugar solution in g/cc.
OR,
Graphically S can be determined as
10
S   (slope of straight line obtained by plotting  versus C )
L

Procedure:
1. If the Polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source should be used
and if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.
2. Take the Polarimeter tube and clean well both sides such that it is free from dust. Now fill the
tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is enclosed in it. Place the tube in its position
inside the Polarimeter.
3. Switch on the source of light and look through the eyepiece. Two halves of unequal intensity
are observed. Rotate the analyzer until two halves of the field appear equally bright. Take the
reading of the main scale as well as the Vernier scale and find out the total reading.
4. Fill the rest of the three Polarimeter tubes with 5%, 10% and 15% sugar solution.
5. Place the 5% Polarimeter tube inside the Polarimeter.
6. Rotate the analyzer to obtain the equal intensity position, first in a clockwise direction and
then in the anti-clockwise direction. Note down the position of the analyzer on main and
Vernier scales in the two directions. Find the mean reading. The difference between this and
the previous reading gives the specific rotation.
7. Repeat the experiment with sugar solutions of different concentrations.
8. Measure the length of the tube in centimeters.

Observations:
Room temperature = …..
Mass of sugar dissolved (m) = ….
Volume of solution (V) = ….
Initial concentration of cane sugar (C) = m/V = ................. g/cc
Length of the polarimeter tube l =.....cm
Value of one division of the main scale =................................
Total number of divisions on Vernier scale =.............
Least count of Vernier =...............
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 10

Measurement of S:

S. With water With sugar solution Angle of rotation θ (deg.) θ/C Mean
No. 1st 2nd 1st 2nd C-A D-B θ=(θ1+θ2)/2 θ/C
position position position position θ1 θ2 (deg/gm
(A) (B) (C) (D) /cc)

Calculations:
1. Using Formula:
The specific rotation (S) of given cane sugar solution is calculated by using the equation:

10
S =
LC
10
2. Using Graph: multiplied by the slope of the graph drawn between θ on the y-axis and C on
L
x –axis gives S.

Result:
The specific rotation for cane sugar at a temperature ........ oC is
= ................. deg cm-1 (gm/cc) -1 (using formula)
= ................. deg cm-1 (gm/cc)-1 (using graph)

Error analysis:
Standard value of specific rotation of cane sugar solution = 66.5 deg cm-1 (gm/cc) -1
Percentage Error = Standard value – Measured value x 100

Standard value
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 11

Precaution:
1. The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.
2. Water used should be dust-free.
3. Whenever a solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under examination.
4. There should be no air bubbles inside the tube.
5. The position of the analyzer should be set accurately.
6. The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
7. Reading should be taken when halves of the field of view become equally illuminated.

Fig 1: Schematic sketch of the Polarimeter experimental set-up

Viva-voce

1. What do you mean by polarized light?

2. What does polarization of light tell about the nature of light?
3. Define optic axis and principal section.
4. What is specific rotation?
5. What is polarimeter?
6. Is there any arrangement that can work with white light?
7. What is a bi-quartz plate?
8. Can you find from your experiment, the direction of rotation of polarimeter?
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 12

EXPERIMENT No. 4
Diffraction Grating

Objective: To determine the wavelength of spectral lines using plane transmission grating.
Apparatus: Mercury lamp, Spectrometer, spirit level, grating with stand, table lamp, reading lens
Formula used: The wavelength of any spectral line can be obtained from the formula.
(a  b) sin   n 
 (a  b) sin 

 n
Where,
(a+b) = grating element
θ = angle of diffraction
n = the order of spectrum

Fig. (1) Schematic diagram of plane transmission grating experiment and (2) order of spectrum
formed grating

Procedure:
1. Set the spectrometer by adjusting the position of the eyepiece of the telescope so that the
crosswire is clearly visible. Focus the telescope on a distant object for parallel rays. Level the
spectrometer and prism table with a spirit level.
2. Set the grating stand on the prism table with help of two screws P and Q provided on the
table. Take out the grating from the box carefully, holding it from the edge and without
couching its surface towards the telescope.
3. The telescope is rotated by 900 towards the left side of the direct image and the diffraction
grating is placed on the grating table.
4. The grating should be adjusted by rotating the grating table without touching the telescope
such that the slit gets appeared at the crosswire of the eyepiece.
5. When the slit is seen clearly we rotate the grating table 45° towards the right. So the
diffraction grating become normal to the incident light and ruled surface focus the telescope.
6. Now, the telescope should be again brought in its original position by rotating it 900 towards
the right.
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 13

7. Focus the telescope on different colours violet, green, red, etc. (VIBGYOR) by moving the
telescope slowly on either side from the normal position. It was the first-order spectrum.
8. Now, the second-order spectrum may be viewed by further rotating the telescope in the same
direction.
9. After measuring the first-order spectrum on both sides, i.e.; by nothing V1 and V2 (main scale
and Vernier scale), we turn the telescope to the other side (say, right or left). It is now
focused on the same colours or spectral lines and the reading of the crosswire on the scale is
recorded.
10. Finally, the same procedure is repeated for other colours (spectral lines) as well as for the
2ndorder spectrum.

Observations:
Table for determination of the angle of diffraction:
Least count of spectrometer =
Number of lines per inch on the grating N =
2.54
Grating element (a  b)  cm
N

Reading of telescope for direct image =

Reading of telescope after image =

colour Kind Spectrum on left Spectrum on right Mean θ

Order of of side reading of side reading of in
of light Vernier telescope (a) telescope (b) 2θ = (a-b) degree
spectrum
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
Violet V1
V2
Green V1
V2
First
Red V1
V2
Violet V1
V2
Green V1
Second
V2
Red V1
Calculation: V2
2.54
Grating element (a  b)  cm
N
N =15000
(a  b) sin 

n
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 14

For Firs torder: For Second order

n =1 n =2
(a  b) sin  (a  b)sin 
 
1 2

(Standard value measured value)

%Error  100
Standard value

Result:
Standard value of wavelength (λ) for the colours

Violet = 4047Å Green= 5469Å Red= 6908Å

(A) The observed wavelength (λ) from the first-order spectrum

Violet = ---------------Å Green= ---------------Å Red= ------------------Å

Percentage error in measuring the wavelength (λ) for these colours in first order:
Violet =……% Green=………% Red= ......... %

(B) The observed wavelength (λ) from the second-order spectrum

Violet = ---------------Å Green= ---------------Å Red= ------------------Å

Percentage error in measuring the wavelength (λ) for these colours in second order:
Violet =……% Green=………% Red= ......... %

Precautions:
1. The ruled surface of the grating should face towards the telescope.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible
3. Grating should be set normal to the incident light.

Viva voce:

1. What is diffraction?
2. What are the conditions necessary for diffraction of light?
3. Define grating element.
4. What is the condition for maxima in a transmission grating experiment?
5. Calculate the maximum possible order of diffraction observed from a grating with 15000 lines
per inch.
6. Why the central maxima observed in the plane transmission grating experiment is white in
colour?
7. Name two types of diffraction.
8. What kind of diffraction are we studying in this experiment?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 15

Experiment N0. 5
Carey Foster’s bridge

Objective: To determine the specific resistance of the material of given wire using Carey-Foster’s
bridge.

Apparatus Required: Carey-Foster’s bridge, Resistance Box, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Plug
key, wire of unknown resistance, Rheostat, thick copper strip, Jockey, connecting wires

Experimental Arrangement: The Carey Foster’s bridge is as shown in the Fig. 1. One meter long
wire of manganin or constantan of uniform cross-section area is stretched along a meter scale. The
wire is connected at both the ends with copper strips. Beside these strips there is one copper strip B
fixed parallel to the meter scale and two L-shaped strips A and C at the ends of the scale. In between
these strips there are four empty spaces ab, cd, ef and gh. In first empty space ab known resistance X,
in second empty space cd a resistance P, in third empty space a resistance Q and in fourth empty
space gh the known resistance Y are connected. The leclanche cell E and plug key K are connected in
between A and C. Between the points B and D, galvanometer G is connected. At point D, contact key
is fixed which can move here and there on the wire EF. This key is known as jockey. On pressing
jockey, point D gets connected with the galvanometer.

Fig 1: Carey Foster’s Bridge

Formula Used:
1. Resistance per unit length of the wire of bridge
𝜌 = X/ (l2-l1) ohm/cm
Where l1 = balancing length on the bridge wire measured from the left end when known resistance X
is connected in left gap of the bridge and zero resistance is connected in right gap of the bridge and l2
= balancing length of the bridge wire measured from the left end on interchanging the positions of X
and Y.
2. Unknown resistance of the given wire Y = X – (l2 – l1) 𝜌
where X = unknown resistance connected in the left gap, Y = resistance of the wire connected in the
left gap, l1 and l2 respectively are the balancing lengths of the bridge wire measured from the left end,
before and after interchanging the positions of X and Y.
3. Specific resistance of the given wire:
Ks = (r2/l) Y
Where r is the radius and l is the length of the given wire. Value of both the parameters is provided to
the student.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 16

Procedure:
A. To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire:
1. First the circuit is connected as in the figure. The decimal resistance box X is connected in the
left gap and copper strip Y is connected in the right gap of the bridge. Now both the lower
fixed ends of the rheostat are connected to terminals A and C respectively and its variable end
is connected to terminal B. Thereafter the leclanche cell E and the plug key K are joined in
series in between the terminals B, its other end is connected to the jockey D.
2. The variable end of the rheostat is adjusted in middle such that both the resistances P and Q
are nearly equal.
3. Now inserting some resistance X through the resistance box, the jockey D is pressed on the
bridge wire and it is slided on it until zero deflection is obtained in the galvanometer. In this
position, the distance l1 of jockey from left end on wire is noted.
4. Thereafter the positions of resistance box X and copper strip Y are interchanged and then
without changing the resistance box, again the position of jockey is adjusted on the bridge
wire in order to obtain zero deflection in the galvanometer. In this position, the length l2 of
the jockey on the wire from the left end is noted.
5. Now the experiment is repeated three – four times by changing the resistance X from the
resistance box and each time the values of l1 and l2 are noted corresponding to the value of X.
6. Then using the relationship 𝜌 = X/ (l2-l1), the value of 𝜌 is calculated for each observation and
its mean value is calculated.
B. To determine the resistance of a given wire:
1. To determine the resistance of a given wire, from the electric circuit as in the fig. The copper
strip connected in the left is withdrawn and in its place the given wire is connected.
2. The above steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 in part (i) of the experiment are repeated.
3. Now using the relation Y = X- 𝜌 (l2-l1), the value of Y is calculated from each observation and
its mean value is obtained.

Observations:
1. To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire:

S.No. Resistance Zero deflection (l2- 𝜌 = X/ (l2-l1)

connected in Position when l1) (in ohms/cm)
resistance box X resistance box is ( in
(in ohm) connected cm)

In left In right
gap l1 gap l2
(in cm) (in cm)

Mean 𝜌 = .... Ohm/cm

PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 17

2. For the resistance of the given wire:

S.No. Resistance Zero deflection (l2-l1) Y = X- 𝜌 (l2-l1)
connected in Position when ( in cm) (in ohm)
resistance box X resistance box is
(in ohm) connected

In left In right
gap l1 gap l2
(in cm) (in cm)

Mean Y = ..... Ohm

Calculations:
Specific resistance of the given wire is calculated by putting r = 0.0102 cm and l = 20 cm in formula
Ks = (r2/l) Y.

Result
Specific resistance of the given wire = .... ohm.cm

Error analysis:
Standard value of specific resistance of material of given wire = 4.33 x10-5 Ohm.
(s tan dardvalue  measuredvalue)
%Error  100
s tan dardvalue

Precautions:
1. For greater sensitivity of the bridge, the resistance connected in the four gaps of the bridge
should be nearly equal.
2. Clean the ends of connecting wires with sand papers.
3. Never allow the flow of current in the circuit for long duration otherwise resistance wire will
get heated which in turn increase its resistance. For this, in the circuit insert the plug in key
only while taking observations.
4. Do not move the jockey on the meter bridge wire by rubbing otherwise thickness of wire will
not remain uniform.
5. Initially shunt should be used while adjusting galvanometer, but near zero deflection position,
it must be removed.
6. Only that resistance plug should be removed from the resistance box for which zero deflection
is observed in the middle of the bridge wire. In this state sensitivity of the bridge is maximum
and percentage error is minimum.
7. Except the resistance removed in the R.B box, all other plugs should be firmly tight.
8. Before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire, plug should be inserted in the plug key attached
with the cell so that electric circuit gets completed before the galvanometer gets connected in
the circuit.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 18

Viva Voce:

1. What is your experiment?

2. Why are you using the Carey Foster’s bridge instead of Meter Bridge?
3. Which apparatus are you using to determine the resistance of the wire in your experiment?
4. What do you mean by specific resistance of a material?
5. What is the principle on which the Carey Foster Bridge is based?
6. Why resistances are usually made of constantan or manganin wires?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 19

Experiment No. 6
Variation of magnetic field

Objective: To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current and then to estimate radius of the coil.

Apparatus Required: Stewart and Gee type tangent galvanometer, Ammeter, battery, rheostat, spirit
level, commutator, plug key, connecting wires

Experimental Arrangement:

Fig1: Variation of Magnetic Field

Formula Used:
The field B along the axis of a coil is given by

𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖 𝑟2
𝐵=
2(𝑟2 + 𝑥2)3/2

Where,
n = number of turns in the coil
r = radius of the coil
i = current in ampere flowing in the coil
x = distance of the point from the center of the coil.

If B is made perpendicular to H, earth’s horizontal field, the deflection θ of the needle is given by:
B = H tan θ
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 20

Thus,
𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝑖𝑟2
𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
2(𝑟2 + 𝑥2)3/2
In the above equation the only variables are x and θ, so study of variation of magnetic field involves
the study of variation of θ with respect to x.

Procedure:
1. Place the magnetometer compass box on the sliding bench so that its magnetic needle is at the
centre of the coil. By rotating the whole apparatus in the horizontal plane, set the coil in the
magnetic meridian roughly. In this case the coil, needle and its image all lies in the same
vertical plane. Rotate the compass box till the pointer ends read 0-0 on the circular scale.
2. To set the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian set up the electrical connections as in the fig.
Send the current in one direction with the help of commutator and note down the deflection of
the needle. Now reverse the direction of the current and again note down the deflection. If the
deflections are equal then the coil is in magnetic meridian otherwise turn the apparatus a little,
adjust pointer ends to read 0-0 till these deflections become equal.
3. Using rheostat Rh adjust the current such that the deflections of nearly 700 to 750 is produced
in the compass needle placed at the center of the coil. Read both the ends of the pointer.
Reverse the direction of the current and again read both the ends of the pointer. The mean of
four readings will give the mean deflection at x = 0.
4. Now shift the compass needle through 2cm. each time along the axis of the coil and for each
position note down the mean deflection. Continue this process till the compass box reaches
the end of the bench.
5. Repeat the measurements exactly in the same manner on the either side of the coil. (vi) Plot a
graph taking x along the axis and tan θ along the y-axis.
6. Mark the points of inflexion on the curve. The distance between the two points will be the
radius of the coil.

Observations:

Readings for the measurement of deflection θ on the east arm,

S. Distance of the Current one way Current reversed Mean θ tan θ
No. needle from
the centre (x)
θ1 Θ2 θ3 θ4
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 21

Readings for the measurement of deflection θ on the west arm,

S. Distance of the Current one way Current reversed Mean θ tan θ
No. needle from the
centre (x)
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

Result:
The graph shows the variation of the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
The distance between the points of inflexion P, Q and hence the radius of the coil = …cm.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distances from the apparatus.
3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of nearly
750.
4. Current should be checked from time to time and for this purpose am ammeter should be
connected in series with the battery.
5. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer. Both ends of the pointer
should be read.
6. The curve should be drawn smoothly.

Viva Voce:
1. What is the direction of the field?
2. What is magnetic meridian?
3. Is the field uniform at the centre?
4. How can you get wider region of uniform field?
5. Is it true for any direction of current in the two coils?
6. If any current carrying conductor is placed close to the coil ten will it affect your
measurement?
7. What is meant by point of inflexion?
8. What is the distance between two points of inflexion?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 22

Experiment No. 7

Stefan’s law

Objective: To verify Stefan’s law by electrical method.

Apparatus Required: Experimental kit of Stefan’s law (kit consists of D.C. voltmeter, D. C. ammeter,
electric bulb, variable resistance, A.C. to D.C. converter etc.)

Formula used:
Log10P= αLog10T + Log10C

Where,
P = Total power emitted by a body at temperature T,
α = power of T close to 4
T = temperature of a body
C = some constant depending on the material and area of such a body.

Theory:
For black bodies, Stefan’s law is
E = σ (T4-T04),
Where E is the net amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area by a body at temperature T
and surrounded by another body at temperature T0. σ is called Stefan’s constant. A similar relation
can also hold for bodies that are not black. In such case, we can write
P = C (Tσ -T0σ),
Where, P is the total power emitted by a body at temperature T surrounded by another at temperature
T0, σ is a power quite closed to 4 and C is some constant depending on the material and area of such a
body. Further the relation can be put as
P = CTσ (1-T0σ/Tσ),
If T>>T0 (e.g., T = 1500K, and T0 ≈ 300K), we can write
P = CTσ
Or
Log10P = αLog10T + Log10C
The graph between Log10P and Log10T should be a straight line whose slope gives α. Therefore, in
order to verify Stefan’s law, we have to measure the following two parameters:
1. Power radiated P: We use in this experiment tungsten bulb as the radiating body and in the
steady state the electrical power V.I should be equal to the radiation power P (neglecting
power lost in the leads and through the gas in the bulb).
2. Temperature of the radiating body, T: In our experiment we need measure the temperature of
tungsten filament. This is achieved by measuring the resistance of filament, R t, and then using
the relation
Rt = R0(1+ αt + βt2)
With α and β being known for tungsten, we can find temperature of the filament. One serious
limitation arises in the measurement of R0(resistance of filament at 0°C or 273K, one can write R0or
R273). At very small current, V/I ratio will give filament resistance as well as lead resistance. In order
to calculate R0then we measure the resistance (Rg) at the stage when the filament first starts glowing
and temperature at this stage is approximately 800K. At this temperature contribution of lead
resistance becomes smaller by a factor of 4 as compared with that at 273K. Therefore measurement of
Rg(=R800) and using the computed factor, R800/R273,a more accurate value of R273(=R0) is found.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 23

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the figure. In order to connect voltmeter across the bulb,
the two wires are soldered to the base points of the bulb.
2. With different increasing and decreasing values of current, we adjust such that the bulb glows
each time. Then for value of V and I, ratio V/I is found which gives Rg. This is the filament
resistance at 800K. From Rt/R0vs. T graph, we note that
Rt/R0= R800/R273= 3.9
Therefore, R800/3.9= R273
Or
Rg/3.9= R0
Graph Rt/R0 vs. T is to be provided to the student (see table3).
3. Now filament current I is increased from a value below glow stage to values high enough to
get dazzling white light, measuring voltage V across bulb every time. From these V and I
values, we deduce power P (=VI) and Rt(=V/I). From Rt using the value R0(or Rg/3.9) or
R273K, we deduce the temperature T of the filament and obtain a graph in Log 10P against
Log10T.

Observations:

Table 1: Readings for determination of the filament resistance (Rg) at temperature T= 800K:

Current Increasing Current Decreasing R0 =

S.No. Mean
Voltage Current I Rg=V/I Voltage Current I Rg=V/I Ohms Mean Rg/3.9
V volts amp. Ohms V volts amp. Rg
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 24

Table 2: Determination of Power P for different temperature T:

S.No. Voltage Current I Rt=V/I Rt/Ro Temperature Log10T Power Log10P

V( volt) (Amp.) (Ohm) From Table 3 P=VI
or from graph (Watt)
K

Calculations: The graph is plotted between log10P vs. log10T.

Fig: log10P vs. log10T plot

Result: Slope of the above mentioned graph gives the value of α =AB/BC
Precautions:
1. Use the bulb having tungsten filament.
2. Increase the current in steps.
3. Note down the voltage reading after every change in current.
4. Choose the rheostat of appropriate range.
5. Connection should be tight.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 25

Table3. For plotting Rt/Ro versus T graph

Temp. in 0C Rt/Ro Temp. in 0C Rt/Ro

0 1.00 800 5.64
100 1.53 900 6.37
200 2.07 1000 6.94
300 2.13 1100 7.60
400 3.22 1200 8.26
500 3.80 1300 8.90
600 4.40 1400 9.70
700 5.00 1500 10.43

Viva –voice

1. What is a blackbody?
2. What do you mean by blackbody radiation spectrum?
3. State Stefan’s law for blackbody radiation.
4. When does a blackbody radiate?
5. What is unit of Stefan’s constant?
6. Give example of a blackbody.
7. What do you understand by absorption and emission of radiation?
8. What is the value of Planck’s constant?
9. What is the value of Boltzmann constant?
10. Explain Planck’s hypothesis of black body radiation.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 26

Experiment No. 8

Potentiometer

Objective: Calibration of Voltmeter and Ammeter with Potentiometer.

Apparatus: Potentiometer, given Voltmeter, given Ammeter, two storage batteries, two rheostats
(50,110ohm), a standard cell, galvanometer, two one-way key, one two-way key and connection
wires.

Formula used:
A. The error in voltmeter reading is given by
El 2
V 'V  V
l1
El 2
V'  kl2
l1
B. The error in ammeter reading is given by
El 2
A' A  V
l1
El 2
A'   kl2
l1
Where,
V= potentiometer difference between two points read by voltmeter
V'= potentiometer difference between the same two points read by potentiometer
E = E.M.F. of the standard cell.
l1 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E.M.F. of standard cell.
l2 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to the potential difference (V') measured
by potentiometer.
k = potential gradient of the potentiometer wire

Procedure:
A. For calibration of Voltmeter
1. Make the electrical connections are show in fig (1).
2. Close K1 and insert the plug key between ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminal of key K2.Place the jockey on
the last end ‘B’ of the potentiometer wire. If the deflection is observed in the galvanometer,
then the rheostat (1) is adjusted to get zero deflection (null point). The adjustment of the
rheostat is not changed throughout the experiment..
3. Record the total balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire. This is 1000cm for ten wire
potentiometer. The EM.F. of the standard cell (E) is recorded.
4. Now remove the plug key from the terminal between ‘a’ and ‘b’ points of key K2 and insert it
in between ‘b’ and ‘c’ terminals. Close the key K3. Again adjust the rheostat Variable
point(P)] of the potential divider circuit such that the voltmeter shows a constant reading.
Adjust the jockey on the potentiometer wire such that Null point in the galvanometer is
obtained.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 27

5. Note down the total length of potentiometer wire in this case (l2).
6. Now repeat the above procedure again and again and record at least 6 -8 different values of
voltmeter reading V and corresponding values of l2.
7. Now, plot a graph between the voltmeter reading (V) along the X-axis and the corresponding
error in the reading (V'- V) along Y-axis. This is the required calibration curve for the given
voltmeter.
B. For calibration of Ammeter
1. Make the electrical connections are show in fig (2).
2. Close K1 and insert the plug key between ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminal of key K2.Place the jockey on
the last end ‘B’ of the potentiometer wire. If the deflection is observed in the galvanometer,
then the rheostat (1) is adjusted to get zero deflection (null point). The adjustment of the
rheostat is not changed throughout the experiment..
3. Record the total balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire. This is 1000cm for ten wire
potentiometer. The EM.F. of the standard cell (E) is recorded.
4. Now remove the plug key from the terminal between ‘a’ and ‘b’ points of key K2 and insert it
in between ‘b’ and ‘c’ terminals. Close the key K3. Again adjust the rheostat variable point
(P)] of the potential divider circuit such that the voltmeter shows a constant reading. Adjust
the jockey on the potentiometer wire such that Null point in the galvanometer is obtained..
5. Note down the total length of potentiometer wire in this case (l2).
6. Now repeat the above procedure again and again and record at least 6 -8 different values of
voltmeter reading I and corresponding values of l2.
7. Now, plot a graph between the voltmeter reading (I) along the X-axis and the corresponding
error in the reading (I'- I) along Y-axis. This is the required calibration curve for the given
voltmeter.

Fig1: Circuit diagram for calibration of Voltmeter

PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 28

Fig 2: Circuit diagram for calibration of Ammeter

Observations:
E.M.F of standard cell E = .............. V
Balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E.M.F. of the standard cell = cm
A. Table for calibration of Voltmeter:

S.No. Voltmeter reading (Volts) Balancing length of the Potentiometer Error in Voltmeter
potentiometer wire (l2) reading reading V’-V
El 2
in cm V '
l1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 29

B. Table for calibration of Ammeter:

S.No. Ammeter reading (Amp) Balancing length of the Potentiometer Error in Ammeter
potentiometer wire (l2) reading reading A’-A
El 2
in cm A’ 
l1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Result:
A. The graph so obtained by plotting the error against the Voltmeter reading is the calibration
curve of the given Voltmeter.
B. The graph so obtained by plotting the error against the Ammeter reading is the calibration
curve of the given Ammeter.

Viva voce:

1. What is the principle of potentiometer?

2. What is e.m.f of the standard cell used in this experiment?
3. What is function of a voltmeter?
4. What does a null deflection in a galvanometer indicate?
5. What is function of a rheostat?
6. What is length of potentiometer wire?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 30

Experiment No. 9
Energy band gap

Objective: - To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor material by using PN
Junction Diode.

Apparatus- A energy band gap kit consisting of d.c. power supply (0-5 volts), micro-ammeter (0-100
A), a p-n junction diode, electrically heated oven, thermometer, connecting leads.

Formula- In reverse biased PN junction diode the reverse saturation current,IS is the function of
temperature (T) of the junction diode.

Is = constant T3/2 e -Eg/kT ......................(1)

Where,
Is = saturation current in micro ampere
T = temperature of junction diode in Kelvin (K),
Eg = band gap in electron volts (eV)
k = Boltzmann constant
For a small range of temperatures, the relation is expressed as,

5.036 𝑋
log10 IS = constant – 103𝐸𝑔 …………..(2)
𝑇

Where, T is temperature in Kelvin (K) and Eg is the band gap in electron volts (eV).
Graph between 103 /T as abscissa and log10 IS as ordinate results in a straight line and the slope f the
line is given as,
Slope = 5.036 Eg

Hence band gap Eg in eV will be,

Eg = slope of the line / 5.036

Theory:

A semi-conductor (either doped or intrinsic) always possesses an energy gap between its valence and
conduction bands (fig.1). For the conduction of electricity, a certain amount of energy is to be given
to the electron so that it can jump from the valence band to the conduction band. The energy so
needed is the measure of the energy gap (E g) between the top and bottom of valence and conduction
bands respectively. In case of insulators, the value of E g varies from 3 to 7 eV. However, for
semiconductors, it is quite small. For example, in case of germanium, E g = 0.72 eV and in case of
silicon, Eg = 1.1 eV
In semi-conductors at low temperatures, there are few charge carriers to move, so conductivity is
quite low. However, with increase in temperature, more number of charge carriers get sufficient
energy to be excited to the conduction band. This leads to increase in the number of free charge
carriers and hence increase in conductivity. In addition to the dependence of the electrical
conductivity on the number of free charges, it also depends on their mobility. The mobility of the
charge carriers, however decreases with increasing temperature. But on the average, the conductivity
of the semiconductors rises with rise in temperature. To determine the energy band gap of a semi-
conducting material, we study the variation of its conductance with temperature. In reverse bias, the
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 31

current flowing through the PN junction is quite small and internal heating of the junction does not
take place.
When PN junction is placed in reverse bias as shown in fig.1, the current flows through the junction
due to minority charge carriers only.

Fig 1: Circuit diagram for the experimental set up

The concentration of these charge carriers depend on band gap 𝐸𝑔. The saturation value, Is of reverse
current depends on the temperature of junction diode and it is given by the following equation,

𝐸𝑔
Is = A (𝑁𝑛 e 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑁𝑃e 𝑣𝑃)𝑒 − 𝐾𝑇…………….(3)

Where, Nn and Np are the electrons and hole concentrations respectively in N and P-type region,
𝑣𝑛and 𝑣𝑃 are the drift velocities of electrons and holes respectively,
A is the area of junction,
k = 1.38 x 10−23 J/K, is Boltzman’s constant and T is absolute temperature of junction.

Taking log of both sides of equation (3), we have

𝐸𝑔
log𝑒 𝐼𝑆 = log𝑒 𝐴 (𝑁𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑁𝑃 𝑒 𝑣𝑃 ) −
𝑘𝑇
Or,
𝐸𝑔
2.303 log10 𝐼𝑆 = 2.303 log10 𝐴 (𝑁𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑁𝑃 𝑒 𝑣𝑃 ) −
𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 −
2.303 𝑘𝑇
Where C is a constant, which is equal to the first term of RHS of above equation. On substituting the
value of k and converting the units of Eg from eV to Joule, we get

1.6𝑋 10−19𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 −
2.303 𝑋 1.38 𝑋 10−23 𝑇

5.036 𝑋 103𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 −
𝑇
Which can be written as,
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 32

103
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 + (− 5.036 𝐸𝑔)
𝑇

This is the equation of straight line having negative slope (5.036 𝐸𝑔) for Graph between 103 /T as
abscissa and log10 IS as ordinate.

Slope = 5.036 𝐸𝑔

𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐰𝐧 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝑺 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑻
𝐸𝐸 =
𝟓.𝟎𝟑𝟔

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1 i.e. positive of 0-20 V power supply to N-side of diode
and to positive of voltmeter. Connect negative of power supply to negative of voltmeter and
negative of micro ammeter (µA) and positive of micro ammeter to P-side of diode.
2. Keep the temperature control knob fully anti-clockwise.
3. Switch on the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel keeping
temperature control knob fully anticlockwise.
4. Adjust the voltage at 1 to 2 V DC and note down the reverse current.
5. Adjust the temperature control knob at maximum position. Temperature starts increasing and
the reading of the micro ammeter starts increasing.
6. When temperature reaches to 75°C, switch off the oven by rotating the pot anticlockwise
down to minimum side. Note down the maximum reading shown by micro ammeter.
7. As the temperature starts falling, record the values of micro ammeter reading in observation
table after some equal drop in temperature.

8. Plot a graph between 103 /T along x axis and log10Is along y axis, and the slope of the line is
determined from the graph.

Observations:
Fix voltage at 1V to 2V.
S.No. Temperature (oC) Saturation Temperature (K) 103/T log10Is
current (Is)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 33

Calculations:
Taking 103 /T along X- axis and log10Is along Y-axis, plot a graph between log10Is and103/T. The
graph will be a straight line as shown in fig.2. After determining the slope of straight line from this
graph the band gap can be calculate by using formula,

𝐸𝐸 (eV) = slope/ 5.036 = --------------- eV

Result:
The band gap Eg for the given semiconductor is found to be = ----------------- eV.
Standard value for band gap of Ge = 0.72 eV

(s tan dardvalue  measuredvalue)

%Error  100
s tan dardvalue

Fig 2: Variation of log10Is v/s 103 /T

Precautions:
1. The diode should be reversed biased.
2. Do not exceed the temperature of the oven above 100 0C to avoid over heating of diode.
3. The voltmeter and ammeter reading should initially be at zero mark.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter reading should be varied in small steps.
5. After doing the experiment switch off the circuit.

Viva voce:

1. What do you mean by a semiconductor? Give example.

2. Define energy band gap of a semiconductor?
3. Why the applied voltage is kept constant throughout the experiment?
4. What kind of doping material is added to make a semiconductor p type?
5. Define absolute zero temperature.
6. Give relation between Kelvin and Celsius scale of temperature.
7. Define electron volt?
8. Give relation between eV and Joules.
9. What is PN junction diode?
10. What do you mean by valence band, conduction band and forbidden band?
11. How many types of semi-conductors are there
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 34

Experiment No. 10

Compound Pendulum

Objective: To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound pendulum.

Apparatus required: Bar pendulum, Knife–edge with a platform, Sprit level Precision stop
watch, Meter scale and Telescope.

Formula used:
The time period T of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

𝑇 = 2𝜋√(𝐿/𝑔) ………………….(1)

𝑔 = 4𝛱2 𝐿 /𝑇 2……………………(2)

Where,
L= length of the simple equivalent pendulum
g= acceleration due to gravity
T= time period

Description:

The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one meter long. A series of circular holes
each of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length of the bar. The bar is
suspended from a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes (Fig.2).The knife-edge,
in turn, is fixed in a platform provided with the screws. By adjusting the rear screw the platform
can be made horizontal.

Procedure:

(i) Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to one end of the bar.With
the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical cross-wire of the telescope is coincident with
the vertical mark on the bar.
(ii) Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within4 0of arc).
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 35

(iii) Note the time for 20 oscillations by a precision stop-watch by observing the transits of the
vertical line on the bar through the telescope. Make this observation three times and find the mean
time t for 20 oscillations. Determine the time period T.
(iv) Measure the distance d of the axis of the suspension, i.e. the hole from one of the edges of the
bar by a meter scale.
(v) Repeat operation (i) to (iv) for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached where the time
period becomes very large.
(vi) In vertical the bar and repeat operations (i) to (v) for each hole starting from the extreme top.
(vii) Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period T as ordinate. The
nature of graph will be as shown in Fig.3.
Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E represent the points
of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves are symmetrical about a vertical
line which meets the X-axis at the point G, which gives the position of the C.G of the bar. This
vertical line intersects with the line ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE and find the
length L of the equivalent simple pendulum from following formula

𝐿 = (𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐸)/2 = 𝐿𝑑/2

Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute the value of g.
Draw several horizontal lines parallel to X-axis and adopting the above procedure find the value of
g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean value of g. alternatively, for each horizontal line
obtains the values of L and T and draw a graph with T 2 as abscissa and L as ordinate. The graph
would be a straight line. By taking a convenient point on the graph, g may be calculated.
Observations:
Values of T and d

Distance d Time for

No. of holes of the hole 20 Time period
from one from C.G oscillations T= t/20 (sec)
(cm) (sec)
….
1 ….. …. …..
….
…
One
2 ….. … ……
side of
….
C.G
3 ….
… .…
…… ……..
… …
…9
….
1 ….. …. …..
….
…..
Other
2 ….. …… ……
side of
……
C.G
3 ……
… …….
…… ……..
… ……
…9
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 36

Result:

Percentage error:

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = (𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)/(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) 𝑋 100

Precautions:

(i) Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and motion of the pendulum should be
rotational.
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 4 0 of arc.
(iii) Use a precision stop-watch and note the time accurately as far as possible.

Viva voce:

1. Define simple pendulum.

2. Define ‘ g’.
3. What is the difference between ‘ g’ and ‘G’?
4. If the mass of the object is doubled then what will be the effect of time period of the compound
5. pendulum?
6. If the mass moment inertia of the object is increased to 4 times then what will be the effect of time
7. period of the compound pendulum?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 37

Experiments beyond the syllabus

Experiment No. 1

Refractive index of water using Newton’s Ring Experiment

Objective: -To determine the refractive index of water using Newton’s Ring.

Apparatus: - A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical arrangement for Newton’s
rings, planeglass plate, sodium lamp and traveling microscope and clean water.

Theory: The optical arrangement for Newton’s Ring is shown in Fig (1). A wedge shape air film in
formed between Plano-convex lens and glass plate. Interference takes place between light reflected
from concave surface of lens and upper surface the plate as shown in Fig (2). In this experiment the
fringes are of equal thickness. The path difference between reflected rays from lens and plate is 2t.
Fringes as shown in Fig (3) are circular as locus of points having the same thickness of the film forms
a circle. The central fringe is dark as it is the point of contact where air film thickness is zero.

Fig1: Ray diagram for Newton’s ring Experimental set up.

Formula used: The refractive index of water is given by,

p  D n )air
2 2
(D n

p  D n )water
2 2
(D n

Where, D n p = Diameter of (n  p)th ring.

Dn = Diameter of nth ring.
p = An integer numbers of the ring.
R = Radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano convex lens.
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 38

Procedure:
1. If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise using an extended
source, the convex lens is not required.
2. Before starting the experiment, the glass plates G1, G2& the Plano convex should
be thoroughly cleaned.
3. The center of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G 1 at 45
deg.
4. Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by
means of rack & pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct clamp the microscope
in the vertical scale.
5. According to the theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but
sometimes the center appears white, this is due to the presence of dust particles between
glass plate G2 and Plano convex lens L2. In this case lens should be again cleaned.
6. Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up the cross
wire tangent to the ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is moved in the
horizontal plane and the crosswire is fixed tangentially to the successive bright fringes
noting the Vernier reading till the other side is reached.
7. Now a small drop of water is introduced between plano convex lens and plate air film will
be replaced by water film. Repeat the procedure and note down the readings.

Observations:
Value of one division on main scale (θ) =
Number of division on Vernier scale (N) =
Least count of the travelling microscope (θ/N) = 0.01mm

p  D n ]air
2 2
Table for determination of [ Dn

No Diameter
D2  D2 Mean
of D  (a-b) D2  (a  b)2 n p n (D2  D2 )air(mm)2 p
Microscope reading n p n
rings Mm
Left end Right
(b) mm end
(b)
mm
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 39

p  D n ]water
2 2
Table for determination of [ Dn

No Diameter
D2  D2 Mean
of D  (a-b) D2  (a  b)2 n p n (D2  D2 )water(mm)2 p
Microscope reading n p n
rings Mm
Left end Right
(a) mm end
(b) mm
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20

Microscope reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading x Least count

Calculations: The refractive index of water is given by-

(D n2 p  D n2 )air
 2
(D n p  D n2 )water

Result:
The refractive index of water is = --------------------
Standard value of refractive index of water = 1.33

Percentage error: % Error = Standard value – Measured value x 100

Standard value
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 40

Precautions:

1. Use large radius Plano-convex lens to obtain large diameter interference ring pattern.
2. Use an extended source to see the entire film simultaneously.
3. Clean the Plano-convex lens and the glass plate thoroughly in order to get perfect dark
zero order minima.
4. Arrange the cross wire tangentially to the respective ring whose diameter is to be
measured.
5. Move the micrometer only in single direction to avoid back lash error.
6. Do not disturb the instrument setting while taking the readings.
7. Start counting the order of dark rings from the central dark spot as zero.
8. Bright fringes can also be used to find the wavelength of monochromatic source. The
first bright fringe after the central minima is of order 1.

Viva-voce:

1. What is interference?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. State ways to obtain coherent sources for interference with examples
4. What monochromatic light source is used for the above experiment? What will happen to
the interference pattern if the monochromatic source is replaced with white light source?
5. Why the fringes obtained in Newton’s rings experiment are circular?
6. What is the standard wavelength of the yellow light source used in the experiment?
7. Why the central fringe is dark in the Newton’s ring fringe pattern?
8. State applications of the Newton’s ring experiment?
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 41

Experiment No. 2
Dispersive power of Prism
Object: To determine the dispersive power of the given prism by using the spectrometer.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, prism, Mercury lamp and spirit level
Formula Used:

1. Refractive index of prism for each wavelength of light (λ).

𝐀+𝐃
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐 (1)
𝜆= 𝐀
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐 )
Where,
μλ: Refractive index of individual wavelength
A: Angle of Prism (60° for current experiment)
D: Angle of deviation
2. The dispersive power of prism calculation
𝐛 −𝐫
𝜔= (2)
𝐚𝐯𝐠−𝟏
Where,
ω: Dispersive power of prism
μb: Refractive index of blue light (λb)
μr: Refractive index of red light (λr)
μavg: Mean refractive index of μb and μr

The average refractive is calculated by using this relation

+𝐫
𝐚𝐯𝐠 =𝐛 (3)
𝟐

Observation Table:
Table-1. Direct ray reading (R)
LC = Least count of the spectrometer

Vernier Main scale (M) Vernier Scale (V) R= M + (LC x V)

V1

V2
 PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 42

Table-2. Angle of minimum deviation for prism

Color Vernier Main Scale Vernier Scale T = M + (LC x V) D Mean D Refractiv Dispersive Power
𝝀
(M) (V) (degr D = R- (degree) e Index 𝐛−𝐫
ee) D 𝜔=
(nm)
(D1 + D2)/2 (𝜆) 𝐚𝐯𝐠 − 𝟏

V1
D1
Blue

V2

D2

Green . . .
. .
. . .
.
Yellow . .

V1

Red
V2

Procedure:
1. Set the spectrometer by adjusting the position of the eyepiece of telescope of the telescope so that
the crosswire are clearly visible. Focus the telescope of the spectrometer, that a sharp slit
illuminated with light can be observed.
2. Place the prism on the table, the rough side of prism should in the transverse direction of
incoming light toward telescope of spectrometer
3. Observe the direct ray reading on the both side of Vernier scale
4. Gently turn the prism table back and forth. As you do so, the spectrum should appear to migrate
in one direction until a point at which it reverses its direction (Fig. 2).
5. Lock the prism table. Now, using fine adjustment screw using fine adjustment screwof the
telescope fix the crosswire on one of the spectral lines of wavelength λ1 at an extreme end.
6. Now focus the telescope on the different colors of lights such as Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow,
orange and red, by moving the telescope gently in the direction of rough surface part of prism
(Fig. 1).
7. Finally, note down the reading on both side of Vernier scales (V A and VB) and calculate the
refractive index for different colors of light and dispersive power of prism.
PSIT, Kanpur Engineering Physics Lab manual 43

Fig.Schematic diagram of dispersive power of prism calculation using white light (mercurylamp).

Results:

Refractive index of grass prism (Standard) = 1.5

Refractive index of glass prism (calculated):…………………………….

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%Error =
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error in measuring the refractive index of prism: …………

Standard value of dispersive power of glass = 0.0164

Dispersive power of prism (Calculated)……………………………………………….

Percentage error in measuring the Dispersive power of prism ---------------------

Precautions:

1. The slit of collimator must in parallel to the telescope crosswire.

2. The slit should be narrow as possible
3. Rough side of prism should be perpendicular to the incoming white light.
Viva Voce:

1. What is dispersion of light?

2. Why dispersion happen in glass prism?
3. What is dispersive power?
4. What is the angle of deviation?
5. What is difference between the ray and wave optics?