UNIT -III

This page compares LAN vs PAN and mentions difference between LAN and PAN. LAN stands for Local
Area Network. PAN stands for Personal Area Network.

LAN-Local Area Network

As mentioned LAN is the short form of Local Area Network. It is basically a communication network
which interconnects devices such as PCs, Laptops, Smartphones, tablets et. to exchange information.
LAN are of two types viz. wired and wireless. In wired LAN, devices are connected using ethernet cables
and all are wired onto ethernet Hub or Switch. In wireless LAN, devices are connected using radio
frequency waves which are electromagnetic waves. There are different bands of WLAN viz. 2.4 GHz, 5
GHz etc. WLAN have been as IEEE 802.11 family of protocols viz. 11a, 11b, 11g, 11n, 11ac, 11ad etc.

Following are the characteristics of LAN and WLAN:

• scope is usually within single building or between buildings.
• It is designed for high data rate transfer from Mbps to Gbps.
• Recent advances in WLAN technology has pioneered its use to offload the traffic from the heavily
loaded cellular networks.

Refer WLAN tutorial➤.

PAN-Personal Area Network

Parameters LAN PAN

 full form Local Area Network Personal Area Network

10m to 100m in wireless PAN network

Distance 10m to 100m and even more in wireless
coverage LAN case (i.e. zigbee, bluetooth)

LAN supports 10, 100 and 1000 Mbps

250Kbps in zigbee, From Kbps to 24
while WLAN supports 54Mbps(as per
Mbps in
802.11a) and above 100Mbps
Data rate (802.11n/11ac/11ad) bluetooth case

Technologie Wireless LAN or WLAN as per IEEE 802.11

s standards Zigbee, Bluetooth, zwave etc.

Mainly used for wireless LAN and LAN

where in data transfer at high speed is Used for low data rate and short
Applications desired. distance application

As mentioned PAN is the short form of Personal Area Network. It is a network which connects devices
within small range typically on the order of 10 to 100 meters. Device in one PAN network can establish
connection with another device in other PAN network when in the range.

All the short range wireless technologies fall under PAN viz. Bluetooth, Zigbee, Zwave, Infrared etc. It is
mainly designed and developed for low data rate monitoring and control applications. PAN wireless
technologies have become very popular in IoT (Internet of things) networks.
Following are the characeteristics of PAN:
• Short range
• have both star and mesh architecture
• mainly used for low data rate applications in home automation, bluetooth is used for data transfer
between devices .
• Widely adopted in IoT (Internet of Things)

Refer Zigbee tutorial➤, Bluetooth tutorial➤ and Bluetooth Low Energy tutorial➤.

Following table compares LAN and PAN with respect to many useful system parameters. It also provides
links to various wireless LAN and wireless PAN technologies.

IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN) technical standards, and specifies the
set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local
area network (WLAN) computer communication.

What are IEEE 802 wireless standards?

IEEE 802 is a collection of networking standards that cover the physical and data link layer specifications
for technologies such as Ethernet and wireless. These specifications apply to local area networks (LANs)
and metropolitan area networks (MANs). IEEE 802 also aids in ensuring multivendor interoperability by
promoting standards for vendors to follow.

Essentially, the IEEE 802 standards help make sure internet services and technologies follow a set of
recommended practices so that network devices can all work together smoothly.

IEEE 802 is divided into different parts that cover the physical and data link aspects of networking. The
family of standards is developed and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee, also called the LMSC.

The set of standards started in 1979 with a proposed standard called Local Network for Computer
Interconnection, which was approved a year later. The LMSC has made more than 70 standards for IEEE
802.

Some commonly used standards include those for Ethernet, bridging and virtual bridged LANs, wireless
LANs, wireless MANs, wireless personal area networks (PANs) and radio access networks, as well as
media independent handover services.

Better-known specifications include 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi and 802.15 Bluetooth/Zigbee.

However, some of these standards have been labeled as disbanded or hibernating, and are either
superseded by newer standards or being reworked. Using an open process, the LMSC advocates for
these standards globally.

Individual working groups are decided on and assigned to each area so that each segment receives an
acceptable amount of focus. IEEE 802 specifications also split the data link layer into two different layers
-- a logical link control layer and a media access control (MAC) layer.
LMSC provides a PDF of standards for up to six months after they have been published. All standards
stay in place until they are replaced with another document or withdrawn.

Why IEEE 802 standards are important

LMSC was formed in 1980 to standardize network protocols and provide a path to make compatible
devices across numerous industries.

Without these standards, equipment suppliers could manufacture network hardware that would only
connect to certain computers. It would be much more difficult to connect to systems not using the same
set of networking equipment. Standardizing protocols helps ensure multiple types of devices can
connect to multiple network types. It also helps make sure network management isn't the challenge it
could be if standards weren't in place.

IEEE 802 also coordinates with other international standards, such as the International Organization for
Standardization or ISO, to help maintain international standards.

The 802 in IEEE 802 does not stand for anything of significance; 802 was the next numbered project.

Examples of IEEE 802 uses

Commercial organizations can use the IEEE 802 specifications to ensure their products maintain any
newly specified standards. So, for example, the 802.11 specification that applies to Wi-Fi could be used
to make sure Wi-Fi devices work together under one standard. In the same way, IEEE 802 can help
maintain LAN standards.

These specifications also define what connectivity infrastructure will be used for -- individual networks
or those at a larger organizational scale.

The IEEE 802 specifications apply to hardware and software products. So that manufacturers don't have
any input on the standards, there is a voting protocol in place. This ensures one organization does not
influence the standards too much.

Working groups

The working groups are the different areas of focus within the 802 specifications. They are numbered
from 802.1 onward.

802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.1 Bridging  LAN/MAN bridging and management.

 Covers management and the lower sublayers of OSI

Layer 2, including MAC-based bridging, virtual LANs
and port-based access control.

 Also contains the Time-Sensitive Networking Task

802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

Group.

802.2 Logical link Disbanded

control

802.3 Ethernet  The grandfather of the 802 specifications.

 Provides asynchronous networking using carrier

sense, multiple access with collision detect
(CSMA/CD) over coax, twisted-pair copper and optical
fiber media.

 Current speeds range from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

802.4 Token bus Disbanded

802.5 Token ring Disbanded

802.6 Distributed  Superseded.

queue dual bus
 Revision of 802.1D, superseded by 802.1D-2004.

802.7 Broadband LAN Disbanded

practices

802.8 Fiber optic Disbanded

practices

802.9 Integrated Disbanded

services LAN
802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.10 Interoperable Disbanded

LAN security

802.11 Wi-Fi Wireless LAN MAC and physical layer specification. 802.11a, b,
g, ax, etc., are amendments to the original 802.11 standard.
Products that implement 802.11 standards must pass tests
and are referred to as Wi-Fi certified.

802.11a  Specifies a physical layer that operates in the 5 GHz U-

NII band in the U.S. -- initially 5.15 GHz to 5.35 GHz
and 5.725 GHz to 5.85 GHz -- and since expanded to
additional frequencies.

 Uses orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing

(OFDM).

 Enhanced data speed to 54 Mbps.

 Ratified after 802.11b.

802.11b  Enhancement to 802.11 that added higher data rate

modes to direct-sequence spread spectrum already
defined in the original 802.11 standard.

 Boosted data speed to 11 Mbps.

 22 MHz bandwidth yields three nonoverlapping

channels within the frequency range of 2.400 GHz to
2.4835 GHz.

 Beacons at 1 Mbps fall back to 5.5, 2 or 1 Mbps from

11 Mbps max.

802.11d  Enhancement to 802.11a and 802.11b that enables

global roaming.

 Particulars can be set at the MAC layer.

802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.11e  Enhancement to 802.11 that includes quality of

service features.

 Facilitates prioritization of data, voice and video

transmissions.

802.11g  Extends the maximum data rate of wireless LAN

devices that operate in the 2.4 GHz band, in a fashion
that permits interoperation with 802.11b devices.

 Uses OFDM modulation.

 Operates at up to 54 Mbps, with fallback speeds that

include the b speeds.

802.11h  Enhancement to 802.11a that resolves interference

issues.

 Dynamic frequency selection.

 Transmit power control.

802.11i  Enhancement to 802.11 that offers additional security

for wireless LAN applications.

 Defines stronger encryption, authentication and key

exchange, as well as options for key caching and pre-
authentication.

802.11j  Japanese regulatory extensions to 802.11a

specification.

 Frequency range of 4.9 GHz to 5 GHz.

802.11k Radio resource measurements for networks using 802.11

family specifications
802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.11m  Maintenance of 802.11 family specifications.

 Corrections and amendments to existing

documentation.

802.11n  Higher-speed standards.

 Several competing and noncompatible technologies;

often called pre-n.

 Top speeds claimed of 108 MHz, 240 MHz and 350+

MHz.

 Competing proposals come from the groups Enhanced

Wireless Consortium, TGn Sync and WWiSE, and are
all variations based on multiple input, multiple output,
or MIMO.

802.11x Misused generic term for 802.11 family specifications

802.12 Demand priority Disbanded

802.13 Not used Not used

802.14 Cable modems Disbanded

802.15 Wireless PANs Communications specification for wireless PANs that IEEE
approved in early 2002

802.15.1 Bluetooth Short-range (10 meters) wireless technology used for cordless
mouse, keyboard and wireless headphones at 2.4 GHz
802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.15.3a Ultra wideband Short-range, high-bandwidth ultra wideband link

802.15.4 Zigbee Short-range wireless sensor networks

802.15.5 Mesh network  Extension of network coverage without increasing the

transmit power or the receiver sensitivity.

 Enhanced reliability via route redundancy.

 Easier network configuration.

 Better device battery life.

802.16 Wireless MANs  Hibernating.

 Covers fixed and mobile broadband wireless access

methods used to create wireless MANs.

 Connects base stations to the internet using OFDM in

unlicensed (900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.8 GHz) or licensed
(700 MHz, 2.5 GHz to 3.6 GHz) frequency bands.

 Products that implement 802.16 standards can

undergo WiMax certification testing.

802.17 Resilient packet Disbanded

ring

802.18 Radio Supports IEEE 802 LMSC and IEEE 802 wireless working
Regulatory groups. Actively participates in and monitors radio regulatory
Technical matters.
Advisory Group

802.19 Wireless Makes standards for coexistence between different wireless

coexistence standards for unlicensed devices
 802 Overview Basics of physical and logical networking concepts

802.20 Mobile Disbanded

broadband
wireless access

802.21 Media  Hibernating.

independent
 Enables optimization of higher-layer services,
handover
including internet of things and handover services
specifically between IEEE 802 networks.

802.22 Wireless  Hibernating.

regional area
 Creates a standard to enable spectrum sharing.
network

802.23 Emergency Disbanded

Services
Working Group

802.24 Vertical Focused on application categories that use IEEE 802 standards
Applications or multiple working groups. For these, 802.24 acts as a point
Technical of contact with other organizations focused on other IEEE 802
Advisory Group standards. 802.24 can also serve as a resource for
understanding the IEEE 802 standards by providing white
papers and other documents.

WiFi: 
WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity. WiFi uses Radio waves to provide wireless high-speed internet and
network connections. A WiFi connection is established using a wireless adapter to create hotspots. WiFi
antennas size is small enough to be placed on a very small router. WiFi can be used to connect with a
printer, computers, gaming consoles, and many more. 

WiMAX: 
WiMAX stands for Wireless Inter-operability for Microwave Access. WiMAX uses licensed or unlicensed
spectrum to deliver the connection to the network. WiMAX handles a larger inter-operable network.
WiMAX can be used to provide internet services such as mobile data and WiFi spots. 

Difference between WiFi and WiMax: 

S.
No. Parameters WiFi WiMax

WiFi is defined under IEEE 802.11x WiMAX is defined under IEEE

standards where x stands for various 802.16y standards where y stands
1. Defined WiFi versions. for various WiMAX versions.

Type of WiFi is for LAN (Local Area Network) WiMAX is for MAN (Metropolitan

2. Network applications. Area Network) applications.

WiFi does not guarantee any Quality WiMAX guarantees Quality of

3. Guarantee of Service (QoS). Service (QoS).

The WiFi network range is around WiMAX network can reach about 50-
4. Distance 100 meters. 90 km.

WiFi uses the conflict-

Connection based CSMA/CA protocol which is WiMAX networks operate on a
5. oriented not connection-oriented. connection-oriented MAC.

6. Range WiFi is short-range technology. WiMAX is long-range technology.

WiFi connection can transmit up to WiMAX connection can transmit up

7. Transmit 54 Mbps. to 70 Mbps.

A signal will be sent from the

 WiFi access points transmit signals WiMAX base station or tower station
8. Signal to the receiving device. to the WiMAX receiver.

It is inexpensive compared to It is expensive because of high

9. Cost WiMAX technology. installation cost.

10. Usage WiFi is utilized for domestic use and WiMAX supports a broader
S.
No. Parameters WiFi WiMax

short-distance connections. interoperable network,

Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless Personal
Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data over smaller distances. This
technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific, and
medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can be connected at the same
time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending
upon the version. The spreading technique that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum). A
Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is called scatternet. 

What is Bluetooth?

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can be
paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated
communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called
piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.

Points to remember for Bluetooth:

 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.

 Bluetooth is Wireless.

 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.

 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.

 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any device to any
other device.

 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Bluetooth Architecture: 

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet

2. Scatternet
Piconet:

Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master node
and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8 active
nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the primary and
secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is only between the
master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets converted to the active
state.

Scatternet:

It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master or we can
say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a master in one piconet
and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a master. This type of node
is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.

Bluetooth protocol stack: 

1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency, the use of
frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into
RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types
of physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.  

2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is equivalent
to the MAC sublayer in LANs.  It performs the connection establishment within a piconet,
addressing, packet format, timing and power control. 

3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established links
which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for creating the links,
monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon command or failure. 

4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known as the heart of the
Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower layers of the
Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into the form
expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and multiplexing. 

5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows
discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.  

6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It
provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports over
 the logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard
TS 07.10.

7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange objects

between 2 devices. 

8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access. 

9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The basic function
of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for the gateway serving
multiple devices.
 

10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Types of Bluetooth

Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.

 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use of mobile
phones.

 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.

 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.

 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via Bluetooth with mobile
phone or laptop.

 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one can connect their phone with
car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions of the address.

Advantage: 

 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

 It can also penetrate through walls.

 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.

 It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:  

 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.

 It has a small range: 10 meters.

 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:
  It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.

 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.

 It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.

 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell phone to
another cell phone or computer.

 It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness, Military. 

IEEE 802.11:
IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network(WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz
and 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands
The IEEE developed an international standard for WLANs. The 802.11 standard focuses on the
bottom two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer (PHY) and data link layer (DLL).
The objective of the IEEE 802.11 standard was to define a medium access control (MAC)
sublayer, MAC management protocols and services, and three PHYs for wireless connectivity
of fixed, portable, and moving devices within a local area.
The three physical layers are an IR base band PHY, an FHSS radio in the 2.4 GHz band, and a
DSSS radio in the 2.4 GHz.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture:
The architecture of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN is designed to support a network where most
decision making is distributed to mobile stations. This type of architecture has several
advantages. It is tolerant of faults in all of the WLAN equipment and eliminates possible
bottlenecks a centralized architecture would introduce. The architecture is flexible and can
easily support both small, transient networks and large, semipermanent or permanent
networks. In addition, the architecture and protocols offer significant power saving and
prolong the battery life of mobile equipment without losing network connectivity
Two network architectures are defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard:
 Infrastructure network: An infrastructure network is the network architecture for
providing communication between wireless clients and wired network resources. The
transition of data from the wireless to wired medium occurs via an AP. An AP and its
associated wireless clients define the coverage area. Together all the devices form a
basic service set (refer figure 1).
 Point-to-point (ad-hoc) network: An ad-hoc network is the architecture that is used
to support mutual communication between wireless clients. Typically, an ad-hoc
network is created spontaneously and does not support access to wired networks. An
ad-hoc network does not require an AP.
IEEE 802.11 supports three basic topologies for WLANs, the independent basic service set
(IBSS), the basic service set, and the extended service set (ESS). The MAC layer supports
implementations of IBSS, basic service set, and ESS configurations.
Independent basic service set: The IBSS configuration is referred to as an independent
configuration or an ad-hoc network. An IBSS configuration is analogous to a peer-to-peer
office network in which no single node is required to act as a server. IBSS WLANs include a
number of nodes or wireless stations that communicate directly with one another on an ad-
hoc, peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS implementations cover a limited area and are not
connected to any large network. An IBSS is typically a short-lived network, with a small
number of stations, that is created for a particular purpose.
Basic service set: The basic service set configuration relies on an AP that acts as the logical
server for a single WLAN cell or channel. Communications between station 1 and station 4
actually flow from station 1 to AP1 and then from AP1 to AP2 and then from AP2 to AP4 and
finally AP4 to station 4 (refer to Figure 2). An AP performs a bridging function and connects
multiple WLAN cells or channels, and connects WLAN cells to a wired enterprise LAN.
Extended service set: The ESS configuration consists of multiple basic service set cells that
can be linked by either wired or wireless backbones called a distributed system. IEEE 802.11
supports ESS configurations in which multiple cells use the same channel to boost aggregate
through put to network. The equipment outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile
stations appear to be a single MAC layer network where all stations are physically stationary.
Thus, the ESS hides the mobility of the mobile stations from everything outside the ESS (refer
figure 1).

IEEE 802.11 Services

The 802.11 standard defines services that provide the functions that the LLC layer requires for sending MAC
Service Data Units (MSDUs) between two entities on the network.  These services, which the MAC layer
implements, fall into two categories:

 Station Services These include Authentication, Deauthentication, Privacy, and MSDU delivery.

 Distribution System Services These include Association, Disassociation, Distribution,

Integration, and Reassociation.

The following sections define the station and distribution system services.

Station Services
The 802.11 standard defines services for providing functions among stations. A station may be within any
wireless element on the network, such as a handheld PC or handheld scanner. In addition, all access points
implement station services. To provide necessary functionality, these stations need to send and receive
MSDUs and implement adequate levels of security.
Authentication
Because wireless LANs have limited physical security to prevent unauthorized access, 802.11 defines
authentication services to control LAN access to a level equal to a wired link. Every 802.11 station, whether
part of an independent BSS or an ESS network, must use the authentication service prior to establishing a
connection (referred to as an association in 802.11 terms) with another station with which it will communicate.
Stations performing authentication send a unicast management authentication frame to the corresponding
station.

The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the following two authentication services:

 Open system authentication This is the 802.11 default authentication method. It is a very

simple two-step process. First the station wanting to authenticate with another station sends an
authentication management frame containing the sending station's identity. The receiving station
then sends back a frame indicating whether it recognizes the identity of the authenticating
station.

 Shared key authentication This type of authentication assumes that each station has received
a secret shared key through a secure channel independent from the 802.11 network. Stations
authenticate through shared knowledge of the secret key. Use of shared key authentication
requires implementation of the Wired Equivalent Privacy algorithm (WEP).

Deauthentication
When a station wants to disassociate from another station, it invokes the deauthentication service.
Deauthentication is a notification and cannot be refused. A station performs deauthentication by sending an
authentication management frame (or group of frames to multiple stations) to advise of the termination of
authentication.

Privacy
With a wireless network, all stations and other devices can hear data traffic taking place within range on the
network, seriously affecting the security level of a wireless link. IEEE 802.11 counters this problem by offering a
privacy service option that raises the security level of the 802.11 network to that of a wired network.

The privacy service, applying to all data frames and some authentication management frames, is based on the
802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) algorithm that significantly reduces risks if someone eavesdrops on
the network. This algorithm performs encryption of messages, as shown in Figure 3.9. With WEP, all stations
initially start unencrypted. Refer to the section "Private Frame Transmissions," in Chapter 4, "IEEE 802.11
Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer," for a description of how WEP works.
Figure 3.9 The Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) algorithm produces ciphertext, keeping eavesdroppers
from listening in on data transmissions.

NOTE

The WEP protects RF data transmissions using a 64-bit seed key and the RC4 encryption algorithm. When
enabled, WEC protects only the data packet information. Physical layer headers are left unencrypted so that all
stations can properly receive control information for managing the network. Some companies today are offering
128-bit encryption.

Distribution System Services

Distribution system services, as defined by 802.11, provide functionality across a distribution system. Access
points provide distribution system services. The following sections provide an overview of the services that
distribution systems need to provide proper transfer of MSDUs.

Association
Each station must initially invoke the association service with an access point before it can send information
through a distribution system. The association maps a station to the distribution system via an access point.
Each station can associate with only a single access point, but each access point can associate with multiple
stations. Association is also a first step to providing the capability for a station to be mobile between BSSs.

Disassociation
A station or access point may invoke the disassociation service to terminate an existing association. This
service is a notification; therefore, neither party may refuse termination. Stations should disassociate when
leaving the network. An access point, for example, may disassociate all its stations if being removed for
maintenance.

Distribution
A station uses the distribution service every time it sends MAC frames across a distribution system. The 802.11
standard does not specify how the distribution system delivers the data. The distribution service provides the
distribution system with only enough information to determine the proper destination BSS.

Integration
The integration service enables the delivery of MAC frames through a portal between a distribution system and
a non-802.11 LAN. The integration function performs all required media or address space translations. The
details of an integration function depend on the distribution system implementation and are beyond the scope
of the 802.11 standard.

Reassociation
The reassociation service enables a station to change its current state of association. Reassociation provides
additional functionality to support BSS-transition mobility for associated stations. The reassociation service
enables a station to change its association from one access point to another. This keeps the distribution system
informed of the current mapping between access point and station as the station moves from one BSS to
another within an ESS. Reassociation also enables changing association attributes of an established
association while the station remains associated with the same access point. The mobile station always
initiates the reassociation service.

NOTE

IEEE 802.11 allows a client to roam among multiple access points that may be operating on the same or
separate channels. To support the roaming function, each access point typically transmits a beacon signal
every 100ms. Roaming stations use the beacon to gauge the strength of their existing access point connection.
If the station senses a weak signal, the roaming station can implement the reassociation service to connect to
an access point emitting a stronger signal.

Case Study 3.5: Using Reassociation for Improved Signal Transmission

A grocery store in Gulf Port, Mississippi, has a bar code–based shelf inventory system that helps the owners of
the store keep track of what to stock, order, and so on. Several of the store clerks use handheld scanners
during the store's closed hours to perform inventory functions. The store has a multiple-cell 802.11-compliant
wireless LAN (ESS) consisting of access points A and B interconnected by an ethernet network. These two
access points are sufficient to cover the store's entire floor space and backroom.

In the frozen meat section at one end of the store, a clerk using a handheld device may associate with access
point A. As he walks with the device to the beer and wine section on the other end of the store, the mobile
scanner (that is, the 802.11 station within the scanner) will begin sensing a signal from access point B. As the
signal from B becomes stronger, the station will then reassociate with access point B, offering a much better
signal for transmitting MSDUs.

NOTE

The 802.11 standard specifies the following optional MAC functions:

 Point Coordination Function (PCF) Implemented in the access point and (in addition to the
mandatory DCF) provides delivery of time-bounded data via synchronous communications
using station-polling mechanisms.
 Contention-Free Pollable Implemented in an independent station to enable time-bounded data
transfers defined in the PCF.
 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) Provides frame transmission privacy similar to a wired
network by generating secret shared encryption keys for source and destination stations.
  Multiple Outstanding MSDUs An option that restricts the number of outstanding MSDUs to
one in order to avoid reordering or unnecessarily discarding MSDUs between two LLCs.

NOTE

When two peer LLCs communicate over a network through the MAC and PHY layers, the capability to transmit
multiple MSDUs (packets) and the presence of finite propagation delay make it possible for stations to reorder
or unnecessarily discard the MSDUs. This problem becomes more significant as propagation delay or data rate
increases because of the capability to have a greater number of outstanding MSDUs. Because of the higher
potential data rates of 802.11a and the high potential for outdoor implementations, companies are likely to need
the multiple outstanding MSDU option in 802.11 MAC software.

NOTE

Most end users of 802.11 and 802.11b radio cards and access points choose not to implement WEP. However,
the transmission of unprotected data outdoors offers a greater risk than within a closed facility such as an office
building. It is very likely that the high demand today for implementing wireless metropolitan networks will drive a
significant need for information security mechanisms.

Station States and Corresponding Frame Types

The state existing between a source and destination station (see Figure 3.10) governs which IEEE 802.11
frame types the two stations can exchange.

Figure 3.10 The operation of a station depends on its particular state.

The following types of functions can occur within each class of frame:

Class 1 Frames

 Control frames

Request to send (RTS)

Clear to send (CTS)

Acknowledgment (ACK)

Contention-free (CF)

 Management frames

Probe request/response
 Beacon

Authentication

Deauthentication

Announcement traffic indication message (ATIM)

 Data frames

Class 2 Frames

 Management Frames

Association request/response

Reassociation request/response

Disassociation

Class 3 Frames

 Data frames

Management frames

Deauthentication

Control frames

Power Save Poll

To keep track of station state, each station maintains the following two state variables:

 Authentication state Has values of unauthenticated and authenticated.

 Association state Has values of unassociated and associated.

1.What are GSM system working principles?

GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data,
each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 megahertz (MHz) or 1,800 MHz frequency band.

2.What are the 3 different types of GSM?

The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base station
system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).

3.What is the main purpose of GSM?

GSM automates and encodes the information before transmitting it via a channel including three distinct
streams of user information inside each time slot. For the vast majority of the world, it is also the leading
2G digital cell phone standard. It governs how cell phones interact with the land-based tower system

4.What are the key features of GPRS?

To enable seamless internet access, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) was needed. It emerged in
1999. The key characteristics of GPRS are speed, instant data connections -- depending on the signal
strength and coverage -- and the facilitation of mobile application development.

5.What are the different types of GPRS?

Image result for gprs important questions

Two types of services are provided by GPRS: Point-to-point (PTP) Point-to-multipoint (PTM)

6.What is the limitation of GPRS?

Disadvantages

The data rates are slower when compared to the latest technologies.

Networks can be affected when more GPRS users are at the same location.

It leads to congestion which results in slower data connection.

If issues occur it is difficult to troubleshoot.

7.What are the components of GPRS?

Image result for gprs important questions AND ANSWER

All the databases involved in the network will require software upgrades to handle the new call models
and functions introduced by GPRS.

GPRS Mobile Stations. ...

GPRS Base Station Subsystem. ...

GPRS Support Nodes. ...

Internal Backbone. ...

Routing Area.

8.What are two features of UMTS?

Features.

Air interfaces.

Radio access network.

Core network.

Frequency bands and channel bandwidths.

Interoperability and global roaming.

Other competing standards.

Migrating from GSM/GPRS to UMTS.

9.What are the main element of UMTS?

The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) was the central element within the UMTS packet switched
network. It handled inter-working between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet
switched networks, and could be considered as a very sophisticated router

11. What type of network is UMTS?

Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service, known in the cellular industry as UMTS, is a 3G cellular
radio technology based on the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) network standard.

12.What are the layers of UMTS?

It consists of three protocol layers as illustrated in Figure 9: Physical layer (layer #1), Data link layer
(layer #2, lower part is called MAC and upper part is RLC), and Network layer (Layer#3, lower part is
called RRC).

13.What are the features of UMTS technology?

Features of UMTS

It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia. It gives tall transmission capacity
to portable operators. It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps. For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to
(HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall as 7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection
14 What are the 5 types of security?

Image result

Cybersecurity can be categorized into five distinct types:

Critical infrastructure security.

Application security.

Network security.

Cloud security.

Internet of Things (IoT) security.

UNIT-IV

Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users
to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will
continue without the user’s sessions or connections being dropped. 

Terminologies: 

1. Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the user carries e.g. Cell phone.

2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as per its assigned IP
address (home address).

3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was originally
connected

4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home
network).

5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its
home network).

6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node is currently
connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers them
to the mobile node.

7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.

8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away
from its home network.

9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP address of the FA.
The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can
share this COA as a common COA.

10.  Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP address
which acts as COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the
MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
 
 Mobile IP

Working: 

The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the correspondent
node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach the home agent. But now
mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign network. The foreign agent sends
the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be
established between the home agent and the foreign agent by the process of tunneling. 

Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It
is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation. 

Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source address is the
home address and destination is the care-of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the foreign
agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data packets, decapsulates them, and
sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in response to the data packets received sends a reply
in response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent directly sends the reply to the correspondent node. 

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP: 

1. Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent

advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages
observes whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the
home network or foreign network.

2. Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends a registration request
(RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in turn, sends the registration request to the
home agent with the care-of-address. The home agent sends a registration reply (RREP) to the
 foreign agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and completes the
process of registration.

3. Tunneling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism
called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-
of-address. Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the correspondent node, it
encapsulates the packet with source address as home address and destination as care-of-
address.

Route Optimization in Mobile IP: 

The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the correspondent node.
The binding cache contains bindings for the mobile node’s home address and its current care-of-
address. Every time the home agent receives an IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently
away from the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to update the
information in the correspondent node’s binding cache. After this, the correspondent node can directly
tunnel packets to the mobile node. Mobile IP is provided by the network providers.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server protocol that automatically

provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information
such as the subnet mask and default gateway

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) is an application layer protocol which is used to provide: 
 

1. Subnet Mask (Option 1 – e.g., 255.255.255.0)

2. Router Address (Option 3 – e.g., 192.168.1.1)

3. DNS Address (Option 6 – e.g., 8.8.8.8)

4. Vendor Class Identifier (Option 43 – e.g., ‘unifi’ = 192.168.1.9 ##where unifi = controller)

DHCP is based on a client-server model and based on discovery, offer, request, and ACK. 

DHCP port number for server is 67 and for the client is 68. It is a Client server protocol which uses UDP
services. IP address is assigned from a pool of addresses. In DHCP, the client and the server exchange
mainly 4 DHCP messages in order to make a connection, also called DORA process, but there are 8 DHCP
messages in the process. 

These messages are given as below: 

1. DHCP discover message – 

This is a first message generated in the communication process between server and client. This
message is generated by Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP server/servers are
present in a network or not. This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a network to
find the DHCP server. This message is 342 or 576 bytes long 
 

1. As shown in the figure, source MAC address (client PC) is 08002B2EAF2A, destination MAC
address(server) is FFFFFFFFFFFF, source IP address is 0.0.0.0(because PC has no IP address till
now) and destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 (IP address used for broadcasting). As the
discover message is broadcast to find out the DHCP server or servers in the network therefore
broadcast IP address and MAC address is used. 
 

2. DHCP offer message – 

The server will respond to host in this message specifying the unleased IP address and other TCP
configuration information. This message is broadcasted by server. Size of message is 342 bytes.
If there are more than one DHCP servers present in the network then client host will accept the
first DHCP OFFER message it receives. Also a server ID is specified in the packet in order to
identify the server. 

 
 1. Now, for the offer message, source IP address is 172.16.32.12 (server’s IP address in the
example), destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 (broadcast IP address) ,source MAC address
is 00AA00123456, destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF. Here, the offer message is
broadcast by the DHCP server therefore destination IP address is broadcast IP address and
destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF and the source IP address is server IP address and
MAC address is server MAC address. 

Also the server has provided the offered IP address 192.16.32.51 and lease time of 72 hours(after this
time the entry of host will be erased from the server automatically) . Also the client identifier is PC MAC
address (08002B2EAF2A) for all the messages. 
 

2. DHCP request message – 

When a client receives a offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP request message.
The client will produce a  gratuitous ARP in order to find if there is any other host present in the
network with same IP address. If there is no reply by other host, then there is no host with same
TCP configuration in the network and the message is broadcasted to server showing the
acceptance of IP address .A Client ID is also added in this message. 

 
 1. Now, the request message is broadcast by the client PC therefore source IP address is 0.0.0.0(as
the client has no IP right now) and destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 (broadcast IP
address) and source MAC address is 08002B2EAF2A (PC MAC address) and destination MAC
address is FFFFFFFFFFFF. 

Note – This message is broadcast after the ARP request broadcast by the PC to find out whether any
other host is not using that offered IP. If there is no reply, then the client host broadcast the DHCP
request message for the server showing the acceptance of IP address and Other TCP/IP Configuration. 
 

2. DHCP acknowledgement message – 

In response to the request message received, the server will make an entry with specified client
ID and bind the IP address offered with lease time. Now, the client will have the IP address
provided by server. 

1. Now the server will make an entry of the client host with the offered IP address and lease time.
This IP address will not be provided by server to any other host. The destination MAC address is
FFFFFFFFFFFF and the destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 and the source IP address is
 172.16.32.12 and the source MAC address is 00AA00123456 (server MAC address). 
 

2. DHCP negative acknowledgement message – 

Whenever a DHCP server receives a request for IP address that is invalid according to the scopes
that is configured with, it send DHCP Nak message to client. Eg-when the server has no IP
address unused or the pool is empty, then this message is sent by the server to client. 
 

3. DHCP decline – 
If DHCP client determines the offered configuration parameters are different or invalid, it sends
DHCP decline message to the server .When there is a reply to the gratuitous ARP by any host to
the client, the client sends DHCP decline message to the server showing the offered IP address is
already in use. 
 

4. DHCP release – 
A DHCP client sends DHCP release packet to server to release IP address and cancel any
remaining lease time. 
 

5. DHCP inform – 
If a client address has obtained IP address manually then the client uses a DHCP inform to obtain
other local configuration parameters, such as domain name. In reply to the dhcp inform
message, DHCP server generates DHCP ack message with local configuration suitable for the
client without allocating a new IP address. This DHCP ack message is unicast to the client. 
 

Note – All the messages can be unicast also by dhcp relay agent if the server is present in different
network. 

Advantages – The advantages of using DHCP include: 

 

 centralized management of IP addresses

 ease of adding new clients to a network

 reuse of IP addresses reducing the total number of IP addresses that are required

 simple reconfiguration of the IP address space on the DHCP server without needing to
reconfigure each client

The DHCP protocol gives the network administrator a method to configure the network from a
centralised area. 
With the help of DHCP, easy handling of new users and reuse of IP address can be achieved.
Disadvantages – Disadvantage of using DHCP is: 
 

 IP conflict can occur

References – 
DHCP – help.ubnt 
DHCP – docs.oracle
 

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET)

A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a network as needed,
without any support from any existing internet infrastructure or any other kind of fixed stations.

A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or MSs(also serving as routers) connected
by wireless links, the union of which forms a communication network modeled in the form of an
arbitrary communication graph.

This is in contrast to the well-known single hop cellular network model that supports the needs of
wireless communication between two mobile nodes relies on the wired backbone and fixed base
stations.

In a MANET, no such infrastructure exists and network topology may be changed dynamically in an
unpredictable manner since nodes are free to move and each node has limiting transmitting power,
restricting access to the node only in the neighboring range.

MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which information packets are
transmitted in a store and forward manner from a source to an arbitrary destination, via intermediate
nodes as given in the figure:

Mobile Adhoc Network - MANET

As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative locations of other nodes. The resulting
change in the network topology known at the local level must be passed on to other nodes so that old
topology information can be updated.

For example, as MS2 in the figure changes its point of attachment from MS3 to MS4, other nodes that
are part of the network should use this new route to forward packets to MS2. In the figure, we assume
that it is not possible to have all nodes within each other's radio range. In case all nodes are closed by
within each other's radio range, there are no routing issues to be addressed.

In figures raise another issue, that of symmetric and asymmetric (bidirectional) and asymmetric
(unidirectional) links. Consider symmetric links with associative radio range; for example, if MS1 is within
radio range of MS3, then MS3 is also within radio range of MS1. The communication links are
symmetric. This assumption is not always valid because of differences in transmitting power levels and
the terrain. Routing in asymmetric networks is relatively hard task. In certain cases, it is possible to find
routes that exclude asymmetric links, since it is cumbersome to find the return path. The issue of
efficient is one of the several challenges encountered in a MANET.
The other issue is varying the mobility patterns of different nodes. Some other nodes are highly mobile,
while others are primarily stationary. It is difficult to predict a node's movement and direction of
movement and numerous studies have been performed to evaluate their performance using different
simulators.

Characteristics of MANET

Some characteristics of adhoc network are as follows:

Dynamic topologies: nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus the network topology may be changed
randomly and unpredictably and primarily consists of bidirectional links. In some cases where the
transmission power of two nodes is different, a unidirectional link may exist.

Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links: wireless links continue to have significantly lower
capacity than infrastructure networks.

Energy-constrained operation: some or all of the MSs in a MANET may rely on batteries or other
exhaustible means for their energy. For these nodes or devices, the most important system design
optimization criteria may be energy conservation.

Limited physical security: MANETs are generally more prone to physical security threats than wire line
networks. The increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and denial of services (DoS) attacks
should be considered carefully. To reduce security threats, many existing link security techniques are
often applied within wireless networks.

Applications of MANET

Some specific applications of ad hoc networks include industrial and commercial applications involving
cooperative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and future military networking
requirements for robust, IP-compliant data services within mobile wireless communication networks,
with many of these networks consist of highly dynamic autonomous topology segments. Advanced
features of Mobile ad hoc networks, including data rates compatible with multimedia applications global
roaming capability, and coordination with other network structures are enabling new applications.

Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly communications set-up, and ad
hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for use in battlefield management.

Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters in which the
entire communication infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring communications quickly is essential.

Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote location must access
medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video conference assistance from a surgeon for an
emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may need to instantaneously relay back to the hospital
the victim's X-rays and other diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.
Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical Information Systems), and
high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new type of application referred to as tele- geo
processing.

Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of building, streets, and
physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also "virtually" see the internal layout of
buildings, including an emergency rescue plan, or find possible points of interest.

Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet or remote areas because
of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-mile wire line internet access in these areas to
all subscribers.

Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc network in providing
emergency services and other information. This is equally effective in both urban and rural setup. The
basic and exchange necessary data that is beneficial in a given situation.